See HIRE, WAGES.

The wagon or cart of ancient times was a simple vehicle, usually wooden, having spoked or solid wheels. (1Sa 6:14) Some were little more than two-wheeled open platforms fitted with a horizontal tongue or pole in front. Others had sides, and some were covered, such as the six covered wagons (drawn by two bulls each) used to transport tabernacle articles. (Nu 7:2-9) The “coaches” of Revelation 18:13 may denote four-wheeled wagons or carriages.

In Israel, especially in earlier times, the wagon was usually drawn by cattle rather than horses, the latter being used especially for chariots and in warfare. (2Sa 6:3, 6; 15:1; 1Ch 13:7, 9; Pr 21:31) Wagons were employed to transport persons (Ge 45:19, 21, 27; 46:5), grain, and other loads. (1Sa 6:7-14; Am 2:13) Those used in warfare (as mentioned at Ps 46:9) may have been military baggage wagons. In the time of Isaiah, when the Israelites had many horses (Isa 2:7), wagons pulled by horses were used in threshing.​—Isa 28:27, 28.

The prophet Isaiah pronounced woe upon persons ‘drawing sin as with wagon cords,’ possibly indicating that such individuals were attached to sin just as animals were tied with cords to wagons they pulled.​—Isa 5:18.

Masonry structures that serve as barriers, mark boundaries, or form enclosures. As long as man has been constructing houses and cities, he has been building walls out of many materials, in a variety of designs, to serve a number of purposes. The size and strength of structures largely depend on the construction of the walls and the materials used in making them.

The walls of David’s palace were of cut stone. (2Sa 5:11) Similarly, the outside walls of Solomon’s temple, it appears, were of quarried stone, with some of their interior surfaces covered over with cedar boards. (1Ki 6:2, 7, 15) These interior wooden panels, in turn, were elaborately decorated with carvings and overlays of gold. (1Ki 6:29; 1Ch 29:4; 2Ch 3:4, 7) The interior wall surfaces of Belshazzar’s palace were plastered. (Da 5:5) The walls of the homes of the people in general were usually of simple construction​—sun-dried bricks, uncut stones, or plastered material over a wooden framework. Sometimes the surface was whitewashed.​—Ac 23:3.

City Walls. In ancient times fear caused people to erect protective walls around large cities to prevent enemy invasion. (1Ki 4:13; Isa 25:12) The inhabitants of the small “dependent towns” round about (Nu 21:25) likewise took refuge within the walled city if attacked. The Mosaic Law made a legal distinction between walled and unwalled towns, as to the rights of house owners. (Le 25:29-31) The walls not only provided a physical barrier between city residences and an enemy but also afforded an elevated position atop which the defenders could protect the walls from being undermined, tunneled through, or breached by battering rams. (2Sa 11:20-24; 20:15; Ps 55:10; Ca 5:7; Isa 62:6; Eze 4:1, 2; 26:9) As a countermeasure, attacking forces sometimes threw up siege walls as shields behind which to assault the city walls.​—2Ki 25:1; Jer 52:4; Eze 4:2, 3; 21:22; see FORTIFICATIONS.

Other Walls. Stone walls were often built to hedge in vineyards or fields, and to form corrals or sheep pens. (Nu 22:23-25; Pr 24:30, 31; Isa 5:5; Mic 2:12; Hab 3:17) And there were also walls that served for embankment purposes along terraced hillsides. (Job 24:11) These walls were of a fairly permanent nature, built of undressed fieldstones and sometimes set in clay or mortar.

Symbolic Walls. In the Scriptures, walls are sometimes mentioned in a figurative way as pictorial of protection and safety (1Sa 25:16; Pr 18:11; 25:28) or as a symbol of separation. (Ge 49:22; Eze 13:10) In this latter sense Paul wrote the Ephesians: “For he [Christ] is our peace, he who made the two parties one and destroyed the wall in between that fenced them off.” (Eph 2:14) Paul was well acquainted with the middle wall in Jerusalem’s temple courtyard, which carried a warning sign to the effect that no non-Jew was to go beyond that wall under penalty of death. However, when Paul wrote to the Ephesians in 60 or 61 C.E., though he may have alluded to it in an illustrative way, he actually did not mean that the literal wall had been abolished, for it was still standing. Rather, the apostle had in mind the Law covenant, which had acted as a dividing wall between Jews and Gentiles for centuries. On the basis of Christ’s death nearly 30 years previously, that symbolic “wall” had been abolished.

Jeremiah was told he would be like fortified walls of copper against those that opposed him. (Jer 1:18, 19; 15:20) In another illustration, God’s people, though dwelling as in a city without literal walls, therefore seemingly defenseless, enjoy peace and security because of God’s invisible help. (Eze 38:11) Or from another point of view, a strong city would be one having Jehovah as “a wall of fire” (Zec 2:4, 5), or having walls of salvation set up by Jehovah, rather than ones of mere stone and brick. (Isa 26:1) “The holy city, New Jerusalem,” which comes down out of heaven, is said to have “a great and lofty wall” of jasper, the height of which is 144 cubits (64 m; 210 ft), and it is said to have 12 foundation stones consisting of precious jewels engraved with the names of the 12 apostles.​—Re 21:2, 12, 14, 17-19.

A state of hostility accompanied by actions designed to subjugate or to destroy those viewed as the enemy. A number of Hebrew words involve waging war; one of these, from the verb root qa·ravʹ, means basically “come near,” that is, to fight. The Greek noun poʹle·mos means “war”; and the verb stra·teuʹo is from a root that refers to an encamped army.

The Bible says that Nimrod “went forth into Assyria,” which was evidently an act of aggression, into the territory of Asshur the son of Shem. There Nimrod built cities. (Ge 10:11) In Abraham’s day Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, subjected a number of cities (all apparently around the southern end of the Dead Sea) for a period of 12 years, forcing them to serve him. After they rebelled, Chedorlaomer and his allies warred against them, vanquishing the forces of Sodom and Gomorrah, taking their possessions, and capturing Abraham’s nephew Lot and his household. At that Abraham mustered 318 trained servants and, together with his three confederates, pursued Chedorlaomer and recovered the captives and the plunder. However, Abraham did not take any of the booty for himself. This is the first record of a war waged by a servant of God. Abraham’s warring to recover his fellow servant of Jehovah had Jehovah’s approval, for, on Abraham’s return, he was blessed by Melchizedek, priest of the Most High God.​—Ge 14:1-24.

God-Ordained Warfare. Jehovah is “a manly person of war,” “the God of armies,” and “mighty in battle.” (Ex 15:3; 2Sa 5:10; Ps 24:8, 10; Isa 42:13) Not only has he the right as Creator and Supreme Sovereign of the universe but he is also obligated by justice to execute or authorize execution of the lawless, to war against all obstinate ones who refuse to obey his righteous laws. Jehovah was therefore just in wiping out the wicked at the time of the Flood, in destroying Sodom and Gomorrah, and in bringing destruction upon Pharaoh’s forces.​—Ge 6:5-7, 13, 17; 19:24; Ex 15:4, 5; compare 2Pe 2:5-10; Jude 7.

Israel used as God’s executioner. Jehovah assigned the Israelites the sacred duty of serving as his executioners in the Promised Land to which he brought them. Prior to Israel’s deliverance from Egypt, the nation had not known warfare. (Ex 13:17) By victoriously directing Israel against “seven nations more populous and mighty” than they were, God magnified his name as “Jehovah of armies, the God of the battle lines of Israel.” This proved that “neither with sword nor with spear does Jehovah save, because to Jehovah belongs the battle.” (De 7:1; 1Sa 17:45, 47; compare 2Ch 13:12.) It also gave the Israelites the opportunity to demonstrate obedience to God’s commandments to the point of endangering their lives in God-ordained warfare.​—De 20:1-4.

No aggression beyond the God-given limits. However, God strictly commanded Israel that they were not to engage in wars of aggression or conquest beyond the territory that he granted to them and that they were not to fight any nations except the ones he ordered them to fight. They were not to engage in strife with the nations of Edom, Moab, or Ammon. (De 2:4, 5, 9, 19) But they were attacked by these nations in later times and were forced to defend themselves against them in warfare. In this they had God’s help.​—Jg 3:12-30; 11:32, 33; 1Sa 14:47.

When, during the period of the Judges, the king of Ammon tried to justify his aggressions against Israel by falsely charging Israel with taking Ammonite land, Jephthah refuted him by recalling the historical facts. Jephthah then proceeded to fight against these aggressors, on the principle that ‘every one whom Jehovah dispossesses before us we will dispossess.’ Jephthah would not relinquish an inch of Israel’s God-given land to any intruder.​—Jg 11:12-27; see JEPHTHAH.

Sanctified warfare. Anciently, the fighting forces, before they entered battle, were customarily sanctified. (Jos 3:5; Jer 6:4; 51:27, 28) During warfare Israel’s forces, including non-Jews (for example, Uriah the Hittite, who was probably a circumcised proselyte), had to remain ceremonially clean. They could not have sexual relations, even with their own wives, during a military campaign. Accordingly, there were no prostitutes who followed Israel’s army. Moreover, the camp itself had to be kept clean from defilement.​—Le 15:16, 18; De 23:9-14; 2Sa 11:11, 13.

When it was necessary to punish unfaithful Israel, those foreign armies bringing the destruction were viewed as ‘sanctified,’ in the sense that they were ‘set apart’ by Jehovah for the execution of his righteous judgments. (Jer 22:6-9; Hab 1:6) Similarly, those military forces (principally the Medes and Persians) who brought destruction on Babylon were spoken of by Jehovah as “my sanctified ones.”​—Isa 13:1-3.

The false prophets in Israel, in their greediness, were said to “sanctify war” against anyone who did not put something into their mouths. Undoubtedly they sanctimoniously claimed divine sanction for their acts of oppression, which included sharing in the responsibility for the persecution and even the death of true prophets and servants of God.​—Mic 3:5; Jer 2:8; La 4:13.

Conscription. At Jehovah’s command Israel’s able-bodied males 20 years old and upward were conscripted for military service. According to Josephus, they served up to the age of 50 years. (Jewish Antiquities, III, 288 [xii, 4]) The fearful and fainthearted were rejected because Israel’s wars were wars of Jehovah, and those displaying weakness of faith in fearfulness would tend to weaken the army’s morale. Exemptions were given to men who had just completed a new house, as well as to those who had planted a vineyard and had not used its fruitage. These exemptions were based on the right of a man to enjoy the fruitage of his work. The newly married man was exempt for one year. During this time the man might be able to have and to see an heir. Here Jehovah revealed his concern and consideration for the family. (Nu 1:1-3, 44-46; De 20:5-8; 24:5) The Levites, who took care of the service at the sanctuary, were exempt, showing that Jehovah considered the spiritual welfare of the people more important than military defense.​—Nu 1:47-49; 2:32, 33.

Laws concerning assault and siege of cities. Jehovah instructed Israel as to military procedure in the conquest of Canaan. The seven nations of Canaan, named at Deuteronomy 7:1, 2, were to be exterminated, including women and children. Their cities were to be devoted to destruction. (De 20:15-17) According to Deuteronomy 20:10-15, other cities were first warned and terms of peace extended. If the city surrendered, the inhabitants were spared and put to forced labor. This opportunity to surrender, together with the assurance that their lives would be spared and their women would not be raped or molested, was an inducement to such cities to capitulate to Israel’s army, thus avoiding much bloodshed. If the city did not surrender, all males were killed. Killing the men removed danger of later revolt by the city. “The women and the little children” were spared. That “women” here no doubt means virgins is indicated by Deuteronomy 21:10-14, where prospective war brides are described as mourning for parents, not for husbands. Also, earlier, when Israel defeated Midian, it is specifically stated that only virgins were spared. Such sparing of only virgins would serve to protect Israel from false worship and no doubt from sexually transmitted diseases. (Nu 31:7, 17, 18) (As to the justice of God’s decree against the Canaanite nations, see CANAAN, CANAANITE [Conquest of Canaan by Israel].)

Food-producing trees were not to be cut down for siegeworks. (De 20:19, 20) Horses of the enemy were hamstrung during the heat of battle to incapacitate them; after the battle they undoubtedly were killed.​—Jos 11:6.

Not All of Israel’s Wars Were Proper. Israel’s lapsing into a course of unfaithfulness was accompanied by conflicts that were little more than power struggles. This was the case with Abimelech’s warring against Shechem and Thebez in the time of the Judges (Jg 9:1-57), as well as Omri’s warfare against Zimri and Tibni, which led to his being firmly established in the kingship over the ten-tribe kingdom. (1Ki 16:16-22) Also, instead of relying on Jehovah for protection from their enemies, the Israelites began to trust in military might, horses and chariots. Thus, in the time of Isaiah, the land of Judah was “filled with horses” and there was “no limit to their chariots.”​—Isa 2:1, 7.

Ancient War Strategy and Tactics. Spies were sometimes sent out ahead of the attack to ascertain conditions existing in the land. Such spies were not sent to initiate unrest, revolt, or subversive underground movements. (Nu 13:1, 2, 17-19; Jos 2:1; Jg 18:2; 1Sa 26:4) Special trumpet calls were employed for mustering forces, for war calls, and for signaling unified action. (Nu 10:9; 2Ch 13:12; compare Jg 3:27; 6:34; 7:19, 20.) On occasion forces were divided and deployed in flanking attacks, or in ambush and decoy operations. (Ge 14:15; Jos 8:2-8; Jg 7:16; 2Sa 5:23, 24; 2Ch 13:13) In at least one instance, at Jehovah’s direction, singers of praise to God were put in the vanguard, ahead of the armed forces. God fought that day for Israel, throwing the camp of the enemy into confusion so that the enemy soldiers killed one another.​—2Ch 20:20-23.

Fighting was to a great extent hand to hand, man against man. A variety of weapons were used​—swords, spears, javelins, arrows, slingstones, and so forth. During the conquest of the Promised Land, Israel did not rely on horses and chariots; their trust was in the saving power of Jehovah. (De 17:16; Ps 20:7; 33:17; Pr 21:31) Not until later times did the armies of Israel employ horses and chariots, as did the Egyptians and others. (1Ki 4:26; 20:23-25; Ex 14:6, 7; De 11:4) Foreign armies were sometimes equipped with war chariots having iron scythes extending from their axles.​—Jos 17:16; Jg 4:3, 13.

War tactics changed during the course of the centuries. Generally, Israel did not concentrate on developing instruments of offensive warfare, though considerable attention was given to fortification. King Uzziah of Judah is noted for building “engines of war, the invention of engineers,” but these were primarily for the defense of Jerusalem. (2Ch 26:14, 15) In order to be able to attack the higher and weaker part of a city’s wall, the Assyrian and Babylonian armies, particularly, were known for their siege walls and their siege ramparts. These ramparts served as inclined planes up which towers with battering rams were brought; from these towers, the archers and slingers fought. Along with these were other forms of siege engines, including giant rock throwers. (2Ki 19:32; Jer 32:24; Eze 4:2; Lu 19:43) At the same time the defenders of the city attempted to hold off the attack by means of archers, slingers, as well as by soldiers who would throw firebrands from their walls and towers and from missile-throwing engines inside the city. (2Sa 11:21, 24; 2Ch 26:15; 32:5) In assaulting walled fortifications, one of the first things attempted was the cutting off of the city’s water supply, while the city about to be besieged often stopped up water sources around the city to deprive the attackers of their use.​—2Ch 32:2-4, 30.

On defeating an enemy, the victors sometimes stopped up wells and springs in the area and spread stones over the ground, occasionally sowing the ground with salt.​—Jg 9:45; 2Ki 3:24, 25; see ARMS, ARMOR; FORTIFICATIONS.

Jesus Foretells War. Jesus, the man of peace, observed that “those who take the sword will perish by the sword.” (Mt 26:52) He declared to Pilate that, had his Kingdom been of this world, his attendants would have fought to prevent his being delivered up to the Jews. (Joh 18:36) Yet he foretold that Jerusalem, because of rejecting him as the Messiah, would in time suffer siege and desolation, during which her “children” (inhabitants) would be dashed to the ground.​—Lu 19:41-44; 21:24.

Shortly before his death, Jesus gave prophecies that applied to that generation and also to the time when his presence in Kingdom power would begin: “You are going to hear of wars and reports of wars; see that you are not terrified. For these things must take place, but the end is not yet. For nation will rise against nation and kingdom against kingdom.”​—Mt 24:6, 7; Mr 13:7, 8; Lu 21:9, 10.

Christ Wages War as “King of Kings.” The Bible reveals that the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ, with ‘all authority in heaven and on earth’ granted to him by his Father, will engage in a warfare that will destroy all of God’s enemies and establish everlasting peace, as his title “Prince of Peace” implies.​—Mt 28:18; 2Th 1:7-10; Isa 9:6.

The apostle John had a vision of things to take place after Christ’s enthronement in heaven. The words of Psalms 2:7, 8 and 110:1, 2 had foretold that God’s Son would be invited to ‘ask of Jehovah the nations as his inheritance,’ and that Jehovah would respond by sending him forth to ‘go subduing in the midst of his enemies.’ (Heb 10:12, 13) John’s vision depicted a war in heaven in which Michael, that is, Jesus Christ (see MICHAEL No. 1), led the armies of heaven in a war against the Dragon, Satan the Devil. The outcome of that war was the hurling of the Devil and his angels to the earth. This war immediately followed the ‘birth of the male child’ who was to rule the nations with a rod of iron. (Re 12:7-9) A loud voice in heaven then announced: “Now have come to pass the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the authority of his Christ.” This brought relief and joy to the angels; but it presaged troubles, including wars, for the earth, as the declaration continued: “Woe for the earth and for the sea, because the Devil has come down to you, having great anger, knowing he has a short period of time.”​—Re 12:10, 12.

After Satan was hurled to the earth, he made God’s servants on earth, the remaining ones of the ‘seed of the woman,’ “who observe the commandments of God and have the work of bearing witness to Jesus,” his chief target. Satan initiated warfare against them that included both a spiritual conflict and actual persecution, even resulting in death for some. (Re 12:13, 17) Succeeding chapters of Revelation (13, 17-19) describe the agents and instruments Satan uses against them, as well as the victorious outcome for God’s holy ones under their Leader Jesus Christ.

‘War of the great day of God Almighty.’ The 19th chapter of Revelation gives a view of the greatest war of all human history, surpassing anything that men have ever witnessed. Earlier in the vision it is called “the war of the great day of God the Almighty.” Aligned against Jehovah and the Lord Jesus Christ as the Commander of God’s armies, the hosts of heaven, are the symbolic “wild beast and the kings of the earth and their armies” assembled to the site of this war by “expressions inspired by demons.” (Re 16:14; 19:19) None of God’s earthly servants are pictured as having part in this battle. The earthly kings “will battle with the Lamb, but, because he is Lord of lords and King of kings, the Lamb will conquer them.” (Re 17:14; 19:19-21; see HAR–MAGEDON.) Following this fight, Satan the Devil himself is to be bound for a thousand years, “that he might not mislead the nations anymore until the thousand years were ended.”​—Re 20:1-3.

With the conclusion of this war, the earth will enjoy peace for a thousand years. The psalm that declares “[Jehovah] is making wars to cease to the extremity of the earth. The bow he breaks apart and does cut the spear in pieces; the wagons he burns in the fire,” had initial fulfillment in God’s bringing peace to Israel’s land by wrecking the enemy’s war instruments. After Christ defeats the promoters of war at Har–Magedon, the extremity of this earthly globe will enjoy full and satisfying peace. (Ps 46:8-10) Persons favored with eternal life will be those who have beaten “their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning shears” and who do not “learn war anymore.” “For the very mouth of Jehovah of armies has spoken it.”​—Isa 2:4; Mic 4:3, 4.

War threat forever ended. Revelation’s vision goes on to show that at the end of the thousand years Satan the Devil will be brought back from his binding in the abyss and will again induce many to come up to wage war against those remaining loyal to God. But no damage will be done, for ‘fire will come down out of heaven’ and devour these enemies, thereby removing all threat of war forever.​—Re 20:7-10.

Christian Warfare. While the Christian does not engage in a physical war against blood and flesh (Eph 6:12), he is engaged in warfare nonetheless, a spiritual fight. The apostle Paul describes the war waged within the Christian between “sin’s law” and “God’s law,” or ‘the law of the mind’ (the Christian mind in harmony with God).​—Ro 7:15-25.

This warfare of the Christian is an agonizing one, requiring the exertion of every effort for a person to come off winner. But he can be confident of victory through the undeserved kindness of God through Christ and the help of God’s spirit. (Ro 8:35-39) Jesus said of this fight: “Exert yourselves vigorously to get in through the narrow door” (Lu 13:24), and the apostle Peter counseled: “Keep abstaining from fleshly desires, which are the very ones that carry on a conflict [or, “are doing military service” (stra·teuʹon·tai)] against the soul.”​—1Pe 2:11, Int; compare Jas 4:1, 2.

Against wicked spirits. In addition to this warfare against sin’s law, the Christian has a fight against the demons, who take advantage of the tendencies of the flesh by tempting the Christian to sin. (Eph 6:12) In this warfare the demons also induce those under their influence to tempt or to oppose and persecute Christians in an effort to get them to break their integrity to God.​—1Co 7:5; 2Co 2:11; 12:7; compare Lu 4:1-13.

Against false teachings. The apostle Paul also spoke of a warfare that he and his associates were waging, in carrying out their commission as those appointed to care for the Christian congregation. (2Co 10:3) The congregation at Corinth had been wrongly influenced by presumptuous men called by Paul “false apostles” who, by giving undue attention to personalities, had caused divisions, sects, in the congregation. (2Co 11:13-15) They became, in effect, followers of men such as Apollos, Paul, and Cephas. (1Co 1:11, 12) The members of the congregation lost the spiritual viewpoint, that these men were merely representatives of Christ, unitedly serving the same purpose. They became fleshly. (1Co 3:1-9) They viewed men in the congregation ‘according to what they were in the flesh,’ their appearance, natural abilities, personalities, and so forth, instead of regarding them as spiritual men. They failed to recognize that God’s spirit was operating in the congregation, and that men such as Paul, Peter, and Apollos were accomplishing what they did by God’s spirit, for His glory.

Therefore, Paul was impelled to write them: “Indeed I beg that, when present, I may not use boldness with that confidence with which I am counting on taking bold measures against some who appraise us as if we walked according to what we are in the flesh. For though we walk in the flesh, we do not wage warfare according to what we are in the flesh. For the weapons of our warfare are not fleshly, but powerful by God for overturning strongly entrenched things. For we are overturning reasonings and every lofty thing raised up against the knowledge of God; and we are bringing every thought into captivity to make it obedient to the Christ.”​—2Co 10:2-5.

Paul wrote to Timothy, whom he had left in Ephesus to care for the congregation there: “This mandate I commit to you, child, Timothy, in accord with the predictions that led directly on to you, that by these you may go on waging the fine warfare; holding faith and a good conscience.” (1Ti 1:18, 19) Not only did Timothy have before him conflicts because of sinful flesh and because of the opposition of the enemies of the truth but he also had to wage warfare against the infiltration of false doctrine and of those who would corrupt the congregation. (1Ti 1:3-7; 4:6, 11-16) His actions would fortify the congregation against the apostasy that Paul knew would occur after the apostles passed off the scene. (2Ti 4:3-5) So it was a real fight that Timothy had to wage.

Paul was able to say to Timothy: “I have fought the fine fight, I have run the course to the finish, I have observed the faith.” (2Ti 4:7) Paul had maintained his faithfulness to Jehovah and Jesus Christ by right conduct and service in the face of opposition, suffering, and persecution. (2Co 11:23-28) He had additionally discharged the responsibility of his office as an apostle of the Lord Jesus Christ, fighting the war to keep the Christian congregation clean and spotless, as a chaste virgin, and as “a pillar and support of the truth.”​—1Ti 3:15; 1Co 4:1, 2; 2Co 11:2, 29; compare 2Ti 2:3, 4.

God’s material support of the Christian. In the warfare of the Christian, God views the Christian as His soldier and, therefore, provides him with the necessary material things. The apostle argues, with regard to the authority of one serving as a minister to others: “Who is it that ever serves as a soldier at his own expense?”​—1Co 9:7.

Christians and Wars of the Nations. Christians have always maintained strict neutrality as to fleshly warfare between nations, groups, or factions of any kind. (Joh 18:36; Eph 6:12) For examples of the attitude of the early Christians in this respect, see ARMY (Those Known As Early Christians).

Other Uses. In the song of Barak and Deborah, after the victory over the army of Jabin, king of Canaan, a circumstance is recalled that sets forth a principle: “They [Israel] proceeded to choose new gods. It was then there was war in the gates.” (Jg 5:8) As soon as they forsook Jehovah for false worship, trouble came, with the enemy pressing at the very gates of their cities. This is in harmony with the psalmist’s declaration: “Unless Jehovah himself guards the city, it is to no avail that the guard has kept awake.”​—Ps 127:1.

At Ecclesiastes 8:8, Solomon wrote: “There is no man having power over the spirit to restrain the spirit; . . . nor is there any discharge in the war.” In the day of death the dying person cannot restrain the spirit, or force of life, and keep it from returning to God the Giver and Source, so as to live longer. Dying humans cannot control the day of death and prevent it from ever reaching them. They cannot, by any human efforts, be discharged from the war that the enemy Death wages against all mankind without exception. Sinful man cannot get some other sinful man to substitute for him in death and thus enjoy a furlough from death. (Ps 49:6-9) Only through Jehovah’s undeserved kindness by means of Jesus Christ is relief possible. “Just as sin ruled as king with death, likewise also undeserved kindness might rule as king through righteousness with everlasting life in view through Jesus Christ our Lord.”​—Ro 5:21.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

In weaving, the group of threads running the length of the fabric. The set of threads woven alternately over and under these at right angles across the cloth constitutes the woof. When Israel’s priests tested woven materials for leprosy, they inspected both the warp and the woof.​—Le 13:47-59; see LEPROSY (In garments and houses); WEAVING.

Upon completing the cloth, the weaver cuts across the warp threads, removing the material and leaving the “thrums,” or ends of the warp threads, fastened to the loom. King Hezekiah alluded to this in recalling his severe illness when he thought that God was about to cut short his life, cutting Hezekiah off “from the very threads of the warp” in untimely death.​—Isa 38:9-12.

See BOOK.

A welcome and hospitable act that often preceded the eating of a meal in the generally warm climate of the ancient Middle East, where persons customarily wore open sandals, walked on dry soil, and traveled on foot along dusty roads. In the average home of the common people, the host provided needed vessels and water, and visitors washed their own feet. (Jg 19:21) A wealthier host usually had his slave do the foot washing, and this was considered a menial task. Abigail indicated her willingness to comply with David’s wish that she become his wife by saying: “Here is your slave girl as a maidservant to wash the feet of the servants of my lord.” (1Sa 25:40-42) Especially was it a display of humility and affectionate regard for guests if the host or hostess personally washed the visitors’ feet.

Not only were feet washed as a host’s gesture of hospitality toward his guest but they were also customarily washed before a person retired to bed. (Ca 5:3) Especially noteworthy was the requirement that Levite priests wash their feet and hands before going into the tabernacle or before officiating at the altar.​—Ex 30:17-21; 40:30-32.

When Jesus Christ was on earth, a host might offer his guest water for washing the feet, give him a kiss, and grease his head with oil. Simon the Pharisee neglected these three expressions of hospitality while entertaining Jesus. Thus, when a weeping sinful woman wet Jesus’ feet with her tears, wiped them with her hair, kissed his feet, and then greased them with perfumed oil, Christ pointed out Simon’s failure and then told the woman: “Your sins are forgiven.”​—Lu 7:36-50.

Jesus Christ washed his apostles’ feet on the last night of his earthly life, Nisan 14, 33 C.E., doing so to teach them a lesson and “set the pattern,” rather than to establish a ceremony. (Joh 13:1-16) There had been arguments among the apostles as to who was the greatest. Even later in this evening, after he had washed their feet, they had another heated dispute over who seemed to be the greatest. (Lu 22:24-27) But what Jesus had done would not easily be forgotten. On that night Jesus and the apostles were merely using a room and were not someone’s guests. So, there were no servants on hand to wash their feet, which would undoubtedly have been the case had they been guests. None of the apostles took the initiative to perform this menial service for the others. However, at an appropriate time during the meal, Jesus rose, laid aside his outer garments, girded himself with a towel, put water in a basin, and washed their feet. He thus showed that in humility each one should be the servant of the others and should show love in practical ways, doing things for the comfort of others. Christian hostesses did so, as is evident from the apostle Paul’s reference to the hospitable act of foot washing among other fine works performed by Christian widows. (1Ti 5:9, 10) The Christian Greek Scriptures do not list formal washing of feet as a required Christian ceremony. Nonetheless, the example Jesus Christ set by this act stands as a reminder to Christians to serve their brothers lovingly, even in small ways and by performing humble tasks in their behalf.​—Joh 13:34, 35; see BATHING.

Rather than being plunged into a container filled with water, in ancient times the hands were often washed with water poured upon them. The dirty water then ran into a container or basin over which the hands were held.​—Compare 2Ki 3:11.

The Law prescribed that the priests wash their hands and their feet at the copper basin located between the sanctuary and the altar before ministering at the altar or entering the tent of meeting. (Ex 30:18-21) The Law also stated that in case someone slain was found and it was impossible to ascertain who the murderer was, the older men of the city nearest the slain person were to take a young cow, one that had never been worked with or had never pulled a yoke, to a torrent valley of running water and there break its neck. After this, the older men were to wash their hands over the young cow, denoting their innocence in regard to the murder. (De 21:1-8) Also, according to the Law, a person was rendered unclean if touched by someone with a running discharge who had not rinsed his hands.​—Le 15:11.

David desired morally clean hands so as to be able to worship before Jehovah’s altar. (Ps 26:6) On the other hand, Pilate vainly tried to clear himself of bloodguilt in connection with the death of Jesus by washing his hands before the people. But in this way he really could not escape responsibility for Jesus’ death, since he, not the howling mob, had the authority to determine the judgment.​—Mt 27:24.

The scribes and Pharisees in the first century C.E. attached great importance to the washing of hands and took issue with Jesus Christ concerning his disciples’ overstepping the traditions of men of former times by not washing their hands when about to eat a meal. This involved no ordinary hand washing for hygienic purposes but was a ceremonious ritual. “The Pharisees and all the Jews do not eat unless they wash their hands up to the elbow.” (Mr 7:2-5; Mt 15:2) The Babylonian Talmud (Sotah 4b) puts the one eating with unwashed hands on the same plane as one having relations with a harlot, and it states that the one lightly esteeming hand washing will be “uprooted from the world.”​—See BATHING.

See NIGHT.

One who guards against possible harm to persons or property, often during the night, and who may sound an alarm in the face of threatened danger. In military service a watchman is usually called a guard or sentry.​—Jer 51:12, ftn; Ac 12:6; 28:16; see GUARD.

As a protection against thieves and vandals, persons often were stationed to watch over ripening vineyards or flocks of animals, positioning themselves perhaps in booths or elevated watchtowers built for that purpose. (2Ki 17:9; 2Ch 20:24; Job 27:18; Isa 1:8) Siege forces attacking fortified places had watchmen or sentries to give their commanders military intelligence. (Jer 51:12) When King Saul was in the field camp with his army he also had personal watchmen whose responsibility was to look out for their king’s welfare.​—1Sa 14:16; 26:15, 16.

Watchmen were often stationed on the city walls and towers to observe those approaching before they got close. (2Sa 18:24-27; 2Ki 9:17-20) At times watchmen made their inspection rounds through the city streets as well. (Ca 3:3; 5:7) Fearful persons, awake during the dangerous hours of the night, might repeatedly inquire of the watchmen if all was well (Isa 21:11, 12), and it was only natural for watchmen themselves to long for the daylight to come. (Ps 130:6) Happy the city that, in addition to the watchmen, had Jehovah watching over it.​—Ps 127:1.

Figurative Use. Jehovah raised up prophets who served as figurative watchmen to the nation of Israel (Jer 6:17), and they, in turn, sometimes spoke of watchmen in a symbolic way. (Isa 21:6, 8; 52:8; 62:6; Ho 9:8) These prophet-watchmen had the responsibility to warn the wicked of impending destruction, and if they failed to do so, they were held accountable. Of course, if the people were unresponsive and failed to heed the warning, their blood was upon themselves. (Eze 3:17-21; 33:1-9) An unfaithful prophet was about as worthless as a blind watchman or a voiceless dog.​—Isa 56:10.

A place of lookout or post of observation, often built on a city wall. (See TOWER.) Other watchtowers were constructed in wilderness areas or on frontiers. They were principally designed for military purposes and served to protect a city or a boundary; they were also constructed as places of refuge for shepherds and farmers in isolated areas and enabled a watchman to warn of marauders so that flocks and ripening crops in the area might be protected.​—2Ch 20:24; Isa 21:8; 32:14.

A number of cities were named Mizpeh (Heb., mits·pehʹ, “Watchtower”), probably because of being on high elevations or because of notable towers erected there. Sometimes the Bible distinguished these cities by naming their location, as “Mizpeh of Gilead” (Jg 11:29) and “Mizpeh in Moab.”​—1Sa 22:3.

A pile of stones was set up by Jacob and called “Galeed” (meaning “Witness Heap”) and “The Watchtower.” Laban then said: “Let Jehovah keep watch between me and you when we are situated unseen the one from the other.” (Ge 31:45-49) This pile of stones would testify to the fact that Jehovah was watching to see that Jacob and Laban carried out their covenant of peace.

The liquid that is a major constituent of all living matter. Jehovah is the Source of this liquid (Re 14:7) so essential to the life of man, animals, and vegetation on earth. (Ex 17:2, 3; Job 8:11; 14:7-9; Ps 105:29; Isa 1:30) He provides it and can control it. (Ex 14:21-29; Job 5:10; 26:8; 28:25; 37:10; Ps 107:35) God furnished the Israelites with water, miraculously when necessary (Ex 17:1-7; Ne 9:15, 20; Ps 78:16, 20; Isa 35:6, 7; 43:20; 48:21); gave them a land having plenty of water (De 8:7); and promised to bless their water supply as long as they obeyed him (Ex 23:25).

Jehovah was responsible for the original watering of the ground by means of a mist arising from the earth, and he established the laws governing evaporation of water and its precipitation as rain. (Ge 2:5, 6; Job 36:27; Am 5:8; see CLOUD; MIST; RAIN.) On the second creative day, God produced an expanse by having some water remain on earth while raising a great quantity high above the globe; the waters above the expanse undoubtedly supplied the water whereby the wicked were later destroyed in the Flood of Noah’s day.​—Ge 1:6-8; 7:11, 17-24; Isa 54:9.

The Law given at Mount Sinai prohibited making images of things “in the waters under the earth,” apparently meaning aquatic creatures in earth’s waters, which are below the level of the land. This would include rivers, lakes, seas, and subterranean waters.​—Ex 20:4; De 4:15-18; 5:8.

Illustrative and Figurative Uses. There are numerous illustrative and figurative references to water in the Scriptures. People, especially the restless masses alienated from God, are symbolized by waters. Babylon the Great, in her earth-wide domination, is said to sit “on many waters.” These waters are explained in John’s vision of the great harlot to “mean peoples and crowds and nations and tongues.”​—Re 17:1, 15; compare Isa 57:20.

Because of the power of water as a destructive agent (causing drowning, washing away, or similar effects), it is often employed as a symbol of some destructive force. (Ps 69:1, 2, 14, 15; 144:7, 8) It is used of a military force at Jeremiah 47:2.

Water was used at the tabernacle both for physical cleanness and in a symbolic way. At the installation of the priesthood, the priests were washed with water, and symbolically, “sin-cleansing water” was spattered on the Levites. (Ex 29:4; Nu 8:6, 7) Priests washed before ministering at Jehovah’s sanctuary and before approaching the altar of burnt offering. (Ex 40:30-32) Water was employed to wash sacrifices (Le 1:9) and in ceremonial purifications. (Le 14:5-9, 50-52; 15:4-27; 17:15; Nu 19:1-22; see CLEAN, CLEANNESS.) The “holy water” used in the case of jealousy, where a wife was suspected of adultery, evidently was pure, fresh water, into which dust from the tabernacle was put before she drank it.​—Nu 5:17-24.

Life-giving water. Jehovah is “the source of living water.” Only from him and through his Son, Jesus Christ, the Chief Agent of life, can men receive everlasting life. (Jer 2:13; Joh 17:1, 3) Jesus told a Samaritan woman at a well near Sychar that the water he would give would become in its receiver “a fountain of water bubbling up to impart everlasting life.”​—Joh 4:7-15.

The apostle John records his vision of “a new heaven and a new earth” in which he saw flowing out from the throne of God “a river of water of life.” On each side of this river there were trees producing fruit, the leaves of the trees being used for the curing of the nations. (Re 21:1; 22:1, 2) After this feature of the vision was completed, Jesus spoke to John about his purpose in sending his angel with the vision. Then John heard the proclamation: “And the spirit and the bride keep on saying: ‘Come!’ And let anyone hearing say: ‘Come!’ And let anyone thirsting come; let anyone that wishes take life’s water free.” Evidently this invitation would be extended by God’s servants for thirsty ones to begin drinking of God’s provisions for gaining eternal life through the Lamb of God. (Joh 1:29) They could get what is now available of this water of life. The invitation is to be extended to everyone who can be reached, not for the purpose of commercial gain by selling the water, but free to all desiring it.​—Re 22:17.

Before Jesus’ death and resurrection, he spoke of his followers who would receive holy spirit, beginning at Pentecost 33 C.E., saying that out from their inmost parts “streams of living water will flow.” (Joh 7:37-39) The record in the Christian Greek Scriptures provides abundant evidence that, impelled by the activating force of God’s spirit, the apostles and disciples accomplished marvels in bringing life-giving waters to other people, starting from Jerusalem and expanding throughout the then known world.

Nourishing the implanted word. Using a different figure in writing to the congregation at Corinth, the apostle Paul likened the work of the Christian minister to that of a farmer, who first plants the seed, waters and cultivates it, then waits for God to make the plant grow to maturity. Paul brought the good news of the Kingdom to the Corinthians, planting seed in the Corinthian “field.” Apollos came afterward and by his further teaching nourished and cultivated the seed sown, but God, by his spirit, brought growth. Paul used this illustration to emphasize the fact that no individual human is important in himself, but all are ministers, working together as God’s workmen. God is the important One, and he blesses such unselfish, unified work.​—1Co 3:5-9.

God’s word of truth. God’s word of truth is likened to water that cleanses. The Christian congregation is clean in the sight of God, like a chaste bride for Christ, who cleansed it “with the bath of water by means of the word.” (Eph 5:25-27) In a similar usage, Paul speaks to his fellow Christians who have the hope of being underpriests of Christ in the heavens. Referring back to the tabernacle and the requirement that the priests wash in water before entering the sanctuary to serve, he says: “Since we have a great priest [Jesus Christ] over the house of God, let us approach with true hearts in the full assurance of faith, having had . . . our bodies bathed with clean water.” (Heb 10:21, 22) This cleansing involves not only the knowledge of God’s word but also its application in their daily lives.

The water of baptism. Jesus explained to Nicodemus: “Unless anyone is born from water and spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.” (Joh 3:5) Jesus was apparently speaking of the water of baptism, when a person repents of his sins and turns away from his former course of life, presenting himself to God through baptism in the name of Jesus Christ.​—Compare Eph 4:4, 5, which speaks of the “one baptism.”

The apostle John later wrote: “This is he that came by means of water and blood, Jesus Christ . . . For there are three witness bearers, the spirit and the water and the blood, and the three are in agreement.” (1Jo 5:5-8) When Jesus came “into the world,” that is, when he began his ministerial and sacrificial course as God’s Messiah, he came to John the Baptizer to be immersed in water (not in repentance for sins, but in presentation of himself to God, to carry out God’s will for him). (Heb 10:5-7) After this, God’s spirit came down upon him, a testimony that he was God’s Son and the Messiah. (Lu 3:21, 22) It is the water of his baptism that is in harmony with the blood of his sacrifice and with God’s spirit in unanimously testifying to this great Messianic truth.

Other figurative uses. David said concerning the wicked: “May they dissolve as into waters that go their way.” (Ps 58:7) David may have had in mind the torrent valleys common in Palestine, many of which are filled with a swelling, threatening torrent during a flash flood. But the water quickly runs off and disappears, leaving the valley dry.

When attacking the city of Ai, the Israelites sent out a small force that was defeated. This had a demoralizing effect on the Israelites, for the account says that the hearts of the people of Israel “began to melt and became as water,” meaning that they sensed they had somehow incurred Jehovah’s displeasure and were without his help. Joshua was very upset, evidently because Israel, the army of Jehovah, had fled in fear before their enemies, thus bringing reproach upon Jehovah’s name.​—Jos 7:5-9.

See GATE, GATEWAY.

[Heb., ʼavat·tiʹach].

A large oblong or roundish fruit with a hard rind, many seeds, and a sweet pulp having high water content. It was one of the items of diet for which the mixed crowd and the Israelites expressed a longing while in the wilderness after leaving Egypt. (Nu 11:4, 5) Watermelons (Citrullus vulgaris) have long been cultivated in Egypt and other parts of the Middle East.

See OFFERINGS.

[ו].

The sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. In pronunciation this letter corresponds generally to the English “w,” as in “wine”; at times, however, in modern Hebrew it is given the sound of English “v.” In this work it is transliterated as “w” (ו), “u” (ּו), and “oh” (ֹו). Apart from its use as a prefix, it is rarely used as an initial letter, usually being substituted for by the letter yohdh (י). In the Hebrew, it appears at the beginning of each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:41-48.

Biblical references to wax are apparently to beeswax, a dark-yellow substance that bees use in forming walls of honeycomb cells where they deposit honey or larvae. Wax is produced by worker bees, which, after consuming large amounts of honey, manufacture wax in special glands in their abdomens. The wax is excreted through tiny pores and forms as small white flakes on the exterior of the abdomen. The flakes of wax are then transferred to the bee’s mouth, where they are chewed prior to construction use. The bee has control over the production of wax and makes it only when a supply is needed.​—See BEE.

The wax is easily separated from the honey by melting it in warm water. This causes the wax to rise to the surface, where it can be skimmed off. The melting of wax is used in poetic Scriptural illustrations to express a distressed condition of the heart (Ps 22:14), the dissolution of mountains and of plains (Ps 97:5; Mic 1:4), and the destruction of God’s enemies; the psalmist exclaimed: “As wax melts because of the fire, let the wicked ones perish from before God.”​—Ps 68:1, 2.

This expression can be applied to a road, street, track, or path; a mode of action or conduct; or a normal course, manner, or method. In the Scriptures it is often used with reference to a course of conduct and action that is either approved or disapproved by Jehovah God. (Jg 2:22; 2Ki 21:22; Ps 27:11; 32:8; 86:11; Isa 30:21; Jer 7:23; 10:23; 21:8) With the coming of Jesus Christ, an individual’s enjoying a proper relationship with God and approaching him acceptably in prayer depended on acceptance of Jesus Christ. As the Son of God stated: “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.” (Joh 14:6; Heb 10:19-22) Those who became followers of Jesus Christ were spoken of as belonging to “The Way,” that is, they adhered to a way or manner of life that centered around faith in Jesus Christ, following his example.​—Ac 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:22.

The process of training a nursing child to take food in another way. In ancient times, a mother usually breast-fed her child for some time, unless such circumstances as inability to produce sufficient milk or her untimely death required that a nursing woman be acquired for that purpose. (Ex 2:5-10) The time when breast-feeding was discontinued marked a significant point in the young one’s life. (Isa 11:8; 28:9) This happy event could call for a feast such as the one Abraham arranged at the weaning of Isaac.​—Ge 21:8.

In those days, women nursed their children much longer than they do now in most parts of the earth. Upon being weaned, Samuel was old enough to be placed in the care of High Priest Eli and to serve at the tabernacle. (1Sa 1:24-28) He must have been at least three years old then, for the registration of Levite males began at that age. (2Ch 31:16) In his book Family, Love and the Bible (London, 1960, p. 175), Raphael Patai says of Arab children: “Cases are known where a child was suckled until his tenth year.” The evidence indicates that Isaac was about five years old when weaned.​—See ISAAC.

A weaned child, though no longer yearning for nourishment from its mother, still finds security and satisfaction in her arms. Comparably, David had soothed and quieted his soul “like a weanling upon his mother,” and his soul was ‘like a weanling upon him.’ Apparently it was soothed, quieted, and satisfied because he did not desire prominence, had manifested humility, avoided haughtiness, and refrained from walking in things too great for him. He urged Israel to act similarly, humbly ‘waiting for Jehovah to time indefinite.’​—Ps 131:1-3.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

The process of interlacing sets of threads lengthwise and crosswise to make cloth. The group of threads running the length of the fabric is the warp, and the set running across it is the woof, or weft. Woof thread is woven alternately over and under the warp threads. (Le 13:59) Weaving was often done by women but was also apparently an occupation of men. (2Ki 23:7; 1Ch 4:21) The loom that the Hebrews, Egyptians, and others used for weaving was basically a frame.​—Jg 16:13, 14; Isa 19:1, 9, 10.

Ancient looms were either vertical or horizontal. One type of vertical loom consisted of two upright stakes with a crossbeam at the top. The warp threads hung from it and had weights attached to keep them straight. In some looms a lower beam took the place of weights, and in others this beam could be rotated to serve as a roller for the woven cloth. A common horizontal loom consisted of two parallel beams kept in place some distance apart by four pegs driven into the ground at their extremities. Warp threads were stretched between these beams. The wooden shaft of Goliath’s spear was possibly being compared to such a heavy beam when it was likened to “the beam of loom workers.”​—1Sa 17:4, 7.

On the loom the warp threads were usually separated into two sets, so that the woof thread would pass over one set when drawn across the warp in one direction and under that set when moved across it in the opposite way. For this, two “sheds,” or passages, were needed. In a simple horizontal loom a flat “shed stick” was placed across the warp under alternate warp threads, and by turning it on edge, one “shed” was made, through which the woof thread was passed in one direction. Alternate warp threads attached by loops of thread to a “lease rod” lying on top of the warp were next raised by lifting the “lease rod” vertically from the warp, making another “shed” through which the weft was drawn in the opposite direction across the warp. After each movement across the warp, the woof thread was pressed against the growing cloth with a peg. The weaver drew the weft across the warp with a shuttle, basically a rod carrying the thread. Since the skillful weaver moved the shuttle rapidly, Job could say: “My days themselves have become swifter than a weaver’s shuttle.”​—Job 7:6.

After the cloth had been woven to the desired length and rolled up, the loom worker cut it from the warp threads. (Isa 38:9, 12) Materials commonly used by weavers included animal hair (Ex 36:14; Mt 3:4), wool, and linen.​—Compare Pr 31:13.

Fabrics of varying patterns could be made by using threads of different colors in the warp or the woof or in both. Or woof thread of a particular color might be run only partway in the warp. (Ge 37:23; 2Sa 13:18; Pr 7:16) The loom worker might weave in an irregular manner​—running a set of woof threads over one warp thread and then under two across the warp, and then running the next set over two warp threads, under two, then over one for the width of the warp, as in weaving gabardine today. By variations in weaving methods, a pattern is developed in the fabric even when warp and woof threads are the same color. Aaron, for instance, was provided with a white robe of fine linen woven “in checkerwork.”​—Ex 28:39.

Generally, troublesome plants that serve no apparent useful purpose where they grow. While some scholars have endeavored to link with specific plants the various original-language words rendered “weeds” in the Bible, no certain identification is possible.

The Hebrew word boʼ·shahʹ is considered to be derived from a root meaning “stink” and therefore probably embraces a variety of foul-smelling plants, “stinking weeds.” Faithful Job, in effect, stated that if his life course had not been one of integrity, then, instead of barley, let stinking weeds grow.​—Job 31:40.

Another Hebrew term, chohʹach, is understood to designate thorny plants generally, thorny weeds that grow on cultivated ground and quickly take possession of desolated land. (Job 31:40; Isa 34:13; Ho 9:6) The same word appears at Job 41:2, where the allusion seems to be to a thorn put into the gills of a fish for carrying purposes. Chohʹach is also employed in an illustrative sense. (Ca 2:2) A thorny weed in the hand of a drunkard can bring injury to him and to others; so it is with stupid people who use a proverb wrongly because of not understanding it. (Pr 26:9) King Jehoash of Israel compared the action of proud King Amaziah of Judah in wanting to fight him to a thorny weed’s asking for a marriage alliance with a cedar of Lebanon.​—2Ki 14:8, 9; 2Ch 25:18.

The Hebrew designation shaʹyith appears to denote a variety of weeds that grow on neglected or desolated land. (Isa 5:6; 7:23-25; 27:4) This term, rendered “weeds,” is used figuratively to represent people who by their unfaithfulness have become worthless and fit only for destruction.​—Isa 9:18, 19; 10:17-19; compare Da 4:20-22.

At Proverbs 24:31, the plural form of the Hebrew term qim·mohsʹ, which is commonly rendered “nettle,” appears to denote weeds of all kinds.​—See NETTLE.

The weeds (Gr., zi·zaʹni·a) of Jesus’ illustration at Matthew 13:24-30, 36-43 are generally considered to be bearded darnel (Lolium temulentum), which very much resembles wheat until maturity, when it can be readily distinguished from wheat by its smaller black seeds. This, together with the fact that the roots of these weeds become entwined with the wheat, would make it most inadvisable to pull up the weeds at an early stage. If darnel seeds become mixed with wheat kernels after the harvest, this can have a serious effect upon the eater. Dizziness and even fatal poisoning have been attributed to eating bread containing too much darnel flour. The poisonous properties of darnel seeds are generally believed to stem from a fungus growing within them.

The Hebrew word for “week” (sha·vuʹaʽ) literally refers to a sevenfold unit or period. The Greek word sabʹba·ton, in turn, is derived from the Hebrew word for Sabbath (shab·bathʹ).

The counting of days in cycles of seven goes far back into man’s history. The precedent for such time division was set by Jehovah God in dividing his creative work period into six days, or units of time, crowned by a seventh day of rest. (Ge 2:2, 3) Following this, the next reference we find to a seven-day cycle is in the case of Noah at the time of the Flood, but no seventh-day rest is mentioned. (Ge 7:4, 10; 8:10, 12) Seven-day periods were observed with regard to marriages in Paddan-aram and in Philistia. (Ge 29:27, 28; Jg 14:12, 17) A seven-day period was also observed at the funeral of Jacob. (Ge 50:10) However, the Bible record does not show that these early seven-day periods conformed to a weekly arrangement, having a regular starting day and being followed by other comparable seven-day periods. Among some ancient peoples the seven-day cycles were governed by the four phases of the moon and started again with each new moon. Since a lunar month runs either 29 or 30 days, this would not allow for completely consecutive seven-day cycles.

One early reference to a ten-day period is found at Genesis 24:55. In ancient Egypt the time was divided into ten-day cycles (three such to each month), and the Israelites obviously became familiar with this during their long sojourn in Egypt.

Under the Law. It is first in conjunction with the instructions regarding the Passover that we find a divine ordinance requiring the observance of a specific seven-day period. This period became the annual Festival of Unfermented Cakes that was thereafter celebrated by the Israelites after the Passover. Both the first day and the seventh, or last, day were to be days of rest.​—Ex 12:14-20; 13:6-10.

Sabbath day instituted. However, following the inauguration of this special week there ensued a period of about one month during which the Israelites were traveling on their Exodus from Egypt, and in this period no mention is made of a weekly observance by them terminating with a seventh day of rest. Following the 15th day of the second month of their coming out of the land of Egypt, Jehovah began to give them manna, and it was at this time that they were first instructed as to a regular Sabbath observance every seventh day. (Ex 16:1, 4, 5, 22-30) Such Sabbath observance necessarily resulted in a consecutive weekly division of days not bound by the lunar monthly periods. It was thereafter made a legal statute by God in the Law covenant given through Moses to the nation of Israel.​—Ex 20:8-11; De 5:12-15.

Festival periods. There were, of course, certain festival periods of seven days’ duration that were set out in the Law and that did not necessarily begin or end in conformity with the regular week governed by the Sabbath. They began on a particular day of the lunar month; therefore, the starting day fell on different days of the week from year to year. This was true of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, which followed the Passover and came on Nisan 15-21, and of the Festival of Booths on Ethanim 15-21. Also, the Festival of Weeks, or Pentecost, was based on a count of seven weeks plus one day, but the seven weeks began counting from Nisan 16 and so did not always run concurrently with the regular weeks ending with the regular Sabbath days.​—Ex 12:2, 6, 14-20; Le 23:5-7, 15, 16; De 16:9, 10, 13.

The days of the week were not given names but were simply designated by number, the exception being the seventh day called “the sabbath.” (Ex 20:8) This was also true in the days of Jesus and his apostles, although the day before the Sabbath came to be called “Preparation.”​—Mt 28:1; Ac 20:7; Mr 15:42; Joh 19:31.

Seven-day and seven-year periods. Because of the importance that the Law covenant attached to the Sabbath, or the seventh day, the word “sabbath” was commonly used to represent the entire week of seven days. (Le 23:15, 16) It was likewise used to refer to the seventh year, which was a Sabbath year of rest for the land. And it also stood for the entire seven-year period, or week of years, ending in a Sabbath year. (Le 25:2-8) The Jewish Mishnah repeatedly uses the expression “week of years.”​—Sheviʽit 4:7-9; Sanhedrin 5:1; see SEVENTY WEEKS (A Messianic Prophecy).

See PENTECOST.

An expression of strong emotion (such as grief) by shedding tears. Both men and women of the past, including mighty warriors like David, wept, not considering it a sign of weakness. (Ge 42:24; 43:30; 45:2, 3, 14, 15; 46:29; Ru 1:9, 14; 2Sa 13:36; Job 30:25; Ps 6:6-8) The death of a loved one or a friend was one of the chief causes for weeping. (2Sa 18:33–19:4; Lu 7:11-15; 8:49-56; Joh 20:11-15) And the death of respected and beloved individuals might give rise to national weeping (2Sa 3:31-34), long periods sometimes being devoted to such expression of grief. (Ge 50:1-3, 10, 11; Nu 20:29; De 34:8) Other circumstances that occasioned weeping were defeat in warfare (De 1:44, 45; Jer 31:15; La 1:16), captivity (Ps 137:1), oppression (Ec 4:1), great calamity (Es 3:13, 14; 4:1-4), and remorse over sin (Ezr 10:1-4; Jer 3:21, 22; 31:9; Joe 2:12; Lu 22:54-62; Jas 4:8, 9; see MOURNING). Weeping in religious ceremony was associated with worship of the Babylonian god Tammuz.​—Eze 8:14.

Aside from feelings of personal loss or affliction, deep concern and intense feeling for others often prompted weeping. Thus the apostle Paul spoke of admonishing and correcting fellow believers with tears. (Ac 20:31; 2Co 2:4) With weeping, he mentioned those who were “walking as the enemies of the torture stake of the Christ.” (Php 3:18, 19) And because of the close bond of love existing between Paul and the overseers of the Ephesus congregation, all wept upon learning of the possibility that they might not see the apostle’s face again.​—Ac 20:36-38.

There were times when worshipers of Jehovah wept during prayer, as did Hannah, Hezekiah, and Nehemiah. (1Sa 1:9-11; 2Ki 20:1-5; Ne 1:2-4; Ps 39:12) Even Jesus Christ, while on earth, supplicated and petitioned his Father “with strong outcries and tears.”​—Heb 5:7.

Archaeological evidence, the Bible itself, and other ancient writings provide the basis for assigning approximate values to the various weights and measures used by the Hebrews.

Linear Measures. The linear measures employed by the Hebrews were evidently derived from the human body. Since the ratio in length or width of one part of the body to another can be determined, it is possible to ascertain the relationship of one linear measurement to another; and based on archaeological evidence pointing to a cubit of about 44.5 cm (17.5 in.), approximate modern values can be given to the linear measurements mentioned in the Bible. (See CUBIT.) The chart that follows presents the relationship of the Hebrew linear measures to one another as well as their approximate modern equivalents.

There is some uncertainty about the measure designated by the Hebrew term goʹmedh, appearing solely at Judges 3:16 with reference to the length of Ehud’s sword. In numerous translations this word is rendered “cubit.” (KJ, Le, JB, NW, Ro, RS) Some scholars believe that goʹmedh denotes a short cubit roughly corresponding to the distance from the elbow to the knuckles of the clenched hand. This would be about 38 cm (15 in.).​—NE.

Other linear measurements mentioned in the Scriptures are the fathom (1.8 m; 6 ft); the staʹdi·on, or furlong (185 m; 606.75 ft); and the mile, probably the Roman mile (1,479.5 m; 4,854 ft). The word “journey” is often used in connection with a general distance covered. (Ge 31:23; Ex 3:18; Nu 10:33; 33:8) A day’s journey was perhaps 32 km (20 mi) or more, while a Sabbath day’s journey appears to have been about 1 km (0.6 mi).​—Mt 24:20; Ac 1:12; see FATHOM; FURLONG; JOURNEY; MILE.

Measures of Capacity. Based on jar fragments bearing the designation “bath” in ancient Hebrew characters, the capacity of the bath measure is reckoned at approximately 22 L (5.81 gal). In the charts that follow, dry and liquid measures are figured in relation to the bath measure. The relationship of one measure to another, when not stated in the Bible, is drawn from other ancient writings.​—See BATH; CAB; COR; HIN; HOMER; LOG; OMER; SEAH.

Other dry and liquid measures. The Hebrew word ʽis·sa·rohnʹ, meaning “tenth,” often denotes a tenth of an ephah. (Ex 29:40; Le 14:10; 23:13, 17; Nu 15:4) According to Targum Jonathan, the “six measures of barley” (literally, six of barley) mentioned at Ruth 3:15 are six seah measures. On the authority of the Mishnah and the Vulgate, the Hebrew term leʹthekh is understood to designate a half homer. (Ho 3:2; AS, KJ, Da, JP, Le, NW; Bava Mezia 6:5 ftn and appendix II, D, translated by H. Danby) The Greek terms me·tre·tesʹ (appearing in the plural at John 2:6 and rendered “liquid measures”) and baʹtos (found in the plural at Lu 16:6) are equated by some with the Hebrew bath measure. The Greek khoiʹnix (quart) is commonly thought to be slightly more than a liter or a little less than a U.S. dry quart.​—Re 6:5, 6.

Weights. Archaeological evidence suggests that a shekel weighed approximately 11.4 g (0.403 oz avdp; 0.367 oz t). Using this as a basis, the chart that follows sets forth the relationship of the Hebrew weights and their approximate modern equivalent.

The Greek word liʹtra is generally equated with the Roman pound (327 g; 11.5 oz avdp). The mina of the Christian Greek Scriptures is reckoned at 100 drachmas. (See DRACHMA.) This would mean that the Greek mina weighed 340 g (10.9 oz t) and the Greek talent, 20.4 kg (44.8 lb avdp; 54.5 lb t; 654 oz t).​—See MINA; MONEY; SHEKEL; TALENT.

Area. The Hebrews designated the size of a plot of land either by the amount of seed needed to sow it (Le 27:16; 1Ki 18:32) or by what a span of bulls could plow in a day.​—1Sa 14:14, ftn.

The Hebrew word beʼerʹ, translated “well,” usually designates a pit or hole sunk into the ground to tap a natural supply of water. The term beʼerʹ appears in such place-names as Beer-lahai-roi (Ge 16:14), Beer-sheba (Ge 21:14), Beer (Nu 21:16-18), and Beer-elim (Isa 15:8). This word may also mean “pit” (Ge 14:10) and, at Psalms 55:23 (“pit”) and 69:15 (“well”), seems to denote the grave. It is used metaphorically to refer to a wife or a beloved woman. (Pr 5:15; Ca 4:15) And Proverbs 23:27, where the foreign woman is likened to a narrow well, may allude to the fact that obtaining water from such a well often involves difficulties, as earthenware jars break readily on its sides.​—See FOUNTAIN, SPRING.

In lands having a long dry season, particularly wilderness regions, from earliest times wells have been of great importance. Anciently, the unauthorized use of wells appears to have been viewed as an invasion of property rights. (Nu 20:17, 19; 21:22) The scarcity of water and the labor entailed in digging wells made them valuable property. Not infrequently did the possession of wells give rise to violent disputes and strife. For this reason the patriarch Abraham, on one occasion, formally established his ownership of a well at Beer-sheba. (Ge 21:25-31; 26:20, 21) After his death, however, the Philistines disregarded the rights of his son and heir Isaac and stopped up the very wells that Abraham’s servants had dug.​—Ge 26:15, 18.

Wells were frequently surrounded by low walls and were kept covered with a large stone, doubtless to keep out dirt and to prevent animals and persons from falling into them. (Ge 29:2, 3; Ex 2:15, 16) Near some wells, there were drinking troughs or gutters for watering domestic animals. (Ge 24:20; Ex 2:16-19) Throughout the hills of Palestine, wells were dug in the limestone, and steps, leading down to the water, were often cut in the rock. In some wells, after descending, the one drawing water simply dipped a vessel directly into it. However, from very deep sources, water was commonly drawn up by means of a leather bucket (Nu 24:7) or an earthenware jar (Ge 24:16) suspended from a rope.​—See JACOB’S FOUNTAIN.

The Hebrews indicated direction from the viewpoint of a person facing east. Thus the west was behind them and might be implied by the Hebrew word ʼa·chohrʹ, meaning “behind.”​—Isa 9:12.

Most often, “west” (“westward,” or “western”) is denoted by the Hebrew word yam (meaning “sea,” as at Jos 1:4), evidently because the Mediterranean, or Great Sea, lay in that direction from the Promised Land. (Ge 28:14; Ex 10:19; 38:12; Nu 34:6; Zec 14:4) The context must be considered to determine whether yam means “sea” or denotes the west.​—Jos 15:8-12; 2Ch 4:2-4, 15.

Another Hebrew word (ma·ʽaravʹ) is used to denote either the sunset (Isa 43:5; 59:19) or the west. (1Ch 26:30; 2Ch 32:30) It is used to help convey the thought of great distance in the comforting assurance of Jehovah’s mercy toward imperfect humans: “As far off as the sunrise is from the sunset, so far off from us he has put our transgressions.”​—Ps 103:12.

When Jesus said that many would come “from eastern parts and western parts” to recline at the table in the Kingdom with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the Greek text at Matthew 8:11 says literally “from risings and settings.” Here the Greek word dy·smeʹ relates to the direction of the sunset, that is, the west. (Int) Dy·smeʹ is also used elsewhere to denote the west.​—Mt 24:27; Lu 12:54; 13:29; Re 21:13.

An important cereal crop that has long supplied man with a valuable item of diet and has at times, in recent years as anciently, been sold at a price double or triple that of barley. (Compare 2Ki 7:1, 16, 18; Re 6:6.) Wheat (Heb., chit·tahʹ; Gr., siʹtos), either by itself or mixed with other grains, was commonly made into bread. (Ex 29:2; Eze 4:9) This cereal could also be eaten raw (Mt 12:1) and was made into grits by crushing its kernels. Especially the green ears of wheat were prepared by roasting. (Le 2:14; 2Sa 17:28) Wheat was exacted as tribute from defeated tribes or nations (2Ch 27:5), and it figured in offerings made to Jehovah.​—1Ch 23:29; Ezr 6:9, 10.

The plant itself, when young, resembles grass and is bright green. Mature wheat, however, may measure from 0.6 to 1.5 m (2 to 5 ft) in height and is golden brown. Its leaves are long and slender, and the central stem terminates in a head of kernels. One variety of wheat (Triticum compositum) cultivated in Egypt of old, and still encountered there, has several ears per stalk. (Compare Ge 41:22, 23.) The varieties of wheat that have been commonly cultivated in Palestine in more recent years, and likely also in Bible times, are bearded, that is, they have coarse, prickly hairs on the husks of the kernels.

True to God’s promise, the Israelites found Palestine to be a land of wheat and barley. (De 8:8; 32:14; Ps 81:16; 147:14) Not only did they have enough for themselves but they also were able to export grain. (2Ch 2:8-10, 15) In Ezekiel’s time, commodities from Judah and Israel, including “wheat of Minnith,” were being traded in Tyre.​—Eze 27:17.

Wheat was sown in Palestine about the same time as the barley, in the month of Bul (October-November), after the early fall rains had sufficiently softened the soil for plowing. (Isa 28:24, 25) The wheat harvest followed the barley harvest (Ru 2:23; compare Ex 9:31, 32) and was closely associated with the Festival of Weeks, or Pentecost, in the month of Sivan (May-June), at which time two leavened loaves made of wheat flour were presented as a wave offering to Jehovah. (Ex 34:22; Le 23:17) After the wheat was threshed, winnowed, and sifted, it was often stored in underground pits, a practice perhaps alluded to at Jeremiah 41:8.

The Bible also makes illustrative reference to wheat. It is used to represent persons acceptable to Jehovah, “the sons of the kingdom.” (Mt 3:12; 13:24-30, 37, 38; Lu 3:17) Both Jesus and the apostle Paul mentioned wheat in illustrating the resurrection. (Joh 12:24; 1Co 15:35-38) And Jesus likened the test to come upon his disciples, as a result of the trials he was about to undergo, to the sifting of wheat.​—Lu 22:31.

A circular frame of hard material that may be solid or spoked and that is capable of turning on an axle. Anciently, wooden planks were pegged together, rounded, and furnished with a rim (felly, or felloe) to form the early wheel. The spoked type was used on chariots, wagons, and other vehicles. (Ex 14:25; Isa 5:28; 28:27) The ten copper carriages that Solomon made for use at Jehovah’s temple each had a copper axle and four chariotlike copper wheels 1.5 cubits (67 cm; 26 in.) high, with hubs, spokes, and rims.​—1Ki 7:27-33.

The potter fashioned earthenware vessels on a revolving horizontal disk called a potter’s wheel. (Jer 18:3, 4) Also, a bucket might be lowered and raised in a cistern by means of rope attached to some type of wheel or windlass.​—Ec 12:6.

Illustrative and Figurative Use. According to the Hebrew Masoretic text, Proverbs 20:26 reads: “A wise king is scattering wicked people, and he turns around upon them a wheel.” This seems to allude to an action of a king comparable to the use of the wheel in threshing grain. (Compare Isa 28:27, 28.) The metaphor appears to indicate that the wise king acts promptly in separating wicked persons from righteous ones and in punishing the wicked. Thereby evil is suppressed in his domain. (Compare Pr 20:8.) However, by a slight alteration, this verse says that a wise king turns around upon the wicked “their own hurtfulness.”

The uncontrolled tongue is a “fire” that “sets the wheel of natural life aflame.” The entire round or course of natural life into which a person came by birth can be set aflame by the tongue, making life become a vicious circle, possibly even resulting in its own destruction as if by fire.​—Jas 3:6.

By the river Chebar in the land of the Chaldeans during the fifth year of King Jehoiachin’s exile, Ezekiel envisioned Jehovah riding upon a swift-moving chariotlike celestial vehicle. Its four wheels had rims filled with eyes, and within each wheel was another wheel apparently at right angles, making it possible to go forward or to either side without changing the angle of the wheels. Beside each wheel was a cherub, the cherubic living creatures and wheels moving in unison as they were directed by the spirit. (Eze 1:1-3, 15-21; 3:13) The following year, Ezekiel had a similar vision, this time being transported, evidently by the spirit of inspiration, to a place before the temple that Solomon had built in Jerusalem. The vision that he saw indicated that soon that city and the temple would be destroyed in execution of Jehovah’s judicial decision. (Eze 8:1-3; 10:1-19; 11:22) Some 60 years thereafter, Daniel envisioned the Ancient of Days, Jehovah, seated upon a heavenly, wheeled throne. Both throne and wheels were aflame, suggesting the approach of fiery divine judgment upon world powers.​—Da 7:1, 9, 10; Ps 97:1-3.

Usually a flexible cord or leather lash with a handle. This instrument has been used since ancient times to beat humans (2Ch 10:11, 14) as well as to drive and direct animals.​—Pr 26:3; Na 3:2.

King Rehoboam boasted that, whereas his father Solomon had chastised the Israelites with “whips,” he would do so with “scourges.” Rehoboam’s expression was figurative, but the scourges alluded to may have been lashes equipped with sharp points, since the Hebrew word (ʽaq·rab·bimʹ) for “scourges” literally means “scorpions.”​—1Ki 12:11, 14, ftn; 2Ch 10:11, 14.

Eliphaz the Temanite spoke of “the whip of a tongue.” (Job 4:1; 5:21) Apparently the allusion was to the use of the tongue to inflict injury, as in slandering and speaking abusively.​—Compare Pr 12:18; Jas 3:5-10.

At Passover time of 30 C.E., “after making a whip of ropes, [Jesus] drove all those with the sheep and cattle out of the temple.” Indicating that Jesus used the whip only on the animals, not on the men with the sheep and cattle, is the fact that he evicted the sellers of doves verbally, not with the whip. Also, by driving out the cattle with the whip, he upset their business activity, and the men would naturally follow after their cattle, to round them up.​—Joh 2:13-17.

See COLORS.

That which does not conform to God’s standard of moral excellence is wicked, bad, evil, or worthless. Like the Greek word po·ne·riʹa (Mt 22:18; Mr 7:22; Lu 11:39; Ac 3:26; Ro 1:29; 1Co 5:8; Eph 6:12), the Hebrew verb ra·shaʽʹ and related forms designate that which is wicked. (Ge 18:23; 2Sa 22:22; 2Ch 20:35; Job 34:8; Ps 37:10; Isa 26:10) Po·ne·rosʹ (related to po·ne·riʹa) often signifies that which is evil or wicked in a moral sense (Lu 6:45) and can apply to something that is bad or worthless in a physical sense, as when Jesus Christ spoke of “worthless fruit.” (Mt 7:17, 18) This word can also describe something that is hurtful and, at Revelation 16:2, has been rendered “painful” (AT, TEV) and “malignant.”​—NE, NW.

Why has God permitted wickedness?

Satan the Devil, who caused the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, to rebel against God, stands in opposition to God’s righteous standard and is appropriately termed “the wicked one.” (Mt 6:13; 13:19, 38; 1Jo 2:13, 14; 5:19) The rebellion initiated by Satan called into question the rightfulness and righteousness of God’s sovereignty, that is, whether God’s rulership over his creatures is exercised righteously and in their best interests. The fact that Adam and Eve rebelled also raised another issue: Would all other intelligent creatures prove unfaithful and disloyal to God when obedience appeared to bring no material benefits? Satan’s claim respecting faithful Job implied that they would do so. Satan said: “Skin in behalf of skin, and everything that a man has he will give in behalf of his soul. For a change, thrust out your hand, please, and touch as far as his bone and his flesh and see whether he will not curse you to your very face.”​—Job 2:4, 5; see SOVEREIGNTY.

Time was required to settle the issues that had been raised. Hence, Jehovah God, by permitting wicked persons to continue living, made it possible for others to share in proving Satan’s claim false by serving God faithfully under unfavorable and trialsome circumstances. God’s permission of wickedness has also provided an opportunity for individuals to abandon a wrong course and to subject themselves willingly to God’s righteous laws. (Isa 55:7; Eze 33:11) So God’s holding back for a time from destroying the wicked serves to spare the righteously disposed ones by allowing time for them to prove their love and devotion to Jehovah.​—Ro 9:17-26.

Additionally, Jehovah God makes use of circumstances in such a way that the wicked themselves unwittingly serve his purpose. Though they oppose God, he can restrain them to the extent necessary for the preserving of his servants in their integrity, and can cause the actions even of such persons to bring his righteousness to the fore. (Ro 3:3-5, 23-26; 8:35-39; Ps 76:10) This thought is expressed at Proverbs 16:4: “Everything Jehovah has made for his purpose, yes, even the wicked one for the evil day.”

A case in point is the Pharaoh on whom Jehovah, through Moses and Aaron, served notice for the release of the enslaved Israelites. God did not make this Egyptian ruler wicked, but he did allow him to continue living and also brought about circumstances that caused Pharaoh to manifest himself as being wicked and deserving of death. Jehovah’s purpose in doing this is revealed at Exodus 9:16: “For this cause I have kept you in existence, for the sake of showing you my power and in order to have my name declared in all the earth.”

The Ten Plagues visited upon Egypt, climaxed by the destruction of Pharaoh and his military forces in the Red Sea, were an impressive demonstration of Jehovah’s power. (Ex 7:14–12:30; Ps 78:43-51; 136:15) For years afterward the nations round about were still talking about it, and God’s name was thus being declared throughout the earth. (Jos 2:10, 11; 1Sa 4:8) Had Jehovah killed Pharaoh immediately, this grand display of God’s power to His glory and for the deliverance of His people would not have been possible.

The Scriptures give assurance that the time will come when wickedness will no longer exist, as all those who stand in opposition to the Creator will be destroyed when his permission of wickedness will have served its purpose.​—2Pe 3:9-13; Re 18:20-24; 19:11–20:3, 7-10.

A woman who has lost her husband in death and has not remarried. Death of the husband severs the marriage bond, leaving the widow free to remarry if she chooses to do so. (Ru 1:8-13; Ro 7:2, 3; 1Co 7:8, 9) Under the patriarchal arrangement, and later under the Mosaic Law, the brother of a man who had died childless was to take his brother’s widow as his wife and have a child by her, to carry on the line of her deceased husband.​—Ge 38:8; De 25:5-10; Ru 4:3-10; see BROTHER-IN-LAW MARRIAGE.

Upon the death of their mate, widows could return to the house of their father. (Ge 38:11) In the Law, specific provision to this effect was made for the daughter of a priest who became widowed or was divorced. Since the priest received tithes for his household’s sustenance, the daughter could share in this provision. This assured that she would not face poverty, and thus averted reproach that might otherwise have come upon the priesthood. (Le 22:13) For those widows who had no such support or protection, provisions were made in God’s law for them to enjoy gleaner’s rights in the fields, olive groves, and vineyards (De 24:19-21); to participate in the bounteous celebration each year at festivals (De 16:10-14); and, every third year, to share in the tithes that were contributed by the nation (De 14:28, 29; 26:12, 13).

Concern of Jehovah and Christ for Widows. Jehovah spoke of himself as the One “executing judgment for the fatherless boy and the widow.” (De 10:18) Strong injunctions are given in the Law as to the administration of full and equal justice to widows. (Ex 22:22-24; De 24:17) A curse was pronounced upon those perverting the judgment of widows (De 27:19), and proper treatment of widows was urged in the writings of the prophets.​—Isa 1:17, 23; 10:1, 2; Jer 22:3; Eze 22:7; Zec 7:9, 10; Mal 3:5.

Jesus displayed his concern for the welfare of the widows in Israel when he condemned the scribes as “the ones devouring the houses of the widows.”​—Mr 12:38-40; Lu 20:46, 47.

Christian Assistance to Widows. During the emergency that arose in the Christian congregation shortly after the day of Pentecost 33 C.E., the Greek-speaking widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution. When this was brought to the attention of the apostles, they considered the matter so important that they appointed “seven certified men . . . full of spirit and wisdom” to supervise the distribution of food with equity.​—Ac 6:1-6.

The apostle Paul, at 1 Timothy 5:3-16, gave complete instructions for the loving care of widows in the Christian congregation. The congregation was to care for destitute widows. But if the widow had children or grandchildren, they should assume the responsibility of providing for her needs, or, as Paul instructed, “if any believing woman has widows [that is, widows related to her], let her relieve them, and let the congregation not be under the burden. Then it can relieve those who are actually widows [that is, actually bereaved, without help].” A widow put on the list for material help by the congregation was one “who has become not less than sixty years old,” having a good record of morality, of faithful and loving devotion to Jehovah, and of hospitality and love toward others. On the other hand, the apostle recommends that young widows remarry, bear children, and manage a household, thereby avoiding a snare because of sexual impulses and the danger of being “unoccupied, . . . gossipers and meddlers in other people’s affairs.”

Jesus’ half brother James highlighted the importance of looking after orphans and widows in their tribulation when, as a requisite for worship that is clean and undefiled from God’s standpoint, he set it parallel with keeping oneself without spot from the world.​—Jas 1:27.

Among the widows of notable faith are Tamar (Ge 38:6, 7), Naomi and Ruth (Ru 1:3-5), Abigail (1Sa 25:37, 38, 42), the widow of Zarephath (1Ki 17:8-24), and Anna the prophetess (Lu 2:36, 37; compare Luke’s description of Anna with the qualifications of a worthy widow as outlined by Paul at 1Ti 5:3-16). Also, an unnamed widow was highly commended by Jesus because she contributed all of what she had to the temple.​—Mr 12:41-44.

Figurative Use. Cities, when cast off and desolated, are symbolically likened to widows. (La 1:1; compare Jer 51:5.) Babylon the Great, “the great city that has a kingdom over the kings of the earth,” boasts, like her type, ancient Babylon, that she will never become a widow. Nevertheless, just as ancient Babylon did indeed become a “widow,” so will modern Babylon the Great.​—Isa 47:8, 9; Re 17:18; 18:7, 8.

A married woman. In Hebrew, ʼish·shahʹ means “woman” (literally, a female man) or “wife”; the wife was referred to as one “owned by a husband.” (Isa 62:4, ftn) In Greek, gy·neʹ can mean “wife,” or it can mean “woman,” whether married or not. Jehovah God provided the first man Adam with a wife by taking a rib from him and building it into the woman. She thereby became bone of his bones and flesh of his flesh. She was the counterpart of Adam and was created as a helper for him. (Ge 2:18, 20-23) God dealt directly with Adam, and in turn, Adam passed on God’s commandments to his wife. By reason of his prior creation and his being created in God’s image, he had the priority as head and was the spokesman for God to her. His headship was to be exercised in love, and the woman as a helper was to cooperate in the procreative mandate issued to the pair.​—Ge 1:28; see WOMAN.

After the sin, first of Eve, who instead of being a helper to her husband proved to be a temptress, and then of her husband Adam, who followed her in transgression, God pronounced judgment on the woman, saying: “I shall greatly increase the pain of your pregnancy; in birth pangs you will bring forth children, and your craving will be for your husband, and he will dominate you.” (Ge 3:16) Since that time, among many peoples of the earth the woman has indeed been dominated, often in a very harsh way, by her husband, and instead of being a companion and helper, she has in many cases been treated more like a servant.

Among the Ancient Hebrews. Among the ancient Hebrews the man was the head of the house and was his wife’s owner (Hebrew, baʹʽal), and the woman was the one owned (beʽu·lahʹ). Among servants of God the wife occupied a dignified and honorable place. Godly women of spirit and ability, while subject to their husbandly head, had much latitude and freedom of action and were happy in their place; they were blessed in being used by Jehovah God to perform special services for him. Examples among the many faithful wives of the Bible are Sarah, Rebekah, Deborah, Ruth, Esther, and Mary the mother of Jesus.

Wife protected under the Law. While the husband occupied the superior position in the marriage arrangement, God’s requirements were that he was to provide for and care for the family in a material and spiritual way. Also, any wrongdoings of the family reflected on him; consequently he had a heavy responsibility. And while he had greater privileges than the wife, God’s law protected the wife and gave her certain unique privileges, so that she was able to live a happy, productive life.

A few examples of the Law’s provisions involving the wife were: Either husband or wife could be put to death for adultery. If the husband was suspicious of secret infidelity on the part of his wife, he could bring her to the priest, for Jehovah God to judge the matter, and if the woman was guilty, her reproductive organs would atrophy; on the other hand, if she was not guilty, the husband was required to make her pregnant, thereby publicly acknowledging her innocence. (Nu 5:12-31) A husband could divorce his wife if he found something indecent on her part. This would likely include such things as showing him gross disrespect or bringing reproach upon the household or that of his father. But the wife was protected by the requirement that he must write out for her a certificate of divorce. She was then free to marry another man. (De 24:1, 2) If the wife made a vow that her husband thought unwise or detrimental to the family’s welfare, he could nullify it. (Nu 30:10-15) This, however, was a safeguard for the wife, keeping her from any hasty action that might bring her into difficulty.

Polygamy was allowed under the Mosaic Law but was regulated so that the wife was protected. The husband could not transfer the right of the firstborn from the son of a less-loved wife to the son of his favorite wife. (De 21:15-17) If an Israelite daughter was sold by her father as a servant and the master took her as a concubine, her owner could allow her to be redeemed if she did not please him, but he could not sell her to a foreign people. (Ex 21:7, 8) If either he or his son had taken her as a concubine and then married another wife, she was to be provided with food, clothing, and shelter, as well as the marriage due.​—Ex 21:9-11.

If a husband maliciously charged his wife with having falsely claimed to be a virgin at the time of marriage and his charge was proved false, he was punished and had to pay her father twice the marriage rate for virgins and could never divorce her all his days. (De 22:13-19) If a man seduced an unengaged virgin, he was required to pay the marriage price to her father and, if the father permitted, to marry her, after which he could never divorce her all his days.​—De 22:28, 29; Ex 22:16, 17.

While the position of the wife in Hebrew society was somewhat different from a wife’s status in Western society today, the faithful Hebrew wife enjoyed her position and her work. She helped her husband, raised the family, managed the household, and found many things of satisfaction and delight, being able to express her womanly nature and talents to the full.

Description of a Good Wife. The happy state and activities of the faithful wife are described at Proverbs 31. She is said to be of more value to her husband than corals. He is able to put trust in her. She is industrious​—weaving, making clothing for her family, attending to the buying of household needs, working in the vineyard, managing a household with the servants, aiding others who need help, clothing her family attractively, even bringing in some income by her handiwork, equipping her family against future emergencies, expressing herself in wisdom and loving-kindness, and, through fear of Jehovah and good works, receiving praise from her husband and from her sons, thereby honoring her husband and her family in the land. Truly he who has found a good wife has found a good thing and gets goodwill from Jehovah.​—Pr 18:22.

In the Christian Congregation. The standard in the Christian congregation is that a husband should have only one living wife. (1Co 7:2; 1Ti 3:2) Wives are commanded to be in subjection to their husbands, whether these husbands are Christian believers or not. (Eph 5:22-24) Wives are not to withhold the marital due, for as with the husband, so with the wife, she does not “exercise authority over her own body.” (1Co 7:3, 4) Wives are instructed to let their primary adornment be that of the secret person of the heart, producing the fruitage of the spirit, that perhaps through their conduct alone the unbelieving husband may be won over to Christianity.​—1Pe 3:1-6.

Figurative Use. In a figurative sense Jehovah spoke of Israel as his wife by reason of his covenant with the nation. (Isa 54:6) The apostle Paul speaks of Jehovah as the Father of spirit-begotten Christians, and he speaks of “the Jerusalem above” as their mother, as though Jehovah were married to her for the purpose of bringing forth spirit-begotten Christians. (Ga 4:6, 7, 26) The Christian congregation is spoken of as the bride, or wife, of Jesus Christ.​—Eph 5:23, 25; Re 19:7; 21:2, 9.

See ASS.

See BULL.

The Hebrew term for wilderness (midh·barʹ) in general refers to a sparsely settled, uncultivated land. (Jer 2:2) It might include pasture grounds (Ps 65:12; Jer 23:10; Ex 3:1), cisterns (2Ch 26:10), houses, and even some cities (1Ki 2:34; Jos 15:61, 62; Isa 42:11). While often designating simply steppelands with brush and grass, midh·barʹ may also apply to waterless regions that could be termed true deserts. Other Hebrew terms used to designate such areas more specifically are often found in poetic parallel with midh·barʹ.​—Ps 78:40; Jer 50:12.

The word yeshi·mohnʹ denotes a natural waste place or desert. (Ps 68:7; Isa 43:19, 20) It is apparently a stronger term than midh·barʹ, indicating greater barrenness, as in the expression the “empty, howling desert [yeshi·monʹ].” (De 32:10) Used with the definite article, it refers to specific wilderness areas.​—Nu 21:20; 1Sa 23:19, 24; see JESHIMON.

ʽAra·vahʹ describes arid and sterile tracts, like those across the Jordan from Jericho. (Nu 22:1) Such desert plains could be the result of forest destruction and lack of proper conservation and cultivation, or they could be the result of prolonged drought, these conditions converting productive terrain into unfruitful wastelands. (Isa 33:9; Jer 51:43) With the definite article, the word also denotes a specific part of the Promised Land. (See ARABAH; ARABAH, TORRENT VALLEY OF.) Another term, tsi·yahʹ, describes any “waterless region” and is used in parallel with the previously mentioned words.​—Ps 107:35; Isa 35:1.

Even those regions meriting the description “desert” in the Bible were rarely of the sandy type, as certain portions of the Sahara Desert are with their rolling sand dunes. Usually they were relatively treeless, arid or semiarid flatlands, rocky plateaus, or desolate waterless valleys hemmed in by high mountains and barren peaks.​—Job 30:3-7; Jer 17:6; Eze 19:13.

The nation of Israel, making their Exodus from Egypt, were guided by God into the wilderness along the Red Sea, causing Pharaoh to assume that they had lost their bearings. (Ex 13:18-20; 14:1-3) On the other side of the Red Sea, and for the remainder of 40 years, Israel passed from one wilderness section to another, including the wilderness regions of Shur, Sin, Sinai, Paran, and Zin (Ex 15:22; 16:1; 19:1; Nu 10:12; 20:1), at times encamping at oases, such as at Elim, with its 12 springs and 70 palm trees (Ex 15:27), and at Kadesh.​—Nu 13:26; De 2:14; MAP, Vol. 1, p. 541.

The Promised Land itself, forming part of the so-called Fertile Crescent, lay like a finger of well-cultivated land bounded on one side by the Mediterranean Sea and on two sides by vast wilderness regions​—the Syro-Arabian Desert on the E and the Sinai Peninsula on the S. (Ex 23:31) Within the land’s boundaries were smaller wilderness sections, for example, that by Dothan, just S of the Valley of Jezreel, where Joseph was cast into the waterpit by his brothers (Ge 37:17, 22); the Wilderness of Judah, with certain sections around the cities of Ziph, Maon, and En-gedi, wildernesses in which David sought refuge from Saul (Jg 1:16; 1Sa 23:14, 24; 24:1); and wilderness regions on the E side of the Jordan, merging with the Syro-Arabian Desert (Nu 21:13; De 1:1; 4:43). Much of the rift valley through which the Jordan River runs (today called the Ghor) is basically desert land.

While many of the wilderness regions mentioned in the Bible are today completely barren wastelands, there is evidence that some were not always so. Denis Baly, in The Geography of the Bible (1957, p. 91), says that “the nature of the vegetation pattern must have undergone very great changes since Biblical times.” The original well-balanced conditions on which soil, climate, and vegetation formed a stable environment, with little soil erosion, were thrown out of balance by destruction of forests that were never replanted. With shade gone, and roots no longer holding the soil, the burning summer heat and slashing winter rains destroyed it. The earth was baked by the sun, swept by the wind, flaked by extreme temperature variations, and washed away by the rains. Archaeological investigation shows that many areas now completely barren once “included pasture lands, plains, and oases where springs and occasional rains plus careful water conservation made possible the building of villages and the maintaining of important caravan routes.” (The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 828) Even today many of such wilderness areas are covered with a heavy green turf in the spring, though by the end of summer they have been burned bare by heat and drought.

Conditions in Wilderness of Wandering. Although the conditions in some of the wilderness regions were quite possibly more favorable in the ancient past than at the present time, Moses could speak of Israel’s trek through Sinai as “through the great and fear-inspiring wilderness, with poisonous serpents and scorpions and with thirsty ground that has no water.” (De 1:19; 8:15; PICTURES, Vol. 1, p. 542) It was a “land of fevers” (Ho 13:5), a land of pit and deep shadow. (Jer 2:6) The more barren wilderness regions either were uninhabited (Job 38:26) or were places where tent dwellers resided and nomads roamed. (1Ch 5:9, 10; Jer 3:2) Here were brambles and thornbushes (Ge 21:14, 15; Ex 3:1, 2; Jg 8:7), thorny lotus trees, and thickets of prickly acacia trees.​—Ex 25:10; Job 40:21, 22.

Weary travelers traversing the beaten paths (Jer 12:12) might seek shade under the thin, rodlike branches of a broom tree (1Ki 19:4, 5), or under a gloomy-looking dwarf juniper (Jer 48:6), or by the gnarled trunk of a tamarisk with its featherlike foliage of tiny evergreen leaves (Ge 21:33). High above, eagles and other birds of prey wheeled around in cloudless skies (De 32:10, 11), while horned vipers and arrow snakes slithered over rocks and under bushes, sand lizards scurried about, and big monitor lizards lumbered along on short, powerful legs. (Le 11:30; Ps 140:3; Isa 34:15) Mountain goats appeared on rocky crags (1Sa 24:2); wild asses, zebras, camels, and ostriches foraged on the sparse vegetation; and even pelicans and porcupines might be seen. (Job 24:5; 39:5, 6; Jer 2:24; La 4:3; Zep 2:13, 14) At night, the howling of jackals and wolves was joined by the hooting of owls or the whirring cry of the nightjar, adding to the feeling of wildness and isolation. (Isa 34:11-15; Jer 5:6) Those who slept in a wilderness region generally did so with little sense of security.​—Compare Eze 34:25.

With the exception of scattered oases, the Sinai Peninsula is largely a region of sand, hard gravel, and rock. Meager vegetation grows in the wadis. Anciently there may have been a greater amount of rainfall and also more vegetation. However, without God’s care, the Israelites, possibly numbering three million, could never have survived in this barren region. As Moses told them on the Plains of Moab: “Watch out for yourself that you may not forget Jehovah your God . . . who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slaves; who caused you to walk through the great and fear-inspiring wilderness, with poisonous serpents and scorpions and with thirsty ground that has no water; who brought forth water for you out of the flinty rock; who fed you with manna in the wilderness, which your fathers had not known, in order to humble you and in order to put you to the test so as to do you good in your afterdays.”​—De 8:11-16.

Wilderness in the Greek Scriptures. Here the Greek term eʹre·mos corresponds generally to the Hebrew midh·barʹ. (Lu 15:4) It describes the wilderness setting of John the Baptizer’s preaching (Mt 3:1) and the lonely places into which a certain demonized man was driven. (Lu 8:27-29) Jesus, after being baptized, fasted and was tempted by Satan in a wilderness region. (Mt 4:1; compare Le 16:20-22.) During his ministry, at times Jesus retired to the wilderness to pray. (Lu 5:16) He assured his disciples, however, that his presence with kingly power would not be limited to some lonely wilderness but would be made manifest everywhere. (Mt 24:26) The wilderness still had its own special dangers when the apostle Paul made his missionary journeys.​—2Co 11:26; compare Ac 21:38.

Figurative Uses. The wilderness regions to the E and SE of Palestine were also the source of fierce hot winds now called siroccos, from the Arabic word (sharquiyyeh) for “east wind.” These winds blowing in from the desert have a tremendous parching effect, absorbing all the moisture in the air and often carrying with them fine, yellowish dust. (Jer 4:11) The siroccos occur principally in the spring and fall, and those in the spring can be very destructive to vegetation and crops. (Eze 17:10) Speaking of Ephraim, as the tribe representing the apostate northern kingdom of Israel, Jehovah foretold that though Ephraim “should show fruitfulness, an east wind . . . will come. From a wilderness it is coming up, and it will dry up his well and drain his spring. That one will pillage the treasure of all desirable articles.” This devastating east wind out of the wilderness symbolized the attack on Israel by Assyria out of the E, plundering and carrying the Israelites captive.​—Ho 13:12-16.

Wilderness regions themselves, characteristically thinly inhabited and manifesting a lack of human attention and cultivation, were often used to depict the destructive results of enemy invasion. Because of Judah’s unfaithfulness, the armies of Babylon would make her ‘holy cities a wilderness, Zion a sheer wilderness, Jerusalem a desolate waste’ (Isa 64:10), her orchards and cultivated fields all taking on a wilderness appearance. (Jer 4:26; 9:10-12) Her princely rulers, who had been like majestic cedars of a forest, would be felled. (Jer 22:6, 7; compare Eze 17:1-4, 12, 13.) On the other hand, in retribution for their hatred and opposition to God’s kingdom arrangement, the enemy nations, such as Babylon, Egypt, Edom, and others, were to undergo a similar experience. Particularly Babylon was singled out as due to become a “waterless wilderness and a desert plain,” uninhabited, forgotten in her desolation.​—Jer 50:12-16; Joe 3:19; Zep 2:9, 10.

By contrast, the restoration of Judah, after the 70-year exile, would be like converting a wilderness region into an Edenic garden, with fruitful orchards and productive fields watered by streams and rivers, and with reedy plants, leafy trees, and blossoming flowers, all making the land appear to rejoice.​—Isa 35:1, 2; 51:3.

Individuals. Similar references to individuals show that such prophecies apply primarily in a spiritual, rather than a literal, way. Thus, the one trusting in men rather than in Jehovah is likened to a solitary tree in a desert plain, with no hope of seeing good. But the one trusting in Jehovah is like “a tree planted by the waters,” fruitful, luxuriant, secure. (Jer 17:5-8) These contrasts also provide the basis for a mental picture of what constituted a wilderness region.

“Wilderness of the sea.” The “wilderness [midh·barʹ] of the sea” at Isaiah 21:1 has been understood by some commentators to be an expression referring to the southern part of ancient Babylonia. When the Euphrates and Tigris rivers annually overflowed their banks, this region became as a ‘wilderness sea.’

In Revelation. In the book of Revelation, the wilderness is used in a dual sense: to represent solitude and refuge from attackers in the case of the symbolic woman who gives birth to the royal male child (Re 12:6, 14), and to represent the home of wild beasts in the case of the symbolic woman “Babylon the Great,” who rides the seven-headed wild beast.​—Re 17:3-6, 12-14.

See JUDAH, WILDERNESS OF.

See GOAT.

[Heb., tsaph·tsa·phahʹ].

The name of this tree in Hebrew corresponds to the Arabic safsaf, which is applied to the willow tree. There are two types of willow growing in Israel; one is designated by the botanical term Salix alba, but the most common is the Salix acmophylla.

The Hebrew word occurs only once, at Ezekiel 17:5, where the symbolic “seed of the land,” evidently referring to Zedekiah, is figuratively planted by the king of Babylon as “a willow by vast waters.” The willow trees are found along the banks of rivers and shallow streams and in other moist places, where they sprout quickly from cuttings or slips and grow rapidly. They never attain the height of poplar trees but grow as shrubs or small trees and often form thickets along the watercourses. Their beauty is in their slender long leaves, hanging gracefully from the slender twigs and branches.

The Hebrew word ruʹach, often rendered “spirit,” can also denote air in motion, wind. (Ec 1:6) Other Hebrew terms and expressions may be translated “storm wind” (Ho 8:7), “tempest,” “whirling tempest” (Jer 25:32; 23:19), “tempestuous wind,” and “windstorm” (Ps 148:8; 2Ki 2:11). Although at John 3:8 pneuʹma (generally translated “spirit”) means “wind,” the Greek term aʹne·mos is the more frequently used designation for wind. (Mt 7:25, 27; 11:7; Joh 6:18) “The breezy part [Heb., ruʹach] of the day” apparently referred to the evening hours just before sunset, when refreshing cool breezes commonly arise in the region where the garden of Eden is thought to have been.​—Ge 3:8; see SPIRIT.

Jehovah God is the Creator of the wind. (Am 4:13) Though not literally in it (1Ki 19:11; compare Job 38:1; 40:6; Ps 104:3), God can control the wind and use it to serve his purposes, as when he employed it as an agent to cause the waters of the Flood to subside. (Ge 8:1; Ex 14:21; Nu 11:31; Ps 78:26; 107:25, 29; 135:7; 147:18; Jer 10:13; Jon 1:4) His Son, when on earth, likewise displayed power to control the winds, causing them to abate. (Mt 8:23-27; 14:24-32; Mr 4:36-41; 6:48, 51; Lu 8:22-25) It was apparently only by Jehovah’s allowance that Satan was able to produce or control “a great wind” that brought death to Job’s children.​—Job 1:11, 12, 18, 19.

Usually winds were named for the direction from which they came, the “east wind” blowing westward from the E. (Ex 10:13, 19; Ps 78:26; Ca 4:16) All four directions, N, S, E, and W, are embraced by references to “the four winds” of heaven or earth. (Jer 49:36; Eze 37:9; Da 8:8; Mt 24:31) At Revelation 7:1, “four angels” are depicted as “standing upon the four corners of the earth, holding tight the four winds of the earth.” By standing at the “corners,” the “angels” would let loose the winds obliquely from diagonal directions, sparing no quarter of the earth from the disastrous blowing of the winds.

North winds were cool and brought heavy rains. (Job 37:9; Pr 25:23) The S wind blew over hot desert areas into Palestine and, therefore, could produce a heat wave (Lu 12:55); storm winds might also originate in the S. (Isa 21:1; Zec 9:14) In the dry season, the E wind, in moving toward Egypt and Palestine, crossed vast desert areas and so was hot and dry, scorching or drying up vegetation. (Ge 41:6, 23, 27; Eze 17:7-10; compare Ho 13:15; Jon 4:8.) During the rainy season, W winds carried moisture into Palestine from the Mediterranean Sea and brought rain to the land. (1Ki 18:42-45) When observers there saw a cloud rising in the W, they could expect a storm. (Lu 12:54) In the dry summer, daily breezes from the Mediterranean made the weather more tolerable.​—See CLOUD; EUROAQUILO.

Figurative Use. Winds can spring up quickly and just as quickly die down, thus appropriately representing the transitoriness of man’s life. (Job 7:7) Having no solid substance, wind can denote vain knowledge and labor, empty words and hopes (Job 15:1, 2; 16:3; Ec 5:16; Ho 12:1), as well as nothingness. (Isa 26:18; 41:29; Jer 5:13) As vain works end up in futility, pursuing them is like “striving after wind.” (Ec 1:14; 2:11) And the man who brings ostracism upon his house takes “possession of wind.” He gains nothing that is worth while or has real substance.​—Pr 11:29.

Winds scatter and toss objects about, and so being ‘scattered to every wind’ or ‘divided toward the four winds’ signifies complete dispersion or division. (Jer 49:36; Eze 5:10; 12:14; 17:21; Da 11:4) Like a vessel that is tossed about by the winds, with no set course, persons lacking Christian maturity are subject to being “carried hither and thither by every wind of teaching by means of the trickery of men, by means of cunning in contriving error.”​—Eph 4:13, 14.

See HOUSE.

There are a number of original-language terms that usually designate some kind of wine (Heb., ti·rohshʹ [Ge 27:28, 37; Ho 2:8, 9, 22]; Heb., cheʹmer [De 32:14; Isa 27:2] and its corresponding Aramaic term chamarʹ [Da 5:1, 2, 4, 23]; as well as Gr., gleuʹkos [Ac 2:13]). But the Hebrew word yaʹyin is found most frequently in the Scriptures. It first appears in Genesis 9:20-24, where the reference is to Noah’s planting a vineyard after the Flood and then becoming intoxicated on the wine therefrom. The Greek word oiʹnos (basically corresponding to the Hebrew term yaʹyin) first occurs in Jesus’ comments on the inadvisability of using old wineskins for new, partially fermented wine, as the pressure developed through fermentation would burst the old wineskins.​—Mt 9:17; Mr 2:22; Lu 5:37, 38.

Various strong alcoholic liquors, apparently derived from pomegranates, dates, figs, and the like, were usually designated by the Hebrew term she·kharʹ. (Nu 28:7; De 14:26; Ps 69:12) The Hebrew word ʽa·sisʹ, at The Song of Solomon 8:2, refers to “the fresh juice” of pomegranates, but in other passages the context points to wine. (Isa 49:26; Joe 1:5) Beer may have been designated by the Hebrew word soʹveʼ.​—Isa 1:22; Na 1:10.

Wine Making. In Palestine the grapes were gathered during August and September, depending on the type of grapes and the climate of the region. The vintage season was practically over by the time “the festival of booths” was celebrated in the early part of autumn. (De 16:13) After being picked, the grapes were placed in limestone vats, or troughs, where men usually crushed them barefoot, singing songs as they trod the winepress. (Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; 48:33) With such comparatively gentle crushing methods, the stems and seeds were not broken down, so that little of the tannic acid in the skins was expressed; this, in turn, made for a high-quality wine, one that was smooth and soft on the palate. (Ca 7:9) Sometimes heavy stones were used instead of feet.​—See PRESS.

The first “must,” or fresh juice, that flows from the broken skins of the grapes, if kept separate from the greater volume of juice extracted under pressure, makes the richest and best wines. Fermentation begins within six hours after the crushing, while the juice is still in the vats, and slowly progresses for a period of several months. The alcohol content of the natural wines varies from 8 to 16 percent by volume, but this can be increased by adding alcoholic spirits later on. If grapes are low in sugar content, and fermentation continues too long, or if the wine is not properly protected from oxidizing, it turns to acetic acid, or vinegar.​—Ru 2:14.

During the aging period the wine was kept in jars or skin bottles. (Jer 13:12) These containers were probably vented in such a way as to allow the carbon dioxide gas (a by-product in the conversion of the sugars to alcohol through fermentation) to escape without admitting oxygen from the air to contact and react with the wine. (Job 32:19) As the wines were left undisturbed they gradually clarified, the dregs falling to the bottom, with an improvement in the bouquet and flavor. (Lu 5:39) Thereafter wines were usually transferred to other vessels.​—Isa 25:6; Jer 48:11; see DREGS.

Uses. From time immemorial wine has been used as a beverage at mealtimes. (Ge 27:25; Ec 9:7) Wine, bread, and other foods are often associated together. (1Sa 16:20; Ca 5:1; Isa 22:13; 55:1) Melchizedek set “bread and wine” before Abraham. (Ge 14:18-20) Jesus drank wine with his meals when it was available. (Mt 11:19; Lu 7:34) Wine was very much a part of banquets (Es 1:7; 5:6; 7:2, 7, 8), wedding feasts (Joh 2:2, 3, 9, 10; 4:46), and other festive occasions (1Ch 12:39, 40; Job 1:13, 18). The royal commissaries were stocked with wines (1Ch 27:27; 2Ch 11:11); it was the customary beverage of kings and governors. (Ne 2:1; 5:15, 18; Da 1:5, 8, 16) Travelers often included it in their provisions for a journey.​—Jos 9:4, 13; Jg 19:19.

Its wide usage made wine a commodity of trade (Ne 13:15), “the wine of Helbon” (preferred by the kings of Persia) and “the wine of Lebanon” being particularly famous. (Eze 27:18; Ho 14:7) Wine was a medium of payment for workers employed in providing wood used in building the temple. (2Ch 2:8-10, 15) It was considered an excellent gift for one’s superiors (1Sa 25:18; 2Sa 16:1, 2) and was included in the tithing contribution given for the support of the priests and Levites. (De 18:3, 4; 2Ch 31:4, 5; Ne 10:37, 39; 13:5, 12) And wine was among the choice things offered up to Jehovah in connection with sacrificial worship of him.​—Ex 29:38, 40; Le 23:13; Nu 15:5, 7, 10; 28:14; 1Sa 1:24; 10:3; Ho 9:4.

Wine was not at first a part of the Passover meal but was added later, perhaps after the return from Babylonian exile. It was therefore on the table when Jesus celebrated the Passover the last time with his apostles and was conveniently used by him in instituting the Memorial of his death. The red “blood of grapes” was a fitting representation of Jesus’ own sacrificial blood. On that occasion Jesus spoke of such wine as “this product of the vine,” and since it was perhaps seven months after the grape harvest, there can be no question but that it was fermented juice of the vine.​—Ge 49:11; Mt 26:18, 27-29.

As indicated by Jesus and reported by the physician Luke, wine had certain medicinal value as an antiseptic and mild disinfectant. (Lu 10:34) The Bible also recommends it as a curative remedy in cases of certain intestinal disturbances. Paul counseled Timothy: “Do not drink water any longer, but use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent cases of sickness.” (1Ti 5:23) This was sound medical advice. As Dr. Salvatore P. Lucia, professor of medicine, University of California School of Medicine, writes: “Wine is the most ancient dietary beverage and the most important medicinal agent in continuous use throughout the history of mankind. . . . Actually, few other substances available to man have been as widely recommended for their curative powers as have wines.”​—Wine as Food and Medicine, 1954, p. 5; see DISEASES AND TREATMENT.

Contrary to the erroneous opinions of some, alcoholic liquors are not mental stimulants but are in reality sedatives and depressants of the central nervous system. “Give intoxicating liquor, you people, to the one about to perish and wine to those who are bitter of soul,” not as a mental stimulant to make such ones more conscious of their misery, but, rather, as the proverb says, that they may ‘forget their troubles.’ (Pr 31:6, 7) There was an ancient custom among the Romans of giving criminals drugged wine to blunt the pain of execution. Perhaps this is why Roman soldiers offered Jesus drugged wine when impaling him.​—Mr 15:23.

It is apparent that wine is one of the gifts included among Jehovah’s blessings to mankind. Wine “makes the heart of mortal man rejoice”; it puts the heart in “a merry mood.” (Ps 104:15; Es 1:10; 2Sa 13:28; Ec 2:3; 10:19; Zec 10:7) Hence, Daniel when in mourning drank no wine. (Da 10:2, 3) An abundant supply of wine, symbolized by the “vine” in the oft-repeated expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree,’ denotes prosperity and security under Jehovah’s righteous rule. (1Ki 4:25; 2Ki 18:31; Isa 36:16; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10) Wine is also included in the restoration blessings promised by Jehovah.​—Joe 3:18; Am 9:13, 14; Zec 9:17.

Temperate Use. Moderation in all things is a Bible principle. Even honey is no exception​—in moderation it is good; used to excess, it is injurious. (Pr 25:27) So also with Jehovah’s gifts of wine and strong drink, they must be used as he directs. Overindulgence and disregard for Bible principles in the use of these provisions brings Jehovah’s disapproval and leads to debauchery and death. The Bible is very emphatic on this matter, both in its precepts and its examples.​—Pr 23:29-31; see DRUNKENNESS.

There may be cases where drinking alcohol, even in small quantities, would be ill-advised and detrimental to one’s health. On other occasions one may refrain from drinking intoxicating liquor to avoid stumbling others and out of love and consideration for others.​—Ro 14:21.

Jehovah forbade the priests and Levites, when on duty at the tabernacle or temple, to drink alcohol in any form, under penalty of death. (Le 10:8, 9; Eze 44:21) Off duty they were free to drink in moderation. (1Ch 9:29) So too it was a divine regulation that a Nazirite was not to drink any alcoholic beverage while under this special vow. (Nu 6:2-4, 13-20; Am 2:12) Because Samson was to be a Nazirite from birth, his mother was not allowed to touch wine or liquor during her pregnancy. (Jg 13:4, 5, 7, 14) When officiating, “it is not for kings to drink wine or for high officials to say: ‘Where is intoxicating liquor?’” lest they “forget what is decreed and pervert the cause of any of the sons of affliction.” (Pr 31:4, 5) Overseers in the Christian congregation should not be ‘drunken brawlers,’ and ministerial servants “should likewise be serious, . . . not giving themselves to a lot of wine.”​—1Ti 3:3, 8.

Pictorial. Ancient Babylon, when acting as Jehovah’s executioner, made all the nations ‘drunk on wine,’ symbolic of Jehovah’s wrath against the nations. (Jer 51:7) Also, in other texts, opponents of Jehovah are depicted as being forced to drink of God’s righteous indignation, likened to “wine [that] is foaming,” “the wine of rage,” “the wine of the anger of God.” (Ps 75:8; Jer 25:15; Re 14:10; 16:19) A bitter potion that has no relationship to divine anger is “the wine of her [spiritual] fornication” that “Babylon the Great” makes all the nations drink.​—Re 14:8; 17:2; 18:3, 13.

See PRESS.

The Greek word a·skosʹ designates a bag or bottle made of a whole animal skin. Jesus Christ said: “Neither do people put new wine into old wineskins [skin bags, Int]; but if they do, then the wineskins burst and the wine spills out and the wineskins are ruined. But people put new wine into new wineskins, and both things are preserved.” (Mt 9:17; Mr 2:22; Lu 5:37, 38) As new wine ferments, it generates carbon dioxide gas that exerts pressure on the skin bottles. New skins expand; old, inflexible ones burst under the pressure.

This illustration was part of Jesus’ answer as to why his disciples did not conform to all the old customs and practices of the Pharisees. Jesus evidently implied that the truth of Christianity was too powerful and energetic to be retained by the old system of Judaism, which lacked vitality and elasticity and which was fast passing away. (Mt 9:14-16) For a general discussion of skin bottles and their uses, see BOTTLE.

The final step in separating cereal grains such as barley and wheat from their chaff and straw. After threshing has broken the grain kernels loose from the chaff, and the straw has been cut into small pieces, the whole mixture is winnowed by tossing it into the air against the wind with a winnowing shovel or fork. (Isa 30:24) The breeze, especially strong in the evening, blows the chaff away, carries the straw off to the side, and lets the heavy kernels fall back onto the threshing floor. (Ru 3:2; PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 953) After the grain is passed through a sieve to remove pebbles and the like, it is ready for grinding or storage.​—Am 9:9; Lu 22:31.

Figurative Use. Often ‘winnowing’ is used in a figurative sense. For example, Jehovah purposed to send “winnowers” against Babylon and her inhabitants so that these might winnow her. (Jer 51:1, 2) The “winnowers” proved to be the Medes and the Persians under Cyrus. In effect, they tossed Babylon and her inhabitants into the air, that the wind might catch them and blow them away like chaff to be burned. (Mt 3:12; Lu 3:17) Similarly, as foretold, Jehovah had earlier used Babylon to winnow his people, scattering them in defeat. (Jer 15:7) And, through the prophet Isaiah, Jehovah gave the assurance to his people that the time would come when they would reduce their enemies to chaff and winnow them. (Isa 41:14-16) At Jeremiah 4:11 “a searing wind” to come against Jerusalem is said to be “not for winnowing, nor for cleansing.” A tempestuous, searing wind would not be suitable for winnowing, so this points to its destructive nature.

The Biblical sense of wisdom lays emphasis on sound judgment, based on knowledge and understanding; the ability to use knowledge and understanding successfully to solve problems, avoid or avert dangers, attain certain goals, or counsel others in doing so. It is the opposite of foolishness, stupidity, and madness, with which it is often contrasted.​—De 32:6; Pr 11:29; Ec 6:8.

The basic terms signifying wisdom are the Hebrew chokh·mahʹ (verb, cha·khamʹ) and the Greek so·phiʹa, with their related forms. Also, there are the Hebrew tu·shi·yahʹ, which may be rendered “effectual working” or “practical wisdom,” and the Greek phroʹni·mos and phroʹne·sis (from phren, the “mind”), relating to “sensibleness,” “discretion,” or “practical wisdom.”

Wisdom implies a breadth of knowledge and a depth of understanding, these giving the soundness and clarity of judgment characteristic of wisdom. The wise man ‘treasures up knowledge,’ has a fund of it to draw upon. (Pr 10:14) While “wisdom is the prime thing,” the counsel is that “with all that you acquire, acquire understanding.” (Pr 4:5-7) Understanding (a broad term that frequently embraces discernment) adds strength to wisdom, contributing greatly to discretion and foresight, also notable characteristics of wisdom. Discretion implies prudence and may be expressed in caution, self-control, moderation, or restraint. The “discreet [form of phroʹni·mos] man” builds his house on a rock-mass, foreseeing the possibility of storm; the foolish man builds his on sand and suffers disaster.​—Mt 7:24-27.

Understanding fortifies wisdom in other ways. For example, a person may obey a certain command of God because he recognizes the rightness of such obedience, and this is wisdom on his part. But if he gets real understanding of the reason for that command, the good purpose it serves, and the benefits accruing from it, his heart determination to continue in that wise course is greatly strengthened. (Pr 14:33) Proverbs 21:11 says that “by one’s giving insight to a wise person he gets knowledge.” The wise person is happy to get any information that will grant him a clearer view into the underlying circumstances, conditions, and causes of problems. Thereby he “gets knowledge” as to what to do regarding the matter and knows what conclusions to draw, what is needed to solve the existing problem.​—Compare Pr 9:9; Ec 7:25; 8:1; Eze 28:3; see INSIGHT.

Divine Wisdom. Wisdom in the absolute sense is found in Jehovah God, who is “wise alone” in this sense. (Ro 16:27; Re 7:12) Knowledge is acquaintance with fact, and since Jehovah is the Creator, who is “from time indefinite to time indefinite” (Ps 90:1, 2), he knows all there is to know about the universe, its composition and contents, its history till now. The physical laws, cycles, and standards upon which men rely in their research and invention, and without which they would be helpless and have nothing stable upon which to build, are all of His making. (Job 38:34-38; Ps 104:24; Pr 3:19; Jer 10:12, 13) Logically, his moral standards are even more vital for stability, sound judgment, and successful human living. (De 32:4-6; see JEHOVAH [A God of moral standards].) There is nothing beyond his understanding. (Isa 40:13, 14) Though he may allow things that are contrary to his righteous standards to develop and even temporarily prosper, the future ultimately rests with him and will conform precisely to his will, and the things spoken by him “will have certain success.”​—Isa 55:8-11; 46:9-11.

For all these reasons it is evident that “the fear of Jehovah is the start of wisdom.” (Pr 9:10) “Who should not fear you, O King of the nations, for to you it is fitting; because among all the wise ones of the nations and among all their kingships there is in no way anyone like you.” (Jer 10:7) “He is wise in heart and strong in power. Who can show stubbornness to him and come off uninjured?” (Job 9:4; Pr 14:16) In his mightiness he can intervene at will in human affairs, maneuvering rulers or eliminating them, making his prophetic revelations prove infallible. (Da 2:20-23) Biblical history recounts the futile efforts of powerful kings with their astute counselors to pit their wisdom against God, and it highlights the way he has triumphantly vindicated his servants who loyally proclaimed his message.​—Isa 31:2; 44:25-28; compare Job 12:12, 13.

“God’s wisdom in a sacred secret.” The rebellion that broke out in Eden presented a challenge to God’s wisdom. His wise means for ending that rebellion​—wiping out its effects and restoring peace, harmony, and right order in his universal family—​formed “a sacred secret, the hidden wisdom, which God foreordained before the systems of things,” that is, those systems that have developed during man’s history outside Eden. (1Co 2:7) Its outlines were contained in God’s dealings with, and promises to, his faithful servants during many centuries; it was foreshadowed and symbolized in the Law covenant with Israel, including its priesthood and sacrifices, and was pointed to in innumerable prophecies and visions.

Finally, after more than 4,000 years, the wisdom of that sacred secret was revealed in Jesus Christ (Col 1:26-28), through whom God purposed “an administration at the full limit of the appointed times, namely, to gather all things together again in the Christ, the things in the heavens and the things on the earth.” (Eph 1:8-11) God’s provision of the ransom for the salvation of obedient mankind and his purpose for a Kingdom government, headed by his Son and able to end all wickedness, were revealed. Since God’s grand purpose is founded on and centered in his Son, Christ Jesus “has become to us [Christians] wisdom from God.” (1Co 1:30) “Carefully concealed in him are all the treasures of wisdom and of knowledge.” (Col 2:3) Only through him and by faith in him, God’s “Chief Agent of life,” can salvation and life be attained. (Ac 3:15; Joh 14:6; 2Ti 3:15) There is, therefore, no true wisdom that fails to consider Jesus Christ, that does not base its judgment and decisions solidly on God’s purpose as revealed in him.​—See JESUS CHRIST (His Vital Place in God’s Purpose).

Human Wisdom. Wisdom is personalized in the book of Proverbs, depicted there as a woman inviting persons to receive what she has to offer. These accounts and related texts show that wisdom is indeed a blend of many things: knowledge, understanding (which includes discernment), thinking ability, experience, diligence, shrewdness (the opposite of being gullible or naive [Pr 14:15, 18]), and right judgment. But since true wisdom begins with the fear of Jehovah God (Ps 111:10; Pr 9:10), this superior wisdom goes beyond ordinary wisdom and includes holding to high standards, manifesting righteousness and uprightness, as well as adhering to truth. (Pr 1:2, 3, 20-22; 2:2-11; 6:6; 8:1, 5-12) Not all wisdom measures up to that superior wisdom.

Human wisdom is never absolute but is relative. Wisdom on a limited scale is attainable by man through his own efforts, though he must in any case use the intelligence with which God (who even gave the animals certain instinctive wisdom [Job 35:11; Pr 30:24-28]) initially endowed man. Man learns from observation of, and working with, the materials of God’s creation. Such wisdom may vary in type and extent. The Greek word so·phiʹa is often applied to skill in a certain trade or craft, to skill and sound administrative judgment in governmental and business fields, or to extensive knowledge in some particular field of human science or research. Similarly, the Hebrew chokh·mahʹ and cha·khamʹ are used to describe the ‘skillfulness’ of sailors and ship caulkers (Eze 27:8, 9; compare Ps 107:23, 27) and of workers in stone and wood (1Ch 22:15), as well as the wisdom and skill of other craftsmen, some having great talent in a wide variety of crafts. (1Ki 7:14; 2Ch 2:7, 13, 14) Even the skilled image carver or idol maker is described by such terms. (Isa 40:20; Jer 10:3-9) The shrewd practice of the business world is a form of wisdom.​—Eze 28:4, 5.

All such wisdom may be had even though the possessors lack the spiritual wisdom the Scriptures particularly advocate. Nevertheless, God’s spirit may enhance some of these types of wisdom where they are useful in accomplishing his purpose. His spirit activated those constructing the tabernacle and its equipment as well as those weaving the priestly garments, men and women, filling them with both ‘wisdom and understanding.’ Thereby they not only understood what was desired and the means for accomplishing the work but also displayed the talent, artistry, vision, and judgment necessary to design and produce superb work.​—Ex 28:3; 31:3-6; 35:10, 25, 26, 31, 35; 36:1, 2, 4, 8.

Ancient wise men. Men noted for their wisdom and counsel were anciently prized by kings and others, even as in modern times. Egypt, Persia, Chaldea, Edom, and other nations had their bodies of “wise men.” (Ex 7:11; Es 1:13; Jer 10:7; 50:35; Ob 8) Such bodies evidently included the priests and government officials but were not restricted to such; they probably included all those ‘elders’ of the nations who were particularly known for their wisdom and who resided near the capital so as to be available for counseling. (Compare Ge 41:8; Ps 105:17-22; Isa 19:11, 12; Jer 51:57.) The monarchs of Persia had a privy council of seven wise men for quick consultation (Es 1:13-15), and lesser Persian officials might have their own staff of wise men.​—Es 6:13.

Joseph, by the help of God’s spirit, displayed such discretion and wisdom that Egypt’s ruling Pharaoh made him his prime minister. (Ge 41:38-41; Ac 7:9, 10) “Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” and was “powerful in his words and deeds” even prior to God’s making him his spokesman. But this human wisdom and ability did not qualify Moses for God’s purpose. After his first attempt (at the age of about 40) to bring relief to his Israelite brothers, Moses had to wait another 40 years before God sent him forth, a spiritually wise man, to lead Israel out of Egypt.​—Ac 7:22-36; compare De 34:9.

Solomon was already wise before entering into full kingship (1Ki 2:1, 6, 9), yet he humbly acknowledged himself “but a little boy” in prayer to Jehovah and sought his aid in judging God’s people. He was rewarded with “a wise and understanding heart” unequaled among Judah’s kings. (1Ki 3:7-12) His wisdom surpassed the famed wisdom of the Orientals and of Egypt, making Jerusalem a place to which monarchs or their representatives traveled to learn from the Judean king. (1Ki 4:29-34; 10:1-9, 23-25) Certain women of ancient times were also noted for their wisdom.​—2Sa 14:1-20; 20:16-22; compare Jg 5:28, 29.

Not always used for good. Human wisdom can be used for good or for bad. In the latter case it definitely betrays itself as wisdom that is only fleshly, not spiritual, not from God. Jehonadab was “a very wise man,” but his counsel to David’s son Amnon was based on shrewd strategy and manipulation of people by deceit, bringing dubious success and disastrous consequences. (2Sa 13:1-31) Absalom cunningly campaigned to unseat his royal father David (2Sa 14:28-33; 15:1-6) and, upon occupying Jerusalem, solicited the advice of two of his father’s counselors, Ahithophel and Hushai, concerning what further steps he might shrewdly take. Ahithophel’s wise advice was consistently of such accuracy that it appeared as if it came from God. Nevertheless, he had become a traitor to God’s anointed, and Jehovah caused his wise battle plan to be rejected in favor of faithful Hushai’s plan, which skillfully played on Absalom’s vanity and human weaknesses to bring about his downfall. (2Sa 16:15-23; 17:1-14) As Paul wrote of God: “‘He catches the wise in their own cunning.’ And again: ‘Jehovah knows that the reasonings of the wise men are futile.’”​—1Co 3:19, 20; compare Ex 1:9, 10, 20, 21; Lu 20:19-26.

Apostate priests, prophets, and wise men of the Israelite nation in time led the people to oppose God’s counsel and commands as spoken by his loyal servants. (Jer 18:18) As a result, Jehovah caused ‘the wisdom of their wise men to perish and the understanding of their discreet men to conceal itself’ (Isa 29:13, 14; Jer 8:8, 9), bringing the 500-year-old kingdom to ruin (as he later did to Jerusalem’s proud destroyer, Babylon, and to the boastful dynasty of Tyre). (Isa 47:10-15; Eze 28:2-17) They rejected spiritual wisdom in favor of fleshly wisdom.

The vanity of much of human wisdom. Investigating “the calamitous occupation” that sin and imperfection have brought mankind, King Solomon weighed the value of the wisdom that men in general develop and attain and found it to be “a striving after wind.” The disorder, perversion, and deficiencies in imperfect human society were so far beyond man’s ability to straighten out or compensate for, that those ‘getting an abundance of wisdom’ experienced increased frustration and irritation, evidently because they became acutely conscious of how little they could personally do to improve matters.​—Ec 1:13-18; 7:29; compare Ro 8:19-22, where the apostle shows God’s provision for ending mankind’s enslavement to corruption and subjection to futility.

Solomon also found that while such human wisdom produced varied pleasures and proficiency that brought material wealth, it could not bring true happiness or lasting satisfaction. The wise man dies along with the stupid, not knowing what will become of his possessions, and his human wisdom ceases in the grave. (Ec 2:3-11, 16, 18-21; 4:4; 9:10; compare Ps 49:10.) Even in life, “time and unforeseen occurrence” might bring sudden calamity, leaving the wise without even such basic needs as food. (Ec 9:11, 12) By his own wisdom man could never find out “the work of the true God,” never gain solid knowledge of how to solve man’s highest problems.​—Ec 8:16, 17; compare Job chap 28.

Solomon does not say human wisdom is utterly without value. Compared with mere foolishness, which he also investigated, the advantage of wisdom over folly is like that of ‘light over darkness.’ For the wise man’s eyes “are in his head,” serving his intellectual powers, whereas the stupid man’s eyes do not see with thoughtful discernment. (Ec 2:12-14; compare Pr 17:24; Mt 6:22, 23.) Wisdom is a protection of greater value than money. (Ec 7:11, 12) But Solomon showed that its worth is all relative, entirely dependent on its conformity to God’s wisdom and purpose. (Ec 2:24; 3:11-15, 17; 8:12, 13; 9:1) A person can be excessive in striving to manifest wisdom, pushing himself beyond the limits of his imperfect ability in a self-destructive course. (Ec 7:16; compare 12:12.) But by obediently serving his Creator and being content with food, drink, and the good that his hard work brings him, God will give him the needed “wisdom and knowledge and rejoicing.”​—Ec 2:24-26; 12:13.

Contrasted with God’s sacred secret. The world of mankind has developed a fund of wisdom over the centuries​—much of it is taught through its schools and by other means of instruction, while some is acquired by individuals through personal association with others or by experience. For the Christian there is need to know the right attitude to adopt toward such wisdom. In an illustration of an unrighteous steward who manipulated his master’s accounts with certain debtors so as to gain a secure future, Jesus described the steward as ‘acting with practical wisdom [phro·niʹmos, “discreetly”].’ This shrewd foresight, however, was the practical wisdom of “the sons of this system of things,” not that of “the sons of the light.” (Lu 16:1-8, Int) Earlier, Jesus praised his heavenly Father for hiding certain truths from the “wise and intellectual ones” while revealing them to his disciples, who were by comparison like “babes.” (Lu 10:21-24) The scribes and Pharisees, educated at rabbinic schools, were among such wise and intellectual ones.​—Compare Mt 13:54-57; Joh 7:15.

In that first century, the Greeks were especially renowned for their culture and accumulated knowledge, their schools and philosophic groups. Probably for that reason Paul paralleled ‘Greeks and Barbarians’ with ‘wise and senseless ones.’ (Ro 1:14) Paul strongly emphasized to the Christians at Corinth, Greece, that Christianity is not reliant on nor characterized by “the wisdom [so·phiʹan] of the world,” that is, the world of mankind alienated from God. (1Co 1:20; see WORLD [The world alienated from God].) Not that among the multiple facets of the world’s wisdom there was nothing useful or beneficial, for Paul sometimes made use of skill learned in the tentmaking trade and also quoted on occasion from literary works of worldly authors to illustrate certain points of truth. (Ac 18:2, 3; 17:28, 29; Tit 1:12) But the overall outlook, methods, standards, and goals of the world​—its philosophy—​were not in harmony with the truth, were contrary to ‘God’s wisdom in the sacred secret.’

So the world in its wisdom rejected God’s provision through Christ as foolishness; its rulers, though they may have been able and judicious administrators, even “impaled the glorious Lord.” (1Co 1:18; 2:7, 8) But God, in turn, was now proving the wisdom of the worldly wise to be foolishness, putting their wise men to shame by using what they considered “a foolish thing of God,” as well as persons they deemed ‘foolish, weak, and ignoble,’ to accomplish His invincible purpose. (1Co 1:19-28) Paul reminded the Corinthian Christians that “the wisdom of this system of things [and] that of the rulers of this system of things” would come to nothing; hence such wisdom was not part of the apostle’s spiritual message. (1Co 2:6, 13) He warned Christians in Colossae against being ensnared by “the philosophy [phi·lo·so·phiʹas, literally, love of wisdom] and empty deception according to the tradition of men.”​—Col 2:8; compare vss 20-23.

Despite its temporary benefits and successes, the world’s wisdom was doomed to produce failure. But the Christian congregation of God’s anointed had spiritual wisdom that led to “the unfathomable riches of the Christ.” Since that congregation formed part of God’s sacred secret, by his dealings with it and his purposes fulfilled in it, he made known or revealed “the greatly diversified wisdom of God” through the congregation, even to “the governments and the authorities in the heavenly places.” (Eph 3:8-11; 1:17, 18; compare 1Pe 1:12.) Its members, having “the mind of Christ” (compare Php 2:5-8), had knowledge and understanding vastly superior to that of the world, hence they could speak, “not with words taught by human wisdom, but with those taught by the spirit,” with “a mouth and wisdom” opposers could not refute, though such Christians might be looked down upon as “unlettered and ordinary” by worldly standards.​—1Co 2:11-16; Lu 21:15; Ac 4:13; 6:9, 10.

Waging spiritual warfare. The apostle Paul relied on godly wisdom in waging spiritual warfare against any who threatened to pervert Christian congregations, such as the one in Corinth. (1Co 5:6, 7, 13; 2Co 10:3-6; compare 2Co 6:7.) He knew that “wisdom is better than implements for fighting, and merely one sinner can destroy much good.” (Ec 9:18; 7:19) His reference to “overturning strongly entrenched things” (2Co 10:4) corresponds in idea to the Greek Septuagint rendering of part of Proverbs 21:22. Paul knew the human tendency to give prime attention to those having impressive manner, obvious talent, or powerful personality and speech; he knew that the ‘quiet speech of a wise man of little material wealth’ is often ignored in favor of those giving greater appearance of mightiness. (Compare Ec 9:13-17.) Even Jesus, who did not have the earthly wealth and position Solomon possessed but who had vastly superior wisdom, was shown little respect and attention by the rulers and people.​—Compare Mt 12:42; 13:54-58; Isa 52:13-15; 53:1-3.

To some who boasted in fleshly abilities (contrast Jer 9:23, 24) rather than in the heart, Paul’s personal appearance was viewed as “weak and his speech contemptible.” (2Co 5:12; 10:10) Yet he avoided any extravagance of speech or display of human wisdom and its power to persuade, so that his hearers’ faith would be built up through God’s spirit and power and be founded on Christ rather than on “men’s wisdom.” (1Co 1:17; 2:1-5; 2Co 5:12) With spiritual foresight, Paul was “a wise director of works,” not of material construction but of spiritual construction, working with God to produce disciples that manifested truly Christian qualities.​—1Co 3:9-16.

Hence, no matter how much of the world’s wisdom one might have by virtue of skill in trades, shrewdness in commerce, administrative ability, or scientific or philosophic learning, the rule was: “If anyone among you thinks he is wise in this system of things, let him become a fool, that he may become wise.” (1Co 3:18) He should be proud only of ‘having insight and knowledge of Jehovah, the One exercising loving-kindness, justice, and righteousness in the earth,’ for in this Jehovah takes delight.​—Jer 9:23, 24; 1Co 1:31; 3:19-23.

Wise administration. As wisdom personified states: “I have counsel and practical wisdom. I​—understanding; I have mightiness. By me kings themselves keep reigning, and high officials themselves keep decreeing righteousness. By me princes themselves keep ruling as princes, and nobles are all judging in righteousness. Those loving me I myself love, and those looking for me are the ones that find me.” (Pr 8:12, 14-17) The Messianic King displays such superior wisdom from God. (Isa 11:1-5; compare Re 5:12.) This surpasses the ability men may have or develop naturally, making one wise in the principles of God’s law and, with the aid of his spirit, making it possible to render judicial decisions that are right and free from partiality. (Ezr 7:25; 1Ki 3:28; Pr 24:23; compare De 16:18, 19; Jas 2:1-9.) Such wisdom is not apathetic toward wickedness but wars against it.​—Pr 20:26.

Men selected for responsibility within the Christian congregation qualified, not on the basis of worldly success, fleshly wisdom, or natural abilities, but because of being “full of spirit and [godly] wisdom.” (Ac 6:1-5; compare 1Ti 3:1-13; Tit 1:5-9.) Such ones were among the “prophets and wise men and public instructors” Jesus had promised to send out, and they could also serve as judges and counselors within the congregation, even as fleshly Israel had had its wise men who served in similar ways. (Mt 23:34; 1Co 6:5) They recognized the value of consulting together.​—Pr 13:10; 24:5, 6; compare Ac 15:1-22.

Acquiring True Wisdom. The proverb counsels: “Buy truth itself and do not sell it​—wisdom and discipline and understanding.” (Pr 23:23) Jehovah, the Source of true wisdom, grants it generously to those who sincerely seek it and ask for it in faith, showing a wholesome, reverential fear of him. (Pr 2:1-7; Jas 1:5-8) But the seeker must spend time in study of God’s Word; learn His commands, laws, reminders, and counsel; consider the history of God’s acts and doings; then apply these in his life. (De 4:5, 6; Ps 19:7; 107:43; 119:98-101; Pr 10:8; compare 2Ti 3:15-17.) He wisely buys out the opportune time, not acting unreasonably in a wicked time, but “perceiving what the will of Jehovah is.” (Eph 5:15-20; Col 4:5, 6) He must develop firm faith and unshakable conviction that God’s power is invincible, that His will is certain of success, and that His ability and promise to reward faithfulness are sure.​—Heb 11:1, 6; 1Co 15:13, 14, 19.

Only in this way can the person make right decisions as to his life course and not be swayed by fear, greed, immoral desire, and other damaging emotions. (Pr 2:6-16; 3:21-26; Isa 33:2, 6) As wisdom personified says: “Happy is the man that is listening to me by keeping awake at my doors day by day, by watching at the posts of my entrances. For the one finding me will certainly find life, and gets goodwill from Jehovah. But the one missing me is doing violence to his soul; all those intensely hating me are the ones that do love death.”​—Pr 8:34-36; 13:14; 24:13, 14.

Wisdom and the heart. Intelligence is obviously a major factor in wisdom, yet the heart, which relates not just to thinking but to motivation and affection as well, is clearly a more important factor in gaining true wisdom. (Ps 49:3, 4; Pr 14:33; see HEART.) God’s servant wants to get “sheer wisdom” in his “secret self,” have wise motivation in planning his life course. (Compare Ps 51:6, 10; 90:12.) “The heart of the wise is at his right hand [that is, ready to help and protect him at critical moments (compare Ps 16:8; 109:31)], but the heart of the stupid [is] at his left hand [failing to direct him in the course of wisdom].” (Ec 10:2, 3; compare Pr 17:16; Ro 1:21, 22.) The truly wise person has trained and disciplined his heart in the way of wisdom (Pr 23:15, 16, 19; 28:26); it is as though he had written righteous commandments and law ‘upon the tablet of his heart.’​—Pr 7:1-3; 2:2, 10.

Experience and right association. Experience contributes measurably to wisdom. Even Jesus grew in wisdom as he passed through childhood. (Lu 2:52) Moses assigned as chieftains men who were “wise and discreet and experienced.” (De 1:13-15) While one learns a measure of wisdom from suffering punishment or by observing others receive it (Pr 21:11), a superior and timesaving way to wisdom is profiting by and learning from the experience of those already wise, preferring their company to that of “inexperienced ones.” (Pr 9:1-6; 13:20; 22:17, 18; compare 2Ch 9:7.) Older persons are more likely to have such wisdom, particularly those who give evidence of having God’s spirit. (Job 32:7-9) This was illustrated notably at the time of Rehoboam’s kingship. (1Ki 12:5-16) However, “better is a needy but wise child [relatively speaking] than an old but stupid king, who has not come to know enough to be warned any longer.”​—Ec 4:13-15.

The city gates (often having adjacent public squares) were places where older men gave wise counsel and judicial decisions. (Compare Pr 1:20, 21; 8:1-3.) The voice of foolish persons usually was not heard in such an atmosphere (either in soliciting wisdom or offering it), their chatter being elsewhere. (Pr 24:7) Though association with wise ones brings discipline and occasional rebuke, this is far better than the song and laughter of the stupid. (Ec 7:5, 6) The person who isolates himself, pursuing his own narrow, restricted view of life and his own selfish desires, eventually goes off on a tangent contrary to all practical wisdom.​—Pr 18:1.

Revealed in personal conduct and speech. Proverbs 11:2 states that “wisdom is with the modest ones”; James speaks of the “mildness that belongs to wisdom.” (Jas 3:13) If jealousy, contention, bragging, or stubbornness is present in a person, it indicates that he is lacking true wisdom and is being guided, rather, by wisdom that is “earthly, animal, demonic.” True wisdom is “peaceable, reasonable, ready to obey.” (Jas 3:13-18) “The rod of haughtiness is in the mouth of the foolish one, but the very lips of the wise ones will guard them.” They wisely hold back from presumptuous, harsh, or rash speech. (Pr 14:3; 17:27, 28; Ec 10:12-14) From the tongue and lips of the wise comes well-thought-out, healing, pleasant, beneficial speech (Pr 12:18; 16:21; Ec 12:9-11; Col 3:15, 16), and instead of stirring up trouble, they seek to bring calm and to ‘win souls’ by wise persuasion.​—Pr 11:30; 15:1-7; 16:21-23; 29:8.

Those who become ‘wise in their own eyes,’ elevating themselves above others (even above God), are worse off than the person who is stupid but does not pretend to be otherwise. (Pr 26:5, 12; 12:15) Such self-assuming persons are too proud to accept correction. (Pr 3:7; 15:12; Isa 5:20, 21) Paradoxically, both the lazy man and the man who gains riches tend toward this attitude. (Pr 26:16; 28:11; compare 1Ti 6:17.) But “an earring of gold, and an ornament of special gold, is a wise reprover upon the hearing ear” (Pr 25:12); yes, “give a reproof to a wise person and he will love you.”​—Pr 9:8; 15:31-33.

Wisdom in the family. Wisdom builds up a household, not just a building, but the family and its successful life as a unit. (Pr 24:3, 4; compare Pr 3:19, 20; Ps 104:5-24.) Wise parents do not hold back the rod and reproof, but by discipline and counsel they protect their children against delinquency. (Pr 29:15) The wise wife contributes greatly to the success and happiness of the family. (Pr 14:1; 31:26) Children who wisely submit to parental discipline bring joy and honor to the family, upholding its reputation against slander or accusation, and give proof to others of their fathers’ wisdom and training.​—Pr 10:1; 13:1; 15:20; 23:24, 25; 27:11.

See LEGAL CASE.

[Heb., zeʼevʹ; Gr., lyʹkos].

A carnivorous animal resembling a dog, a large German shepherd, but having longer legs, larger feet, a broader head, and stronger jaws. It is reported that in Palestine and Syria wolves usually hunt singly or in twos or threes, not in packs. They seek their prey under the cover of darkness, remaining in hiding during the day. (Hab 1:8; Zep 3:3) Wolves are fierce, voracious, bold, and greedy, often killing more sheep than they can eat or drag away. The shepherd of ancient times therefore had to be courageous and resourceful to protect the flock from wolves.​—Joh 10:12, 13.

Most of the Scriptural references to the wolf are illustrative. In his deathbed prophecy, Jacob likened his son Benjamin to a wolf, this undoubtedly with reference to the tribe’s fighting abilities. (Ge 49:27; see BENJAMIN No. 2.) The unscrupulous princes of Judah (Eze 22:27), false prophets (Mt 7:15), vicious opposers of the Christian ministry (Mt 10:16; Lu 10:3), as well as false teachers that would endanger the Christian congregation from within (Ac 20:29, 30), are compared to wolves. In contrast with the well-known despoilings by wolves (Jer 5:6), the wolf and the lamb are depicted as being at peace during Messiah’s rule, feeding together as one; in addition to its application to changes in the lives of people, this prophetic picture doubtless indicates that such peace will prevail among animals.​—Isa 11:6; 65:25.

An adult human female, one beyond the age of puberty. The Hebrew expression for woman is ʼish·shahʹ (literally, a female man), which is also rendered “wife.” Similarly, the Greek term gy·neʹ is translated both “woman” and “wife.”

Creation. Before the man Adam ever asked for a human companion, God his Creator made provision. After placing Adam in the garden of Eden and giving him the law respecting the tree of the knowledge of good and bad, Jehovah said: “It is not good for the man to continue by himself. I am going to make a helper for him, as a complement of him.” (Ge 2:18) He did not oblige the man to go seeking a companion among the animals, but he brought the animals to Adam for naming. Adam was not inclined toward bestiality and was able to determine that there was no suitable companion for him among these. (Ge 2:19, 20) “Hence Jehovah God had a deep sleep fall upon the man and, while he was sleeping, he took one of his ribs and then closed up the flesh over its place. And Jehovah God proceeded to build the rib that he had taken from the man into a woman and to bring her to the man. Then the man said: ‘This is at last bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh. This one will be called Woman, because from man this one was taken.’”​—Ge 2:21-23.

Position and Responsibilities. The woman, being created out of the man, was dependent upon the man for being brought into existence. Being part of the man, “one flesh” with him, and a complement and helper to him, she was subject to him as her head. She was also under the law that God had given Adam about the tree of the knowledge of good and bad. She was responsible to work for the good of the man. Together they were to have children and to exercise dominion over the animals.​—Ge 1:28; 2:24.

Since the normal course for women in Bible times was to marry, the scriptures that treat of the woman’s responsibilities usually have reference to her position as a wife. The primary duty of all women in Israel was to serve Jehovah God in true worship. Abigail, who became the wife of David after her good-for-nothing husband Nabal died, was an example of this. Even though Nabal took a bad course, refusing to use his material goods to help David, the anointed of Jehovah, Abigail realized that she, as Nabal’s wife, was not obligated to follow her husband in such action contrary to Jehovah’s will. Jehovah blessed her when her assisting his anointed one showed her persistence in right worship.​—1Sa 25:23-31, 39-42.

Secondarily, the woman was to obey her husband. She was responsible to work hard for the good of the household and to bring honor to her husbandly head. This would bring the greatest glory to her. Proverbs 14:1 says: “The truly wise woman has built up her house, but the foolish one tears it down with her own hands.” She should always speak well of her husband and increase the respect of others for him, and he should be able to take pride in her. “A capable wife is a crown to her owner, but as rottenness in his bones is she that acts shamefully.” (Pr 12:4) The honorable position and the privileges she has as a wife, together with the blessings to her because of faithfulness, industriousness, and wisdom, are described in Proverbs chapter 31.​—See WIFE.

A Hebrew woman who was a mother had much to do with the training of her children in righteousness, respectfulness, and industriousness and often did much in counseling and influencing older sons for good. (Ge 27:5-10; Ex 2:7-10; Pr 1:8; 31:1; 2Ti 1:5; 3:14, 15) Girls, especially, were trained to be good wives by learning from their mothers the arts of cooking, weaving, and general household management, while the father taught the son a trade. Wives also were free to express themselves to their husbands (Ge 16:5, 6) and at times aided their husbands in arriving at right decisions.​—Ge 21:9-13; 27:46–28:4.

The bride was usually selected for a man by the parents. But, doubtless under the Law, as it was earlier in Rebekah’s case, the girl had an opportunity to voice her feelings and will in the matter. (Ge 24:57, 58) Although polygamy was practiced, God not yet acting to restore the original state of monogamy until the Christian congregation was established (Ge 2:23, 24; Mt 19:4-6; 1Ti 3:2), polygamous relationships were regulated.

Even the military laws favored both wife and husband in exempting a newly married man for one year. This gave the couple the opportunity to exercise their right to have a child, which would be a great comfort to the mother when the husband was away, and even more so if he should die in battle.​—De 20:7; 24:5.

Laws applied with equal force to both men and women who were guilty of adultery, incest, bestiality, and other crimes. (Le 18:6, 23; 20:10-12; De 22:22) Women were not to wear the clothing of a man or a man the clothing of a woman, a practice that might open the way for immorality, including homosexuality. (De 22:5) Women could participate in the benefits of the Sabbaths, the laws governing Nazirites, the festivals, and, in general, all the provisions of the Law. (Ex 20:10; Nu 6:2; De 12:18; 16:11, 14) The mother, as well as the father, was to be honored and obeyed.​—Le 19:3; 20:9; De 5:16; 27:16.

Privileges in the Christian Congregation. For those called by God to the heavenly calling (Heb 3:1) to be joint heirs with Jesus Christ, there is no distinction between men and women in a spiritual sense. The apostle writes: “You are all, in fact, sons of God through your faith in Christ . . . there is neither male nor female; for you are all one person in union with Christ Jesus.” (Ga 3:26-28) These all must receive a change of nature at their resurrection, being made partakers together of “divine nature,” in which state none will be women, for there is no female sex among spirit creatures, sex being God’s means for reproduction of earthly creatures.​—2Pe 1:4.

Proclaimers of the good news. Women, spoken of as “daughters” and “women slaves” in Joel’s prophecy, were among those receiving the gifts of holy spirit on the day of Pentecost 33 C.E. From that day forward the Christian women who were favored with these gifts talked in foreign tongues that they had not understood before, and they ‘prophesied,’ not necessarily making predictions of important future events, but speaking forth Bible truths.​—Joe 2:28, 29; Ac 1:13-15; 2:1-4, 13-18; see PROPHETESS.

Their speaking about Bible truths to others was not to be limited to fellow believers. Before his ascension to heaven, Jesus had told his followers: “You will receive power when the holy spirit arrives upon you, and you will be witnesses of me both in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the most distant part of the earth.” (Ac 1:8) Thereafter, on the day of Pentecost 33 C.E., when holy spirit was poured out upon them, the entire group of some 120 disciples (including some women) were empowered as his witnesses (Ac 1:14, 15; 2:3, 4); and the prophecy of Joel (2:28, 29) quoted by Peter on that occasion included reference to such women. So they were numbered among those who bore the responsibility to be witnesses of Jesus “in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the most distant part of the earth.” Consistent with that, the apostle Paul later reported that Euodia and Syntyche, in Philippi, had “striven side by side with [him] in the good news”; and Luke mentioned Priscilla as sharing with her husband Aquila in ‘expounding the way of God’ in Ephesus.​—Php 4:2, 3; Ac 18:26.

Congregational meetings. There were meetings when these women could pray or prophesy, provided they wore a head covering. (1Co 11:3-16; see HEAD COVERING.) However, at what were evidently public meetings, when “the whole congregation” as well as “unbelievers” assembled in one place (1Co 14:23-25), women were to “keep silent.” If ‘they wanted to learn something, they could question their own husbands at home, for it was disgraceful for a woman to speak in a congregation.’​—1Co 14:31-35.

While not permitted to teach in congregational assembly, a woman could teach persons outside the congregation who desired to learn the truth of the Bible and the good news about Jesus Christ (compare Ps 68:11), as well as be a ‘teacher of what is good’ to younger women (and children) within the congregation. (Tit 2:3-5) But she was not to exercise authority over a man or dispute with men, as, for example, in the meetings of the congregation. She was to remember what happened to Eve and how God expressed the matter of woman’s position after Adam and Eve had sinned.​—1Ti 2:11-14; Ge 3:16.

Men serve as overseers, ministerial servants. In the discussion of “gifts in men” given by Christ to the congregation, there is no mention of women. The words “apostles,” “prophets,” “evangelizers,” “shepherds,” and “teachers” are all in the masculine gender. (Eph 4:8, 11) Ephesians 4:11 is rendered by the American Translation: “And he has given us some men as apostles, some as prophets, some as missionaries, some as pastors and teachers.”​—Compare Mo, NW; also Ps 68:18.

In full accord with this, when the apostle Paul wrote to Timothy about the qualifications for the service positions of “overseers” (e·piʹsko·poi), who were also “older men” (pre·sbyʹte·roi), and of “ministerial servants” (di·aʹko·noi) in the congregation, he specifically states that they must be men and, if married, ‘the husband of one wife.’ No discussion by any of the apostles discusses any office of “deaconess” (di·a·koʹnis·sa).​—1Ti 3:1-13; Tit 1:5-9; compare Ac 20:17, 28; Php 1:1.

Although Phoebe is mentioned (Ro 16:1) as a “minister” (di·aʹko·nos, without the Greek definite article), it is evident that she was not an appointed female ministerial servant in the congregation, because the Scriptures make no provision for such. The apostle did not tell the congregation to receive instructions from her but, rather, to receive her well and to ‘assist her in any matter where she might need them.’ (Ro 16:2) Paul’s reference to her as a minister evidently has something to do with her activity in the spreading of the good news, and he was speaking of Phoebe as a female minister who was associated with the congregation in Cenchreae.​—Compare Ac 2:17, 18.

In the home. The woman is described in the Scriptures as “a weaker vessel, the feminine one.” She is to be treated accordingly by her husband. (1Pe 3:7) She has many privileges, such as sharing in teaching the children and generally managing the internal affairs of the household, under her husband’s approval and direction. (1Ti 5:14; 1Pe 3:1, 2; Pr 1:8; 6:20; chap 31) She has the duty of submission to her husband. (Eph 5:22-24) She owes him the marital due.​—1Co 7:3-5.

Adornment. The Bible throughout does not condemn adornment in clothing or the wearing of jewelry, but it commands that modesty and propriety be the governing factors. The apostle instructs that feminine dress be well arranged and that women adorn themselves “with modesty and soundness of mind.” Emphasis should not be put on hairstyles, ornaments, and expensive clothing but, rather, on the things contributing to spiritual beauty, namely, “good works” and “the secret person of the heart in the incorruptible apparel of the quiet and mild spirit.”​—1Ti 2:9, 10; 1Pe 3:3, 4; compare Pr 11:16, 22; 31:30.

The apostle Peter tells such submissive women who display chaste, respectful, godly conduct that “you have become [Sarah’s] children, provided you keep on doing good and not fearing any cause for terror.” So these wives have a grand opportunity, not by being descended from faithful Sarah in a fleshly way but by imitating her. Sarah was privileged to bear Isaac and become an ancestress of Jesus Christ, who is primarily the ‘seed of Abraham.’ (Ga 3:16) Thus Christian wives, proving themselves to be figurative daughters of Sarah even toward unbelieving husbands, are sure to receive a rich reward at God’s hands.​—1Pe 3:6; Ge 18:11, 12; 1Co 7:12-16.

Women Ministered to Jesus. Women enjoyed privileges in connection with Jesus’ earthly ministry, but not the privileges given to the 12 apostles and the 70 evangelizers. (Mt 10:1-8; Lu 10:1-7) A number of women ministered to Jesus from their belongings. (Lu 8:1-3) One anointed him a few days before his death, and for her act Jesus promised: “Wherever this good news is preached in all the world, what this woman did shall also be told as a remembrance of her.” (Mt 26:6-13; Joh 12:1-8) Women were among those to whom Jesus especially appeared on the day of his resurrection, and women were among those to whom he appeared later.​—Mt 28:1-10; Joh 20:1-18.

Figurative Use. In several instances women are used symbolically to represent congregations or organizations of people. They also are employed to symbolize cities. Christ’s glorified congregation is spoken of as his “bride,” also called “the holy city, New Jerusalem.”​—Joh 3:29; Re 21:2, 9; 19:7; compare Eph 5:23-27; Mt 9:15; Mr 2:20; Lu 5:34, 35.

Jehovah spoke to the congregation or nation of Israel as his “woman,” he being as “a husbandly owner” to her by reason of the Law covenant relationship between them. In restoration prophecies he speaks to Israel in this way, sometimes directing his words to Jerusalem, the governing city of the nation. The “sons” and “daughters” (Isa 43:5-7) of this woman were the members of the nation of Israel.​—Isa 51:17-23; 52:1, 2; 54:1, 5, 6, 11-13; 66:10-12; Jer 3:14; 31:31, 32.

In many instances other nations or cities are referred to as feminine or as women. A few are: Moab (Jer 48:41), Egypt (Jer 46:11), Rabbah of Ammon (Jer 49:2), Babylon (Jer 51:13), and symbolic Babylon the Great.​—Re 17:1-6; see BABYLON THE GREAT; DAUGHTER.

The “woman” of Genesis 3:15. At the time that he sentenced humankind’s parents, Adam and Eve, God gave the promise of a seed that would be brought forth by the “woman,” and who would crush the serpent’s head. (Ge 3:15) Here was a “sacred secret” that God purposed to reveal in his due time. (Col 1:26) Some factors in the circumstances existing at the time of the prophetic promise provide clues as to the ‘woman’s’ identity. Since her seed was to crush the serpent’s head, he would have to be more than a human seed, for the Scriptures show that it was not to a literal snake on the ground that God’s words were aimed. The “serpent” is shown at Revelation 12:9 to be Satan the Devil, a spirit person. Consequently, the “woman” of the prophecy could not be a human woman, such as Mary the mother of Jesus. The apostle sheds light on the matter at Galatians 4:21-31.​—See SEED.

In this passage the apostle speaks of Abraham’s free wife and of his concubine Hagar and says that Hagar corresponds to the literal city of Jerusalem under the Law covenant, her “children” being the citizens of the Jewish nation. Abraham’s wife Sarah, Paul says, corresponds to “the Jerusalem above,” who is the spiritual mother of Paul and his spirit-begotten associates. This heavenly “mother” would be also the “mother” of Christ, who is the oldest among his spiritual brothers, all of whom spring from God as their Father.​—Heb 2:11, 12; see FREE WOMAN.

It would follow logically and in harmony with the Scriptures that the “woman” of Genesis 3:15 would be a spiritual “woman.” And corresponding to the fact that the “bride,” or “wife,” of Christ is not an individual woman, but a composite one, made of many spiritual members (Re 21:9), the “woman” who brings forth God’s spirit-begotten sons, God’s ‘wife’ (prophetically foretold in the words of Isaiah and Jeremiah as cited in the foregoing), would be made up of many spiritual persons. It would be a composite body of persons, an organization, a heavenly one.

This “woman” is described in John’s vision, in Revelation chapter 12. She is shown as bringing forth a son, a ruler who is to “shepherd all the nations with an iron rod.” (Compare Ps 2:6-9; 110:1, 2.) This vision was given to John long after Jesus’ human birth and also after his anointing as God’s Messiah. Since it obviously has to do with the same person, it must have reference, not to Jesus’ human birth, but to some other event, namely, his being installed in Kingdom power. So the birth of God’s Messianic Kingdom was here pictured.

Satan is shown later as persecuting the “woman” and making war with “the remaining ones of her seed.” (Re 12:13, 17) The “woman” being heavenly, and Satan by this time being hurled down to the earth (Re 12:7-9), he could not reach those heavenly persons of whom the “woman” was made up, but he could reach the remaining ones of her “seed,” her children, the brothers of Jesus Christ still on earth. In that way he persecuted the “woman.”

Other uses. In foretelling famine conditions to come upon Israel if they disobeyed and broke his covenant, God said: “Ten women will then actually bake your bread in but one oven and give back your bread by weight.” The famine would be so great that ten women would need only one oven, whereas they would each use one in normal times.​—Le 26:26.

After warning Israel of the calamities that would come upon her for unfaithfulness, Jehovah said, through Isaiah the prophet: “And seven women will actually grab hold of one man in that day, saying: ‘We shall eat our own bread and wear our own mantles; only may we be called by your name to take away our reproach.’” (Isa 4:1) In the preceding two verses (Isa 3:25, 26), God had pointed out that Israel’s men would fall by war. So he was telling Israel of the inroads such conditions would make on the manpower of the nation, creating such a shortage that several women would attach themselves to one man. They would be glad to take his name and have some male attentions, even if they had to share him with other women. They would accept polygamy or concubinage to have some little part in a man’s life. Thereby some of the reproach of widowhood or of the unmarried state, and childlessness, would be removed.

In a prophecy comforting Israel, Jehovah said: “How long will you turn this way and that, O unfaithful daughter? For Jehovah has created a new thing in the earth: A mere female will press around an able-bodied man.” (“The woman woos the man!” AT) (Jer 31:22) Up until then Israel, with whom God was in the relationship of marriage by reason of the Law covenant, was turning “this way and that” in unfaithfulness. Now Jehovah invites the “virgin of Israel” to set up road marks and signposts to guide her back and to fix her heart upon the highway that leads back. (Jer 31:21) Jehovah will put his spirit in her so that she will be most eager to come back. Thus, as a wife would press around her husband in order to get back into good relations with him, so Israel would press around Jehovah God in order to get back into good relations with him as her husband.

“The desire of women.” Of “the king of the north,” Daniel’s prophecy says: “To the God of his fathers he will give no consideration; and to the desire of women and to every other god he will give no consideration, but over everyone he will magnify himself. But to the god of fortresses, in his position he will give glory.” (Da 11:37, 38) “Women” here may represent the weaker nations who become ‘handmaids’ of “the king of the north,” as weaker vessels. They have their gods that they desire and worship, but the “king of the north” disregards them and pays homage to a god of militarism.

The symbolic “locusts.” In the vision of the symbolic “locusts” at Revelation 9:1-11, these locusts are depicted as having “hair as women’s hair.” In harmony with the Scriptural principle that the woman’s long hair is a sign of her subjection to her husbandly head, the hair of these symbolic “locusts” must represent the subjection of those whom they symbolize to the one who is shown in the prophecy to be head and king over them.​—See ABADDON.

144,000 ‘not defiled with women.’ In Revelation 14:1-4, the 144,000 described as standing with the Lamb on Mount Zion are said to have been “bought from the earth. These are the ones that did not defile themselves with women; in fact, they are virgins.” These are shown as having a more intimate relationship with the Lamb than any others do, being the only ones to master the “new song.” (Re 14:1-4) This would indicate that they make up the “bride” of the Lamb. (Re 21:9) They are spiritual persons, as revealed by the fact that they stand on the heavenly Mount Zion with the Lamb. Therefore their ‘not defiling themselves with women’ and their being “virgins” would not mean that none of these 144,000 persons had ever been married, for the Scriptures do not forbid persons on earth who are to be joint heirs with Christ to marry. (1Ti 3:2; 4:1, 3) Neither would it imply that all the 144,000 were men, for “there is neither male nor female” as far as the spiritual relationship of Christ’s joint heirs is concerned. (Ga 3:28) The “women” therefore must be symbolic women, doubtless religious organizations such as Babylon the Great and her ‘daughters,’ false religious organizations, the joining of and participation in which would prevent one from being spotless. (Re 17:5) This symbolic description harmonizes with the requirement in the Law that the high priest of Israel take only a virgin for his wife, for Jesus Christ is Jehovah’s great High Priest.​—Le 21:10, 14; 2Co 11:2; Heb 7:26.

With reference to Jesus’ addressing Mary as “woman,” see MARY No. 1 (Respected, Loved by Jesus).

An organ of the female in which the young are nourished and grow prior to birth. Jehovah is the Creator of the womb (Ge 2:22), and he is the One able to make it fruitful (Ge 29:31; 30:22; 49:25) or unproductive. (Ge 20:18) Sarah’s womb was ‘dead,’ or beyond power of childbearing, when Jehovah restored that power to her. (Ro 4:19; Ge 18:11, 12; 21:1-3) The Bible points out that Jehovah is responsible for the process of formation of an embryo in the womb, showing that the design of the human in the womb is according to God’s pattern and not by chance or evolution. (Job 31:15; compare Job 10:8; Ps 139:13-16; Isa 45:9.) The womb being created specifically for the propagation of the race, the “restrained womb” is listed as one of four things that have not said: “Enough!”​—Pr 30:15, 16.

Since the womb is located in the general area of the body known as the belly, the Hebrew word for “belly” is often used with primary reference to the womb, as at Genesis 25:23; Deuteronomy 7:13; Psalm 127:3.​—See BELLY.

God, as the womb’s Designer, can also see exactly what is being formed in it. He can read the hereditary traits being built into the unborn child and determine what use He wants to make of the individual, if He so desires.​—Jer 1:5; Lu 1:15; compare Ro 9:10-13.

Jehovah commanded Israel: “Sanctify to me every male firstborn that opens each womb among the sons of Israel, among men and beasts. It is mine.” (Ex 13:2) In human births, this had reference to the father’s first male child.​—See FIRSTBORN, FIRSTLING.

Jesus pointed out that his mother Mary was not to be honored above others who serve God. On an occasion when he was teaching, a woman cried out: “Happy is the womb that carried you and the breasts that you sucked!” Jesus replied: “No, rather, Happy are those hearing the word of God and keeping it!” (Lu 11:27, 28) Later, as Jesus was led away to the torture stake, he gave a prophecy concerning Jerusalem’s coming destruction, telling the women weeping for him that days were coming in which people would say: “Happy are the barren women, and the wombs that did not give birth.” (Lu 23:27-29) This was fulfilled in 70 C.E. when more than a million Jews, including young children, perished, and thousands were taken into captivity, to be sold into slavery.

The Jewish ruler and Pharisee Nicodemus, on hearing Jesus’ statement, “Unless anyone is born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God,” asked: “How . . . ? He cannot enter into the womb of his mother a second time and be born, can he?” Jesus then explained that this new birth is, not from a human womb, but “from water and spirit.”​—Joh 3:1-8.

Figurative Use. “Womb” is employed at times with reference to the source of something. In speaking about creative works involving the earth, Jehovah speaks of the sea as bursting forth “from the womb.” (Job 38:8) Jehovah says to David’s Lord that in the day of his military force this one will have willing volunteers “like dewdrops” from “the womb of the dawn” (from where comes the morning dew).​—Ps 110:1-3.

See WARP.

The soft curly hair that forms the fleece of certain animals, particularly sheep. It was shorn and used extensively by the Hebrews and others of ancient times to make clothing and for doing embroidery. (Ex 35:4-6, 25; 36:8, 35, 37; 38:18; 39:1-8, 22-29; Le 13:47; Pr 31:13, 22; Eze 34:3) Woolen clothing provides insulation from heat and cold and is comfortable, imparting warmth without great weight and absorbing moisture though not feeling damp to the wearer.

Under the Law, the Israelites were required to give “the first of the shorn wool” of their flocks to the priests. (De 18:3-5) The people who were not priests were forbidden to “wear mixed stuff of wool and linen together.”​—De 22:11; Le 19:19; see CLOTH (Other Uses).

The importance of wool in ancient times is indicated by the fact that Moabite King Mesha paid “a hundred thousand lambs and a hundred thousand unshorn male sheep” to the king of Israel as tribute. (2Ki 3:4) Wool was also a valuable item of trade.​—Eze 27:1, 2, 7, 16, 18.

Since wool is often white in its natural state, it is sometimes associated with whiteness and purity. For example, through the prophet Isaiah, Jehovah likened forgiven sins to white wool, saying: “Though the sins of you people should prove to be as scarlet, they will be made white just like snow; though they should be red like crimson cloth, they will become even like wool.”​—Isa 1:18-20.

Jehovah gives “snow like wool,” blanketing the land as with a warm covering of white wool.​—Ps 147:16.

“The Ancient of Days,” Jehovah God, is depicted symbolically in vision as having hair like clean wool. (Da 7:9) This suggests great age and wisdom, which are associated with gray-headedness. (Compare Job 15:9, 10.) Similarly, the apostle John saw “someone like a son of man” and observed that “his head and his hair were white as white wool, as snow.” (Re 1:12-14) His hair being described in this manner may indicate that it had become white in the way of righteousness.​—Pr 16:31.

The term “word” in the Scriptures most frequently translates the Hebrew and Greek words da·varʹ and loʹgos. These words in the majority of cases refer to an entire thought, saying, or statement rather than simply to an individual term or unit of speech. (In Greek a ‘single word’ is expressed by rheʹma [Mt 27:14], though it, too, can mean a saying or spoken matter.) Any message from the Creator, such as one uttered through a prophet, is “the word of God.” In a few places Loʹgos (meaning “Word”) is a title given to Jesus Christ.

The Word of God. “The word of Jehovah” is an expression that, with slight variations, occurs hundreds of times in the Scriptures. By “the word of Jehovah” the heavens were created. God said the word and it was accomplished. “God proceeded to say: ‘Let light come to be.’ Then there came to be light.” (Ps 33:6; Ge 1:3) It should not be understood from this that Jehovah himself does no work. (Joh 5:17) But he does have myriads of angels that respond to his word and carry out his will.​—Ps 103:20.

Creation, animate and inanimate, is subject to God’s word, and can be used by him to accomplish his purposes. (Ps 103:20; 148:8) His word is dependable; what God promises he also remembers to do. (De 9:5; Ps 105:42-45) As he himself has said, his word “will last to time indefinite”; it will never return without accomplishing its purpose.​—Isa 40:8; 55:10, 11; 1Pe 1:25.

Jehovah is a communicative God, in that he reveals to his creatures in a variety of ways what his will and purposes are. God’s words were spoken, doubtless through an angel, to such men as Adam, Noah, and Abraham. (Ge 3:9-19; 6:13; 12:1) At times he used holy men like Moses and Aaron to make known his purposes. (Ex 5:1) “Every word” that Moses commanded Israel was in effect the word of God to them. (De 12:32) God also spoke through the mouth of prophets such as Elisha and Jeremiah, and prophetesses such as Deborah.​—2Ki 7:1; Jer 2:1, 2; Jg 4:4-7.

Many of the divine commandments were committed to writing from the time of Moses forward. The Decalogue, commonly called the Ten Commandments and known in the Hebrew Scriptures as “the Ten Words,” was first delivered orally and later ‘written by the finger of God’ on stone tablets. (Ex 31:18; 34:28; De 4:13) These commandments were called the “Words” at Deuteronomy 5:22.​—See TEN WORDS.

Joshua wrote additional “words in the book of God’s law” under divine inspiration, and this was true with other faithful Bible writers. (Jos 24:26; Jer 36:32) Eventually all such writings were collected together and made up what is called the Sacred Scriptures or Holy Bible. “All Scripture . . . inspired of God” would include, today, all the canonical Biblical books. (2Ti 3:16; 2Pe 1:20, 21) In the Christian Greek Scriptures, God’s inspired word is often spoken of as simply “the word.”​—Jas 1:22; 1Pe 2:2.

There are many synonyms for God’s word. For example, in Psalm 119, where references to Jehovah’s “word(s)” occur more than 20 times, synonyms are found in poetic parallelisms​—such terms as law, reminders, orders, regulations, commandments, judicial decisions, statutes, and sayings of Jehovah. This also shows that the expression “word” means a complete thought or message.

The word of God is also described in a number of other ways that give it breadth and meaning. It is “the ‘word’ [or “saying” (rheʹma)] of faith” (Ro 10:8, Int), “the word [or message (form of loʹgos)] of righteousness” (Heb 5:13), and “the word of the reconciliation” (2Co 5:19). God’s word or message is like “seed,” which, if planted in good soil, brings forth much fruitage (Lu 8:11-15); his sayings are also said to ‘run with speed.’​—Ps 147:15.

Preachers and Teachers of the Word. The greatest exponent and supporter of Jehovah’s inspired word of truth was the Lord Jesus Christ. He astounded people by his methods of teaching (Mt 7:28, 29; Joh 7:46), yet he took no credit to himself, saying, “the word that you are hearing is not mine, but belongs to the Father who sent me.” (Joh 14:24; 17:14; Lu 5:1) Faithful disciples of Christ were those who remained in his word, and this, in turn, set them free from ignorance, superstition, and fear, also from slavery to sin and death. (Joh 8:31, 32) Often it was necessary for Jesus to take issue with the Pharisees, whose traditions and teachings made void “the word [or declaration] of God.”​—Mt 15:6; Mr 7:13.

It is not just a matter of hearing the word of God preached. Rather, acting upon and showing obedience to that message is also essential. (Lu 8:21; 11:28; Jas 1:22, 23) After being well trained for the ministry, the apostles and disciples, in turn, obeyed the word and took up the preaching and teaching themselves. (Ac 4:31; 8:4, 14; 13:7, 44; 15:36; 18:11; 19:10) As a result, “the word of God went on growing, and the number of the disciples kept multiplying.”​—Ac 6:7; 11:1; 12:24; 13:5, 49; 19:20.

The apostles and their associates were no peddlers of the Scriptures, as the false shepherds were. What they preached was the straight, unadulterated message of God. (2Co 2:17; 4:2) The apostle Paul told Timothy: “Do your utmost to present yourself approved to God, a workman with nothing to be ashamed of, handling the word of the truth aright.” Furthermore, Timothy was commanded: “Preach the word, be at it urgently in favorable season, in troublesome season.” (2Ti 2:15; 4:2) Paul also counseled Christian wives to watch their conduct, “so that the word of God may not be spoken of abusively.”​—Tit 2:5.

Ever since the Devil contradicted what God had said in the garden of Eden, there have been many satanic opponents of God’s word. Many persons who have upheld God’s word have lost their lives for doing so, as both Bible prophecy and history testify. (Re 6:9) It is also a fact of history that persecution has failed to stop the proclamation of God’s word.​—Php 1:12-14, 18; 2Ti 2:9.

The Power of God’s Word and Spirit. God’s word exerts tremendous power upon its hearers. It means life. God demonstrated to Israel in the wilderness that “not by bread alone does man live but by every expression of Jehovah’s mouth does man live.” (De 8:3; Mt 4:4) It is “the word of life.” (Php 2:16) Jesus spoke the words of God, and he said: “The sayings [rheʹma·ta] that I have spoken to you are spirit and are life.”​—Joh 6:63.

The apostle Paul wrote: “The word [or message (loʹgos)] of God is alive and exerts power and is sharper than any two-edged sword and pierces even to the dividing of soul and spirit, and of joints and their marrow, and is able to discern thoughts and intentions of the heart.” (Heb 4:12) It reaches the heart and reveals whether one is actually living according to right principles.​—1Co 14:23-25.

The word of God is the truth and can sanctify one for God’s use. (Joh 17:17) It can make a person wise and happy; it can accomplish whatever work God purposes for it. (Ps 19:7-9; Isa 55:10, 11) It can equip a person completely for every good work and can enable him to conquer the wicked one.​—2Ti 3:16, 17; compare 1Jo 2:14.

Of Jesus’ preaching it is said: “God anointed him with holy spirit and power, and he went through the land doing good and healing all those oppressed by the Devil; because God was with him.” (Ac 10:38) The apostle Paul accomplished conversions of persons, even pagans, “not with persuasive words of [men’s] wisdom but with a demonstration of spirit and power.” (1Co 2:4) The words that he spoke by God’s holy spirit, based on the Scriptures, the Word of God, worked powerfully to make the conversions. He told the congregation at Thessalonica: “The good news we preach did not turn up among you with speech alone but also with power and with holy spirit and strong conviction.”​—1Th 1:5.

John the Baptizer came “with Elijah’s spirit and power.” He had Elijah’s “spirit,” his drive and force. Jehovah’s spirit also directed John, so that he spoke the words of God, words that exerted strong power; he was able very successfully to “turn back the hearts of fathers to children and the disobedient ones to the practical wisdom of righteous ones, to get ready for Jehovah a prepared people.”​—Lu 1:17.

The message of the good news from God’s Word the Bible should therefore not be underrated. These words are more powerful than any words men can devise or speak. The ancient Beroeans were commended for “carefully examining the Scriptures” to see whether what an apostle taught was correct. (Ac 17:11) God’s ministers, speaking God’s powerful Word, are energized and backed up by “power of holy spirit.”​—Ro 15:13, 19.

“The Word” as a Title. In the Christian Greek Scriptures “the Word” (Gr., ho Loʹgos) also appears as a title. (Joh 1:1, 14; Re 19:13) The apostle John identified the one to whom this title belongs, namely, Jesus, he being so designated not only during his ministry on earth as a perfect man but also during his prehuman spirit existence as well as after his exaltation to heaven.

“The Word was a god.” Regarding the Son’s prehuman existence, John says: “In the beginning the Word was, and the Word was with God, and the Word was a god.” (Joh 1:1, NW) The King James Version and the Douay Version read: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” This would make it appear that the Word was identical with Almighty God, while the former reading, in the New World Translation, indicates that the Word is not the God, Almighty God, but is a mighty one, a god. (Even the judges of ancient Israel, who wielded great power in the nation, were called “gods.” [Ps 82:6; Joh 10:34, 35]) Actually, in the Greek text, the definite article ho, “the,” appears before the first “God,” but there is no article before the second.

Other translations aid in getting the proper view. The interlinear word-for-word reading of the Greek translation in the Emphatic Diaglott reads: “In a beginning was the Word, and the Word was with the God, and a god was the Word.” The accompanying text of the Diaglott uses capital and small capital letters for the God, and initial capital and lowercase letters for the second appearance of “God” in the sentence: “In the Beginning was the LOGOS, and the LOGOS was with GOD, and the LOGOS was God.”

These renderings would support the fact that Jesus, being the Son of God and the one used by God in creating all other things (Col 1:15-20), is indeed a “god,” a mighty one, and has the quality of mightiness, but is not the Almighty God. Other translations reflect this view. The New English Bible says: “And what God was, the Word was.” The Greek word translated “Word” is Loʹgos; and so Moffatt’s translation reads: “The Logos was divine.” The American Translation reads: “The Word was divine.” Other readings, by German translators, follow. By Böhmer: “It was tightly bound up with God, yes, itself of divine being.” By Stage: “The Word was itself of divine being.” By Menge: “And God (= of divine being) the Word was.” And by Thimme: “And God of a sort the Word was.” All these renderings highlight the quality of the Word, not his identity with his Father, the Almighty God. Being the Son of Jehovah God, he would have the divine quality, for divine means “godlike.”​—Col 2:9; compare 2Pe 1:4, where “divine nature” is promised to Christ’s joint heirs.

The Four Gospels​—A New Translation, by Professor Charles Cutler Torrey (2nd ed., 1947), says: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was god. When he was in the beginning with God all things were created through him; without him came no created thing into being.” (Joh 1:1-3) Note that what the Word is said to be is spelled without a capital initial letter, namely, “god.”

This Word, or Loʹgos, was God’s only direct creation, the only-begotten son of God, and evidently the close associate of God to whom God was speaking when he said: “Let us make man in our image, according to our likeness.” (Ge 1:26) Hence John continued, saying: “This one was in the beginning with God. All things came into existence through him, and apart from him not even one thing came into existence.”​—Joh 1:2, 3.

Other scriptures plainly show that the Word was God’s agent through whom all other things came into existence. There is “one God the Father, out of whom all things are, . . . and there is one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things are.” (1Co 8:6) The Word, God’s Son, was “the beginning of the creation by God,” otherwise described as “the firstborn of all creation; because by means of him all other things were created in the heavens and upon the earth.”​—Re 3:14; Col 1:15, 16.

Earthly ministry and heavenly glorification. In due time a change came about. John explains: “So the Word became flesh and resided among us [as the Lord Jesus Christ], and we had a view of his glory, a glory such as belongs to an only-begotten son from a father.” (Joh 1:14) By becoming flesh, the Word became visible, hearable, feelable to eyewitnesses on earth. In this way men of flesh could have direct contact and association with “the word of life,” which, John says, “was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have viewed attentively and our hands felt.”​—1Jo 1:1-3.

The glorified Lord Jesus Christ continues to carry the title “the Word,” as noted in Revelation 19:11-16. There in a vision of heaven John says he saw a white horse whose rider was called “Faithful and True,” “The Word of God”; and “upon his outer garment, even upon his thigh, he has a name written, King of kings and Lord of lords.”

Why God’s Son is called “the Word.” A title often describes the function served or the duty performed by the bearer. So it was with the title Kal-Hatzé, meaning “the voice or word of the king,” that was given an Abyssinian officer. Based on his travels from 1768 to 1773, James Bruce describes the duties of the Kal-Hatzé as follows. He stood by a window covered with a curtain through which, unseen inside, the king spoke to this officer. He then conveyed the message to the persons or party concerned. Thus the Kal-Hatzé acted as the word or voice of the Abyssinian king.​—Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, London, 1790, Vol. III, p. 265; Vol. IV, p. 76.

Recall, too, that God made Aaron the word or “mouth” of Moses, saying: “He must speak for you to the people; and it must occur that he will serve as a mouth to you, and you will serve as God to him.”​—Ex 4:16.

In a similar way God’s firstborn Son doubtless served as the Mouth, or Spokesman, for his Father, the great King of Eternity. He was God’s Word of communication for conveying information and instructions to the Creator’s other spirit and human sons. It is reasonable to think that prior to Jesus’ coming to earth, on many of the occasions when God communicated with humans he used the Word as his angelic mouthpiece. (Ge 16:7-11; 22:11; 31:11; Ex 3:2-5; Jg 2:1-4; 6:11, 12; 13:3) Since the angel that guided the Israelites through the wilderness had ‘Jehovah’s name within him,’ he may have been God’s Son, the Word.​—Ex 23:20-23; see JESUS CHRIST (Prehuman Existence).

Showing that Jesus continued to serve as his Father’s Spokesman, or Word, during his earthly ministry, he told his listeners: “I have not spoken out of my own impulse, but the Father himself who sent me has given me a commandment as to what to tell and what to speak. . . . Therefore the things I speak, just as the Father has told me them, so I speak them.”​—Joh 12:49, 50; 14:10; 7:16, 17.

The exercise of physical or mental effort to accomplish a purpose or to produce something; work is commended in the Scriptures. (Ec 5:18) It is a gift of God for man to eat, drink, and “see good for all his hard work,” and it is the divine will that man “rejoice in his works.” (Ec 3:13, 22) Work was not first instituted in man’s case after he sinned, for Jehovah gave the perfect, sinless man and woman a work assignment when he commanded them to subdue the earth. (Ge 1:28) However, vain work resulted from sin.​—Ge 3:19; compare Ro 8:20, 21.

Under the Mosaic Law, periods of rest from labor were decreed. The Israelites were not to work on the weekly Sabbath day. (Ex 20:8-11) Also, “no sort of laborious work” was to be done at times of holy convention.​—Le 23:6-8, 21, 24, 25, 34-36.

Jehovah and His Son Are Workers. Jehovah is a worker whose works include creation of such things as the heavens, the earth, animals, and man. (Ge 1:1; 2:1-3; Job 14:15; Ps 8:3-8; 19:1; 104:24; 139:14) It is fitting to acknowledge the greatness of Jehovah’s works, extolling and thanking him for them. (Ps 92:5; 107:15; 145:4-10; 150:2) God’s works are faithful and incomparable, are wrought in wisdom, and are “truth and judgment.”​—Ps 33:4; 86:8; 104:24; 111:7.

Jehovah did a “great work” in effecting the Israelites’ deliverance from Egyptian bondage and enabling them to take possession of Canaan. (Jg 2:7) His works sometimes involve the execution of divine judgment. (Jer 50:25) Thus, through Isaiah, it was foretold: “For Jehovah will rise up . . . that he may work his work​—his work is unusual.” (Isa 28:21) Such an ‘unusual work’ took place in 607 B.C.E. and again in 70 C.E., when Jehovah worked, or brought about, the destruction of Jerusalem and her temple.​—Hab 1:5-9; Ac 13:38-41; see POWER, POWERFUL WORKS.

Wisdom personified is represented as being beside Jehovah in creative work as his “master worker.” (Pr 8:12, 22-31; compare Joh 1:1-3.) When on earth as a man, God’s wise Son, Jesus Christ, showed that he was a worker and that, though material creative works relating to the earth had concluded, Jehovah continued to work, for Jesus said: “My Father has kept working until now, and I keep working.” (Joh 5:17) To Jesus it was as nourishing, satisfying, and refreshing as food to do the work he was assigned by Jehovah. (Joh 4:34; 5:36) Christ’s works were done in his Father’s name; they were from the Father and showed he was “in union with the Father.” (Joh 10:25, 32, 37, 38; 14:10, 11; 15:24; Ac 2:22) Jesus successfully finished his God-assigned work on earth.​—Joh 17:4.

Jesus said: “He that exercises faith in me, that one also will do the works that I do; and he will do works greater than these, because I am going my way to the Father.” (Joh 14:12) Evidently, Christ did not mean that his followers would do works of a more miraculous kind than he did, for there is no Biblical record that any of them performed a miracle surpassing that of Jesus in raising Lazarus who had been dead for four days. (Joh 11:38-44) But, since Jesus was going to the Father, and his followers would receive the holy spirit to be witnesses of him “both in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the most distant part of the earth” (Ac 1:8), they would cover a greater area and work for a longer time than did Jesus, in this sense doing greater works than he did.

Necessity of Working. Jesus Christ said that “the worker is worthy of his wages,” thereby indicating that those who labored in connection with spiritual matters would not lack necessities of life. (Lu 10:7) However, as the apostle Paul pointed out to the Thessalonians, the lazy person who refuses to work does not deserve to eat at the expense of others but should learn to work with his hands to care for his needs. (1Th 4:11; 2Th 3:10, 12) Likewise, the stealer should “steal no more” but “do hard work.”​—Eph 4:28.

Quality of the Work of God’s Servants. When doing any work, the servant of Jehovah should remember his relationship with God, doing everything “whole-souled as to Jehovah, and not to men.” (Col 3:23) This calls for industriousness (Pr 10:4; 13:4; 18:9), honesty, and fidelity. Manifesting such traits brings glory to God, as is evident from the admonition given to Christian slaves: “Let slaves be in subjection to their owners in all things, and please them well, not talking back, not committing theft, but exhibiting good fidelity to the full, so that they may adorn the teaching of our Savior, God, in all things.”​—Tit 2:9, 10; Eph 6:5-8; Heb 13:18.

Proper Evaluation of Acquisitions. Christians should appreciatively look to God for his blessing on their work and not be unduly anxious about their material needs. Jesus advised his followers to seek first the Kingdom. (Mt 6:11, 25-33) He also urged: “Work, not for the food that perishes, but for the food that remains for life everlasting.” (Joh 6:27) Hence, God’s servants wisely view the money and material things obtained as a result of their work as subordinate to the much more important spiritual riches. They also use material resources acquired by labor to advance spiritual interests, and they thus “make friends” with God and Christ.​—Ec 7:12; Lu 12:15-21; 16:9.

Improper Works to Be Avoided. Jehovah determines which works are proper and which works are improper. He “will bring every sort of work into the judgment in relation to every hidden thing, as to whether it is good or bad.” (Ec 12:13, 14) God will also deal with each person according to that one’s work. (Ps 62:12) This and especially love for Jehovah God are good reasons for shunning improper works and doing works that are pleasing in his sight.​—1Jo 5:3; Ps 34:14; 97:10; Am 5:14, 15.

To experience divine favor, Christians must avoid the “works of the flesh,” which include such things as fornication, loose conduct, idolatry, practice of spiritism, hatreds, fits of anger, and drunken bouts. Such practices would bar one from inheriting God’s Kingdom and are evidently included among the “unfruitful works that belong to the darkness,” works that result in no benefit.​—Ga 5:19-21; Eph 5:3-14; 1Pe 4:3; compare Joh 3:20, 21.

Proper Works. Dependence upon Jehovah God is essential if one’s works are to succeed. (Ps 127:1; Pr 16:3) It is God who backs up and strengthens those who work at doing his will. (2Co 4:7; Php 4:13) Whereas the lives of humans abound with vain works (Ec 2:10, 11), works relating to true worship are not in vain. Hebrew Christians were given the assurance: “God is not unrighteous so as to forget your work and the love you showed for his name, in that you have ministered to the holy ones and continue ministering.” (Heb 6:10) Such work evidently included rendering material assistance or other kindnesses to those in need or to those experiencing suffering and persecution. (Compare Eph 4:28; Php 4:14-19; 1Ti 6:17, 18; Jas 1:27.) Other fine works include sharing in making disciples (Mt 28:19, 20; 1Co 3:9-15) and, in the case of men, serving as an overseer in a Christian congregation and teaching fellow believers.​—1Th 5:12, 13; 1Ti 3:1; 5:17.

Faith and Works. Works of the Mosaic Law, which included such things as sacrificial offerings, purifications, and circumcision, did not make a person righteous. (Ro 3:20; 4:1-10; Ga 3:2) Yet, the disciple James​—who is not discussing works of Mosaic Law—​says “a man is to be declared righteous by works, and not by faith alone” (Jas 2:24), for there must be practical works that demonstrate one’s faith, giving proof of it. (Compare Mt 7:21-27; Eph 2:8-10; Jas 1:27; 2:14-17; 4:4.) For example, Abraham had works that proved his faith, such as his willingness to offer up Isaac. Rahab also proved her faith by her works of hiding the Israelite spies.​—Heb 11:17-19; Jas 2:21-25.

This is the usual English term for translating the Greek koʹsmos in all of its occurrences in the Christian Greek Scriptures except 1 Peter 3:3, where it is rendered “adornment.” “World” can mean (1) humankind as a whole, apart from their moral condition or course of life, (2) the framework of human circumstances into which a person is born and in which he lives (and in this sense it is at times quite similar to the Greek ai·onʹ, “system of things”), or (3) the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah’s approved servants.

The King James Version used “world” to render not only koʹsmos but also three other Greek words in some of its renderings of them (ge; ai·onʹ; oi·kou·meʹne) and five different Hebrew words (ʼeʹrets; cheʹdhel; cheʹledh; ʽoh·lamʹ; te·velʹ). This produced a blurring or confused blending of meanings that made it difficult to obtain correct understanding of the scriptures involved. Later translations have served to clear up considerably this confusion.

The Hebrew ʼeʹrets and the Greek ge (from which come the English words “geography” and “geology”) mean “earth; ground; soil; land” (Ge 6:4; Nu 1:1; Mt 2:6; 5:5; 10:29; 13:5), although in some cases they may stand in a figurative sense for the people of the earth, as at Psalm 66:4 and Revelation 13:3. Both ʽoh·lamʹ (Heb.) and ai·onʹ (Gr.) relate basically to a period of time of indefinite length. (Ge 6:3; 17:13; Lu 1:70) Ai·onʹ may also signify the “system of things” characterizing a certain period, age, or epoch. (Ga 1:4) Cheʹledh (Heb.) has a somewhat similar meaning and may be rendered by such terms as “life’s duration” and “system of things.” (Job 11:17; Ps 17:14) Oi·kou·meʹne (Gr.) means the “inhabited earth” (Lu 21:26), and te·velʹ (Heb.) may be rendered “productive land.” (2Sa 22:16) Cheʹdhel (Heb.) occurs only at Isaiah 38:11, and in the King James Version it is rendered “world” in the expression “inhabitants of the world.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (edited by G. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 4, p. 874) suggests the rendering “inhabitants of (the world of) cessation,” while pointing out that most scholars favor the reading of some Hebrew manuscripts that have cheʹledh in place of cheʹdhel. The New World Translation reads “inhabitants of [the land of] cessation.”​—See AGE; EARTH; SYSTEMS OF THINGS.

“Kosmos” and Its Various Senses. The basic meaning of the Greek koʹsmos is “order” or “arrangement.” And to the extent that the concept of beauty is bound up with order and symmetry, koʹsmos also conveys that thought and therefore was often used by the Greeks to mean “adornment,” especially as regards women. It is used in that way at 1 Peter 3:3. Hence also the English word “cosmetic.” The related verb ko·smeʹo has the sense of ‘putting in order’ at Matthew 25:7 and that of ‘adorning’ elsewhere. (Mt 12:44; 23:29; Lu 11:25; 21:5; 1Ti 2:9; Tit 2:10; 1Pe 3:5; Re 21:2, 19) The adjective koʹsmi·os, at 1 Timothy 2:9 and 3:2, describes that which is “well-arranged” or “orderly.”

Evidently because the universe manifests order, Greek philosophers at times applied koʹsmos to the entire visible creation. However, there was no real unanimity of thought among them, some restricting it to the celestial bodies only, others using it for the whole universe. The use of koʹsmos to describe the material creation as a whole appears in some Apocryphal writings (compare Wisdom 9:9; 11:17), these being written during the period when Greek philosophy was making inroads in many Jewish areas. But in the inspired writings of the Christian Greek Scriptures this sense is virtually, perhaps entirely, absent. Some texts may appear to use the term in that sense, such as the account of the apostle’s address to the Athenians at the Areopagus. Paul there said: “The God that made the world [form of koʹsmos] and all the things in it, being, as this One is, Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in handmade temples.” (Ac 17:22-24) Since the use of koʹsmos as meaning the universe was current among the Greeks, Paul might have employed the term in that sense. Even here, however, it is entirely possible that he used it in one of the ways discussed in the rest of this article.

Linked With Mankind. Richard C. Trench’s Synonyms of the New Testament (London, 1961, pp. 201, 202), after presenting the philosophic use of koʹsmos for the universe, says: “From this signification of κόσμος [koʹsmos] as the material universe, . . . followed that of κόσμος as that external framework of things in which man lives and moves, which exists for him and of which he constitutes the moral centre (John xvi. 21; I Cor. xiv. 10; I John iii. 17); . . . and then the men themselves, the sum total of persons living in the world (John i. 29; iv. 42; II Cor. v. 19); and then upon this, and ethically, all not of the ἐκκλησία [ek·kle·siʹa; the church or congregation], alienated from the life of God and by wicked works enemies to Him (I Cor. i. 20, 21; II Cor. vii. 10; Jam. iv. 4).”

Similarly, the book Studies in the Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament, by K. S. Wuest (1946, p. 57), quotes Greek scholar Cremer as saying: “As kosmos is regarded as that order of things whose center is man, attention is directed chiefly to him, and kosmos denotes mankind within that order of things, humanity as it manifests itself in and through such an order (Mt. 18:7).”

All humankind. Koʹsmos, or the “world,” is therefore closely linked and bound up with mankind. This is true in secular Greek literature and is particularly so in Scripture. When Jesus said that the man walking in daylight “sees the light of this world [form of koʹsmos]” (Joh 11:9), it might appear that by “world” is meant simply the planet Earth, which has the sun as its source of daylight. However, his next words speak of the man walking at night who bumps into something “because the light is not in him.” (Joh 11:10) It is primarily for mankind that God gave the sun and other heavenly bodies. (Compare Ge 1:14; Ps 8:3-8; Mt 5:45.) Similarly, using light in a spiritual sense, Jesus told his followers they would be “the light of the world” (Mt 5:14), certainly not meaning they would illuminate the planet, for he goes on to show their illuminating would be for mankind, “before men.” (Mt 5:16; compare Joh 3:19; 8:12; 9:5; 12:46; Php 2:15.) The preaching of the good news “in all the world” (Mt 26:13) also means preaching it to mankind as a whole, even as in some languages “all the world” is the common way of saying “everybody” (compare French tout le monde; Spanish todo el mundo).​—Compare Joh 8:26; 18:20; Ro 1:8; Col 1:5, 6.

In one basic sense, then, koʹsmos refers to all humankind. The Scriptures therefore describe the koʹsmos, or world, as being guilty of sin (Joh 1:29; Ro 3:19; 5:12, 13) and needing a savior to give it life (Joh 4:42; 6:33, 51; 12:47; 1Jo 4:14), things applicable only to mankind, not to the inanimate creation nor to the animals. This is the world that God loved so much that “he gave his only-begotten Son, in order that everyone exercising faith in him might not be destroyed but have everlasting life.” (Joh 3:16, 17; compare 2Co 5:19; 1Ti 1:15; 1Jo 2:2.) That world of mankind forms the field in which Jesus Christ sowed the fine seed, “the sons of the kingdom.”​—Mt 13:24, 37, 38.

When Paul says that God’s “invisible qualities are clearly seen from the world’s creation onward, because they are perceived by the things made,” he must mean from the creation of mankind forward, for only when mankind appeared were there minds on earth capable of ‘perceiving’ such invisible qualities by means of the visible creation.​—Ro 1:20.

Similarly, John 1:10 says of Jesus that “the world [koʹsmos] came into existence through him.” While it is true that Jesus shared in the production of all things, including the heavens and the planet Earth and all things in it, koʹsmos here applies primarily to humankind in whose production Jesus likewise shared. (Compare Joh 1:3; Col 1:15-17; Ge 1:26.) Hence, the rest of the verse says: “But the world [that is, the world of mankind] did not know him.”

“The founding of the world.” This clear connection of koʹsmos with the world of mankind also aids one in understanding what is meant by “the founding of the world,” as referred to in a number of texts. These texts speak of certain things as taking place ‘from the founding of the world.’ These include the ‘shedding of the blood of the prophets’ from the time of Abel onward, a ‘kingdom prepared,’ and ‘names being written on the scroll of life.’ (Lu 11:50, 51; Mt 25:34; Re 13:8; 17:8; compare Mt 13:35; Heb 9:26.) Such things relate to human life and activity, and hence “the founding of the world” must relate to the beginning of mankind, not of the inanimate creation or the animal creation. Hebrews 4:3 shows that God’s creative works were, not started, but “finished from the founding of the world.” Since Eve was evidently the last of Jehovah’s earthly creative works, the world’s founding could not precede her.

As shown under ABEL (No. 1) and FOREKNOWLEDGE, FOREORDINATION (Foreordination of the Messiah), the Greek term (ka·ta·bo·leʹ) for “founding” can refer to human conception and the subsequent birth of children. Ka·ta·bo·leʹ literally means “a throwing down [of seed]” and at Hebrews 11:11 may be rendered “conceive” (RS, NW). Its use there evidently refers to Abraham’s ‘throwing down’ human seed for the begetting of a son and Sarah’s receiving that seed so as to be fertilized.

Therefore “the founding of the world” need not be taken to mean the beginning of the creation of the material universe, nor does the expression “before the founding of the world” (Joh 17:5, 24; Eph 1:4; 1Pe 1:20) refer to a point of time prior to the creation of the material universe. Rather, these expressions evidently relate to the time when the human race was ‘founded’ through the first human pair, Adam and Eve, who, outside of Eden, began to conceive seed and produce children that could benefit from God’s provisions for deliverance from inherited sin.​—Ge 3:20-24; 4:1, 2.

‘Spectacle to world, both to angels and men.’ Some have understood the use of the word koʹsmos in 1 Corinthians 4:9 to include both invisible spirit creatures and visible human creatures, by the rendering: “We are made a spectacle unto the world, both to angels and men.” (AS) However, the footnote offers an alternative reading in saying: “Or, and to angels, and to men.” This latter rendering is also the way in which other versions render the Greek text here. (KJ; La; Mo; Vg; CC; Murdock) Young’s translation reads: “A spectacle we became to the world, and messengers, and men.” Just preceding this, in 1 Corinthians 1:20, 21, 27, 28; 2:12; 3:19, 22 the writer uses the word koʹsmos to mean the world of humankind, so that evidently he does not depart from that sense immediately afterward in 1 Corinthians 4:9, 13. Hence, if the rendering “both to angels and men” is admitted, the expression is merely an intensification, not to enlarge the meaning of the word koʹsmos, but to enlarge on the spectatorship as going beyond the world of mankind, so as to include “angels” as well as “men.”​—Compare Ro.

The human sphere of life and its framework. This does not mean that koʹsmos loses all of its original sense of “order” or “arrangement” and becomes merely a synonym for mankind. Mankind itself reflects a certain order, being composed of families, tribes, and having developed into nations and language groups (1Co 14:10; Re 7:9; 14:6), with their wealthy and poor classes and other groupings. (Jas 2:5, 6) A framework of things that surround and affect mankind has been built up on earth as mankind has grown in number and in years of existence. When Jesus spoke of a man as ‘gaining the whole world but forfeiting his soul in the process,’ he evidently meant gaining all that the human sphere of life and human society as a whole could offer. (Mt 16:26; compare 6:25-32.) Of similar significance are Paul’s words about those “making use of the world” and the married persons’ ‘anxiety for the things of the world’ (1Co 7:31-34), as also is John’s reference to “this world’s means for supporting life.”​—1Jo 3:17; compare 1Co 3:22.

In the sense of signifying the framework, order, or sphere of human life, koʹsmos has a meaning similar to that of the Greek ai·onʹ. In some cases the two words can almost be interchanged. For example, Demas is reported to have forsaken the apostle Paul because he “loved the present system of things [ai·oʹna]”; while the apostle John warned against ‘loving the world [koʹsmon]’ with its way of life that appeals to the sinful flesh. (2Ti 4:10; 1Jo 2:15-17) And the one who is described at John 12:31 as “the ruler of this world [koʹsmou]” is identified at 2 Corinthians 4:4 as “the god of this system of things [ai·oʹnos].”

At the close of his Gospel, the apostle John says that if all the things Jesus did were set down in full detail, he supposed “the world [form of koʹsmos] itself could not contain the scrolls written.” (Joh 21:25) He did not use ge (the earth) or oi·kou·meʹne (the inhabited earth) and thereby say that the planet could not contain the scrolls, but he used koʹsmos, evidently meaning that human society (with its then existing library space) was not in position to receive the voluminous records (in the book style then used) that this would have entailed. Compare also such texts as John 7:4; 12:19 for similar uses of koʹsmos.

Coming “into the world.” When one is ‘born into this world,’ then, he is not merely born among mankind but also comes into the framework of human circumstances in which men live. (Joh 16:21; 1Ti 6:7) However, while references to one’s going or coming into the world may refer to one’s birth into the human sphere of life, this is not always the case. Jesus, for example, in prayer to God said: “Just as you sent me forth into the world, I also sent them [his disciples] forth into the world.” (Joh 17:18) He sent them into the world as grown men, not as newborn babes. John speaks of false prophets and deceivers as having “gone forth into the world.”​—1Jo 4:1; 2Jo 7.

The many references to Jesus’ ‘coming or being sent forth into the world’ evidently do not refer primarily, if at all, to his human birth but more reasonably apply to his going out among mankind, publicly carrying out his assigned ministry from and after his baptism and anointing, acting as a light bearer to the world of mankind. (Compare Joh 1:9; 3:17, 19; 6:14; 9:39; 10:36; 11:27; 12:46; 1Jo 4:9.) His human birth was solely a necessary means to that end. (Joh 18:37) In corroboration of this, the writer of Hebrews represents Jesus as speaking words from Psalm 40:6-8 “when he comes into the world,” and Jesus logically did not do this as a newborn babe.​—Heb 10:5-10.

When his public ministry among mankind came to its close, Jesus knew “that his hour had come for him to move out of this world to the Father.” He would die as a man and would be resurrected to life in the spirit realm from which he had come.​—Joh 13:1; 16:28; 17:11; compare Joh 8:23.

“The elementary things of the world.” At Galatians 4:1-3, after showing that a child is like a slave in the sense of being under the stewardship of others until he is of age, Paul states: “Likewise we also, when we were babes, continued enslaved by the elementary things [stoi·kheiʹa] belonging to the world.” He then proceeds to show that God’s Son came at the “full limit of the time” and released those becoming his disciples from being under the Law that they might receive the adoption of sons. (Ga 4:4-7) Similarly at Colossians 2:8, 9, 20 he warns the Christians at Colossae against being carried off “through the philosophy and empty deception according to the tradition of men, according to the elementary things [stoi·kheiʹa] of the world and not according to Christ; because it is in him that all the fullness of the divine quality dwells bodily,” stressing that they “died together with Christ toward the elementary things of the world.”

Of the Greek word stoi·kheiʹa (plural of stoi·kheiʹon) used by Paul, The Pulpit Commentary (Galatians, p. 181) says: “From the primary sense of ‘stakes placed in a row,’ . . . the term [stoi·kheiʹa] was applied to the letters of the alphabet as placed in rows, and thence to the primary constituents of speech; then to the primary constituents of all objects in nature, as, for example, the four ‘elements’ (see 2 Pet. iii. 10, 12); and to the ‘rudiments’ or first ‘elements’ of any branch of knowledge. It is in this last sense that it occurs in Heb. v. 12.” (Edited by C. Spence, London, 1885) The related verb stoi·kheʹo means “walk orderly.”​—Ga 6:16.

In his letters to the Galatians and Colossians, Paul was evidently not referring to the basic or component parts of the material creation but, rather, as German scholar Heinrich A. W. Meyer’s Critical and Exegetical Hand-Book (1884, Galatians, p. 168) observes, to “the elements of non-Christian humanity,” that is, to its fundamental, or primary, principles. Paul’s writings show this would include the philosophies and deceptive teachings based purely on human standards, concepts, reasoning, and mythology, such as the Greeks and other pagan peoples reveled in. (Col 2:8) However, it is clear that he also used the term as embracing things of a Jewish nature, not only non-Biblical Jewish teachings calling for asceticism or “worship of the angels” but also the teaching that Christians should put themselves under obligation to keep the Mosaic Law.​—Col 2:16-18; Ga 4:4, 5, 21.

True, the Mosaic Law was of divine origin. However, it had now been fulfilled in Christ Jesus, “the reality” to which its shadows pointed, and it was therefore obsolete. (Col 2:13-17) Additionally, the tabernacle (and later temple) was “worldly” or of human construction, hence, “mundane” (Gr., ko·smi·konʹ; Heb 9:1, Mo), that is, of the human sphere, not heavenly or spiritual, and the requirements related thereto were “legal requirements pertaining to the flesh and were imposed until the appointed time to set things straight.” Christ Jesus had now entered into the “greater and more perfect tent not made with hands, that is, not of this creation,” into heaven itself. (Heb 9:8-14, 23, 24) He himself had told a Samaritan woman that the time was coming when the temple at Jerusalem would no longer be used as an essential part of true worship but that the true worshipers would “worship the Father with spirit and truth.” (Joh 4:21-24) So the need to employ such things that were only “typical representations” (Heb 9:23) within the human sphere picturing the greater things of a heavenly nature had ceased with Christ Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven.

Hence the Galatian and Colossian Christians could now worship according to the superior way based on Christ Jesus. He, and not humans and their principles or teachings, or even the “legal requirements pertaining to the flesh” as found in the Law covenant, should be recognized as the appointed standard and the full means of measuring the truth of any teaching or way of life. (Col 2:9) Christians should not be like children by voluntarily placing themselves under that which was likened to a pedagogue or tutor, namely, the Mosaic Law (Ga 3:23-26), but they were to be in a relationship with God like that of a grown son with his father. The law was elementary, “the A B C of religion,” as compared with the Christian teaching. (H. Meyer’s Critical and Exegetical Hand-Book, 1885, Colossians, p. 292) Anointed Christians, because of their being begotten to heavenly life, had, in effect, died and been impaled to the koʹsmos of the human sphere of life, in which regulations such as fleshly circumcision had been in force; they had become “a new creation.” (2Co 5:17; Col 2:11, 12, 20-23; compare Ga 6:12-15; Joh 8:23.) They knew that Jesus’ Kingdom was not from a human source. (Joh 18:36) They certainly should not turn back to “the weak and beggarly elementary things” of the human sphere (Ga 4:9) and thereby be deluded into giving up the “riches of the full assurance of their understanding” and “accurate knowledge of the sacred secret of God, namely, Christ,” in whom are concealed “all the treasures of wisdom and of knowledge.”​—Col 2:1-4.

The world alienated from God. A use of koʹsmos unique to the Scriptures is in making it stand for the world of mankind apart from God’s servants. Peter writes that God brought the Deluge “upon a world of ungodly people,” while preserving Noah and his family; in this way “the world of that time suffered destruction when it was deluged with water.” (2Pe 2:5; 3:6) It may again be noted that the reference here is not to the destruction of the planet or of the celestial bodies of the universe, but it is restricted to the human sphere, in this case the unrighteous human society. It was that “world” that Noah condemned by his faithful course.​—Heb 11:7.

The pre-Flood unrighteous world, or human society, ended, but mankind itself did not end, being preserved in Noah and his family. After the Flood the majority of mankind again deviated from righteousness, producing another wicked human society. Still there were those who took a separate course, adhering to righteousness. In course of time God designated Israel as his chosen people, bringing them into covenant relationship with himself. Because the Israelites were thus made distinct from the world in general, Paul could use koʹsmos, “world,” as equivalent to the non-Israelite “people of the nations,” or “Gentiles,” at Romans 11:12-15. (NW; KJ) He there pointed out that Israel’s apostasy led to God’s revoking his covenant relationship with them and that it opened up the way for the Gentiles to enter into such relationship and its riches, by being reconciled to God. (Compare Eph 2:11-13.) The “world,” or koʹsmos, then, during this post-Flood and pre-Christian period again designated all humanity outside of God’s approved servants, and specifically those outside Israel during the period of its covenant relationship with Jehovah.​—Compare Heb 11:38.

In a similar manner and with great frequency, koʹsmos is used to signify all non-Christian human society, regardless of race. This is the world that hated Jesus and his followers because they bore witness concerning its unrighteousness and because they maintained separateness from it; such world thereby showed hatred for Jehovah God himself and did not come to know him. (Joh 7:7; 15:17-25; 16:19, 20; 17:14, 25; 1Jo 3:1, 13) Over this world of unrighteous human society and its kingdoms, God’s Adversary, Satan the Devil, exercises rulership; in fact, he has made himself “the god” of such world. (Mt 4:8, 9; Joh 12:31; 14:30; 16:11; compare 2Co 4:4.) God did not produce such unrighteous world; it owes its development to his chief Opposer, in whose power “the whole world is lying.” (1Jo 4:4, 5; 5:18, 19) Satan and his “wicked spirit forces in the heavenly places” act as the invisible “world rulers [or, cosmocrats; Gr., ko·smo·kraʹto·ras]” over the world alienated from God.​—Eph 6:11, 12.

Not simply humanity, of which Jesus’ disciples were a part, but the whole organized human society that exists outside the true Christian congregation is meant in such texts. Otherwise Christians could not cease to be a “part of the world” without dying and ceasing to live in the flesh. (Joh 17:6; 15:19) Though unavoidably living in the midst of that society of worldly persons, including those engaging in fornication, idolatry, extortion, and similar practices (1Co 5:9-13), such Christians must keep themselves clean and unspotted by that world’s corruption and defilement, not entering into friendly relations with it, lest they be condemned with it. (1Co 11:32; Jas 1:27; 4:4; 2Pe 1:4; 2:20; compare 1Pe 4:3-6.) They cannot be guided by worldly wisdom, which is foolishness in God’s sight, nor can they ‘breathe in’ the “spirit of the world,” that is, its selfish and sinful activating force. (1Co 1:21; 2:12; 3:19; 2Co 1:12; Tit 2:12; compare Joh 14:16, 17; Eph 2:1, 2; 1Jo 2:15-17; see SPIRIT [Impelling Mental Inclination].) Thus, through their faith they ‘conquer the world’ of unrighteous human society, even as did God’s Son. (Joh 16:33; 1Jo 4:4; 5:4, 5) That unrighteous human society is due to pass away by divine destruction (1Jo 2:17), even as the ungodly pre-Flood world perished.​—2Pe 3:6.

Ungodly world ends; humankind preserved. Thus, the koʹsmos for which Jesus died must mean the world of mankind viewed simply as the human family, all human flesh. (Joh 3:16, 17) As to the world in the sense of human society alienated from God and in actual enmity toward God, Jesus did not pray on behalf of such world but only for those who came out of that world and put faith in him. (Joh 17:8, 9) Even as human flesh survived the destruction of the ungodly human society, or world, in the Deluge, so Jesus showed that human flesh is to survive the great tribulation that he likened to that Flood. (Mt 24:21, 22, 36-39; compare Re 7:9-17.) “The kingdom of the world” (evidently meaning of humankind) is, in fact, promised to become “the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ,” and those reigning with Christ in his heavenly Kingdom are due to “rule as kings over the earth,” hence over humankind apart from the deceased ungodly human society dominated by Satan.​—Re 11:15; 5:9, 10.

[Heb., toh·le·ʽahʹ or toh·laʹʽath].

Any of a great variety of slender crawling or creeping animals, usually having soft bodies and being legless or virtually so. In Scripture, “worm” often appears to denote the larval stage of insects, particularly maggots. (Ex 16:20, 24; Isa 14:11; 66:24) At other times the reference is not to maggots but to worms that feed on vegetation.​—De 28:39; Jon 4:7.

The term “worm” also appears in an illustrative setting. Bildad disparagingly spoke of man as a worm (Job 25:6), and it was foretold that the Messiah would be viewed as a reproach and despicable, as a worm. (Ps 22:6) Jehovah God referred to Israel as a worm, a lowly and helpless creature, seemingly at the mercy of anyone passing by. But Jehovah assured the Israelites of his help and encouraged them not to be afraid.​—Isa 41:14.

[Heb., la·ʽanahʹ; Gr., aʹpsin·thos].

This designates many, frequently somewhat woody, plants having an intensely bitter taste and a strong aromatic odor. Several varieties of wormwood are found in Palestine, particularly in desert areas. The most common is the Artemisia herba-alba, a small shrub growing 40 cm (16 in.) tall. In Scripture, wormwood is compared to the aftereffects of immorality (Pr 5:4) and the bitter experience that was to come and did come upon Judah and Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians. (Jer 9:15; 23:15; La 3:15, 19) It also represents injustice and unrighteousness (Am 5:7; 6:12) and is used with reference to apostates. (De 29:18) At Revelation 8:11, wormwood denotes a bitter and poisonous substance, also called absinthe.

The rendering of reverent honor or homage. True worship of the Creator embraces every aspect of an individual’s life. The apostle Paul wrote to the Corinthians: “Whether you are eating or drinking or doing anything else, do all things for God’s glory.”​—1Co 10:31.

When Jehovah God created Adam, He did not prescribe a particular ceremony or a means by which perfect man might approach Him in worship. Nevertheless, Adam was able to serve or worship his Creator by faithfully doing the will of his heavenly Father. Later, to the nation of Israel, Jehovah did outline a certain way of approach in worship, including sacrifice, a priesthood, and a material sanctuary. (See APPROACH TO GOD.) This, however, had only “a shadow of the good things to come, but not the very substance of the things.” (Heb 10:1) The primary emphasis has always been on exercising faith​—doing the will of Jehovah God—​and not on ceremony or ritual.​—Mt 7:21; Jas 2:17-26.

As the prophet Micah put it: “With what shall I confront Jehovah? With what shall I bow myself to God on high? Shall I confront him with whole burnt offerings, with calves a year old? Will Jehovah be pleased with thousands of rams, with tens of thousands of torrents of oil? Shall I give my firstborn son for my revolt, the fruitage of my belly for the sin of my soul? He has told you, O earthling man, what is good. And what is Jehovah asking back from you but to exercise justice and to love kindness and to be modest in walking with your God?”​—Mic 6:6-8; compare Ps 50:8-15, 23.

Hebrew and Greek Terms. Most Hebrew and Greek words that can denote worship can also be applied to acts other than worship. However, the context determines in what way the respective words are to be understood.

One of the Hebrew words conveying the idea of worship (ʽa·vadhʹ) basically means “serve.” (Ge 14:4; 15:13; 29:15) Serving or worshiping Jehovah required obedience to all of his commands, doing his will as a person exclusively devoted to him. (Ex 19:5; De 30:15-20; Jos 24:14, 15) Therefore, for an individual to engage in any ritual or act of devotion toward any other gods signified his abandoning true worship.​—De 11:13-17; Jg 3:6, 7.

Another Hebrew term that can denote worship is hish·ta·chawahʹ, which primarily means “bow down” (Ge 18:2), or do obeisance. (See OBEISANCE.) Whereas such bowing could at times simply be an act of respect or of courteous regard toward another person (Ge 19:1, 2; 33:1-6; 37:9, 10), it could also be an expression of worship, indicating one’s reverence and gratitude to God and submission to his will. When used with reference to the true God or false deities, the word hish·ta·chawahʹ is at times associated with sacrifice and prayer. (Ge 22:5-7; 24:26, 27; Isa 44:17) This would indicate that it was common to bow down when praying or offering sacrifice.​—See PRAYER.

The Hebrew root sa·ghadhʹ (Isa 44:15, 17, 19; 46:6) basically signifies “prostrate oneself.” The Aramaic equivalent is usually associated with worship (Da 3:5-7, 10-15, 18, 28), but it is used at Daniel 2:46 to refer to King Nebuchadnezzar’s paying homage to Daniel, prostrating himself before the prophet.

The Greek verb la·treuʹo (Lu 1:74; 2:37; 4:8; Ac 7:7) and the noun la·treiʹa (Joh 16:2; Ro 9:4) convey the idea of rendering not merely an ordinary, mundane service but sacred service.

The Greek word pro·sky·neʹo corresponds closely to the Hebrew term hish·ta·chawahʹ in expressing the thought of obeisance and, at times, worship. The term pro·sky·neʹo is used in connection with a slave’s doing obeisance to a king (Mt 18:26) as well as the act Satan stipulated when he offered Jesus all the kingdoms of the world and their glory. (Mt 4:8, 9) Had he done obeisance to the Devil, Jesus would thereby have signified submission to Satan and made himself the Devil’s servant. But Jesus refused, saying: “Go away, Satan! For it is written, ‘It is Jehovah your God you must worship [form of Gr. pro·sky·neʹo or, in the Deuteronomy account that Jesus was quoting, Heb. hish·ta·chawahʹ], and it is to him alone you must render sacred service [form of Gr. la·treuʹo or Heb. ʽa·vadhʹ].’” (Mt 4:10; De 5:9; 6:13) Similarly, worship, obeisance, or bowing down to “the wild beast” and its “image” is linked with service, for the worshipers are identified as supporters of “the wild beast” and its “image” by having a mark either on the hand (with which one serves) or on the forehead (for all to see). Since the Devil gives the wild beast its authority, worshiping the wild beast means, in reality, worshiping or serving the Devil.​—Re 13:4, 15-17; 14:9-11.

Other Greek words associated with worship are drawn from eu·se·beʹo, thre·skeuʹo, and seʹbo·mai. The word eu·se·beʹo means “give godly devotion to” or “venerate, revere.” (See GODLY DEVOTION.) At Acts 17:23 this term is used with reference to the godly devotion or veneration that the men of Athens were giving to an “Unknown God.” From thre·skeuʹo comes the noun thre·skeiʹa, understood to designate a “form of worship,” whether true or false. (Ac 26:5; Col 2:18) The true worship practiced by Christians was marked by genuine concern for the poor and complete separateness from the ungodly world. (Jas 1:26, 27) The word seʹbo·mai (Mt 15:9; Mr 7:7; Ac 18:7; 19:27) and the related term se·baʹzo·mai (Ro 1:25) mean “revere; venerate; worship.” Objects of worship or of devotion are designated by the noun seʹba·sma. (Ac 17:23; 2Th 2:4) Two other terms are from the same verb stem, with the prefix The·osʹ, God. These are the·o·se·besʹ, meaning “God-revering” (Joh 9:31), and the·o·seʹbei·a, denoting “reverence of God.” (1Ti 2:10) These two terms correspond somewhat to the German word for “public worship,” namely, Gottesdienst (a combination of “God” and “service”).

Worship That Is Acceptable to God. Jehovah God accepts only the worship of those who comport themselves in harmony with his will. (Mt 15:9; Mr 7:7) To a Samaritan woman Christ Jesus said: “The hour is coming when neither in this mountain [Gerizim] nor in Jerusalem will you people worship the Father. You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know . . . Nevertheless, the hour is coming, and it is now, when the true worshipers will worship the Father with spirit and truth, for, indeed, the Father is looking for suchlike ones to worship him. God is a Spirit, and those worshiping him must worship with spirit and truth.”​—Joh 4:21-24.

The words of Jesus clearly showed that true worship would not depend upon the presence or use of visible things and geographic locations. Instead of relying on sight or touch, the true worshiper exercises faith and, regardless of the place or things about him, maintains a worshipful attitude. Thus he worships, not with the aid of something that he can see or touch, but with spirit. Since he has the truth as revealed by God, his worship is in agreement with the truth. Having become acquainted with God through the Bible and evidence of the operation of God’s spirit in his life, the person who worships with spirit and truth definitely ‘knows what he is worshiping.’

See ANGER.

The act of inscribing on a surface letters or characters that convey words or ideas. The first man, Adam, was endowed with the ability to speak a language. Initially, however, there would have been little, if any, need for him to write. Adam was then able to handle all communication by word of mouth and, as a perfect man, did not have to depend on a written record to offset an imperfect memory. Nevertheless, Adam must have had the ability to devise some means of making a written record. But the Bible provides no direct proof that he wrote either before or after his transgression.

The thought has been advanced that the words, “this is the book of Adam’s history,” may indicate that Adam was the writer of this “book.” (Ge 5:1) Commenting on the phrase “this is the history” (“these are the origins”), occurring frequently throughout Genesis, P. J. Wiseman notes: “It is the concluding sentence of each section, and therefore points backward to a narrative already recorded. . . . It normally refers to the writer of the history, or the owner of the tablet containing it.”​—New Discoveries in Babylonia About Genesis, 1949, p. 53.

Examination of the contents of these histories casts considerable doubt on the correctness of the view advanced by Wiseman. For example, according to this view, the section beginning with Genesis chapter 36, verse 10, would conclude with the words of Genesis 37:2, “This is the history of Jacob.” However, nearly the entire record pertains to Esau’s offspring and makes only incidental reference to Jacob. On the other hand, the information that follows presents extensive information about Jacob and his family. Moreover, if the theory were correct, this would mean that Ishmael and Esau were the writers or possessors of the most extensive documents about God’s dealings with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. This does not appear to be reasonable, for it would make those who had no share in the Abrahamic covenant the ones who had the greatest interest in that covenant. It would be hard to conceive that Ishmael had such concern about events associated with Abraham’s household that he put forth efforts to get a detailed record of them, a record that spanned many years after his being dismissed along with his mother Hagar.​—Ge 11:27b–25:12.

Similarly, there would have been no reason for Esau, who had no appreciation for sacred things (Heb 12:16), to have written or to have been the possessor of an account dealing extensively with events in Jacob’s life, events to which Esau was not an eyewitness. (Ge 25:19–36:1) Also, it does not seem logical to conclude that Isaac and Jacob would have largely ignored God’s dealings with them, being content to have only brief records about someone else’s genealogies.​—Ge 25:13-19a; 36:10–37:2a.

Writing Before the Flood. There is no way to establish definitely that some of the histories mentioned in the book of Genesis were committed to writing before the Flood, and the Bible contains no references to pre-Flood writing. However, it should be noted that the building of cities, the development of musical instruments, and the forging of iron and copper tools had their start long before the Flood. (Ge 4:17, 21, 22) Reasonably, therefore, men would have had little difficulty in also developing a method of writing. Since there was only one language originally (which later became known as Hebrew; see HEBREW, II) and since those who continued to speak that language, the Israelites, are known to have used an alphabet, this suggests that alphabetic writing could have existed before the Flood.

Assyrian King Ashurbanipal spoke of reading “inscriptions on stone from the time before the flood.” (Light From the Ancient Past, by J. Finegan, 1959, pp. 216, 217) But these inscriptions may have simply preceded a local flood of considerable proportions or could have been accounts that purported to relate events prior to the Flood. For example, what is termed “The Sumerian King List,” after mentioning that eight kings ruled for 241,000 years, states: “(Then) the Flood swept over (the earth).” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 265) Such record, clearly, is not authentic.

According to Bible chronology, the global Flood of Noah’s day occurred in 2370 B.C.E. Archaeologists have assigned dates earlier than this to numerous clay tablets they have excavated. But these clay tablets are not dated documents. Hence the dates that have been assigned to them are merely conjectural and provide no solid basis for establishing a relationship in time to the Biblical Flood. None of the artifacts that have been excavated are definitely known to date from pre-Flood times. Archaeologists who have assigned items to the pre-Flood period have done so on the basis of findings that, at best, can only be interpreted to give evidence of a great local flood.

Writing After the Flood. After the confusion of man’s original language at Babel, various systems of writing came into existence. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and other peoples used cuneiform (wedge-shaped) script, which is thought to have been developed by the Sumerians from their pictographic writing. There is evidence that more than one writing system was used at the same time. For example, an ancient Assyrian wall painting depicts two scribes, one making cuneiform impressions on a tablet with a stylus (likely in Akkadian) and the other writing with a brush on a piece of skin or papyrus (possibly in Aramaic). Egyptian hieroglyphic writing consisted of distinct pictorial representations and geometric forms. Though hieroglyphic writing continued to be employed for inscriptions on monuments and wall paintings, two other forms of writing (first hieratic and then demotic) came into use. (See EGYPT, EGYPTIAN.) In nonalphabetic systems, a pictorial representation (or its later, often irrecognizable, linear or cursive form) could stand for the object depicted, an idea conveyed by the object, or another word or syllable having the same pronunciation. By way of illustration, a simple drawing of an eye could be used in English to designate an “eye,” the personal pronoun “I,” the verb “see,” the noun “sea,” or the initial syllable of “season.”

The alphabetic system employed by the Israelites was phonetic, with each written consonant symbol representing a particular consonant sound. The vowel sounds, however, had to be supplied by the reader, the context determining the word intended in the case of terms having the same spelling but a different combination of vowel sounds. This posed no real problem; even modern Hebrew magazines, newspapers, and books omit vowel points almost entirely.

Literacy Among the Israelites. Priests of Israel (Nu 5:23) and prominent persons, like Moses (Ex 24:4), Joshua (Jos 24:26), Samuel (1Sa 10:25), David (2Sa 11:14, 15), and Jehu (2Ki 10:1, 6), knew how to read and write, and the people in general, with some exceptions, were literate also. (Compare Jg 8:14; Isa 10:19; 29:12.) Though apparently figurative, the command for the Israelites to write upon the doorposts of their houses implied that they were literate. (De 6:8, 9) And the Law required that the king, upon taking his throne, write out for himself a copy of the Law and read in it daily.​—De 17:18, 19; see BOOK.

Although Hebrew written material was evidently quite common, few Israelite inscriptions have been found. Likely this is because the Israelites did not erect many monuments to extol their achievements. Most of the writing, including the books of the Bible, was doubtless done with ink on papyrus or parchment and, therefore, would not have lasted long in the damp soil of Palestine. The message of the Scriptures, however, was preserved throughout the centuries by painstaking copying and recopying. (See COPYIST; MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE; SCRIBE.) The Bible’s history alone reaches to man’s very beginning and even beyond. (Ge chaps 1, 2) The records engraved on stone and inscribed on clay tablets, prisms, and cylinders may, in some cases, be much older than the most ancient extant Bible manuscript, yet those records have no real effect on the lives of people today​—many of them (like The Sumerian King List) contain outright falsehoods. Hence, among ancient writings, the Bible stands out as unique in presenting a meaningful message that deserves much more than passing interest.