(Taʹa·nach).

An enclave city of Manasseh in the territory of Issachar (Jos 17:11; 1Ch 7:29) that was assigned to the Kohathite Levites. (Jos 21:20, 25) Under the command of Joshua, the Israelites defeated the king of Taanach. (Jos 12:7, 21) But the Manassites failed to drive out the Canaanites from this and other cities. Eventually, however, these Canaanites were put to forced labor. (Jg 1:27, 28) In the time of Judge Barak the forces of Jabin the king of Hazor, led by his army chief Sisera, were defeated at Taanach. (Jg 5:19) During Solomon’s reign the city was in the district assigned to Baana, one of the 12 deputies in charge of supplying food for the royal table. (1Ki 4:7, 12) Archaeological evidence from Taanach and the relief on a temple wall at Karnak indicate that the city was taken by Pharaoh Shishak when he invaded Palestine in the fifth year of the reign of Solomon’s son and successor Rehoboam.​—2Ch 12:2-4.

Taanach is identified with Tell Taʽanakh, about 8 km (5 mi) SSE of Megiddo and on the south edge of the Plain of Jezreel (ʽEmeq Yizreʽel). The site occupied an important position on at least two trade routes, one leading to the Plain of Acco and the other to the Plain of Sharon.

(Taʹa·nath-shiʹloh).

A site on Ephraim’s border. (Jos 16:5, 6) It is identified with Khirbet Taʽna el-Fauqa, about 10 km (6 mi) ESE of Shechem.

(Tab·baʹoth) [Signet Rings].

Forefather of a family of Nethinim. Some of his descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43; Ne 7:46.

(Tabʹbath).

After being attacked by Gideon’s forces, the enemy Midianites fled “as far as the outskirts of Abel-meholah by Tabbath.” (Jg 7:12, 19-22) Tabbath is tentatively identified with Ras Abu Tabat, about 5 km (3 mi) E of the Jordan River and 10 km (6 mi) N of Succoth. Abel-meholah apparently was W of the Jordan and is spoken of as “by [“opposite,” JB] Tabbath.”​—See ABEL-MEHOLAH.

(Tabʹe·el) [Good Is God].

1. Father of a man whom the kings of Israel and Syria intended to place on the throne in Jerusalem if they captured Judah’s capital. The name of the son is not given. The incident occurred during the period when the reigns of Ahaz and Pekah overlapped (between about 762 and 759 B.C.E.).​—Isa 7:5, 6.

2. Joint author of an Aramaic letter sent to Persian King Artaxerxes opposing the Jews’ reconstruction work in Jerusalem and resulting in a halt of temple rebuilding.​—Ezr 4:7, 24.

(Tabʹe·rah) [Burning [that is, a conflagration; blaze]].

An Israelite encampment in the Wilderness of Sinai, the precise location of which is unknown. On account of Israel’s complaining there, God sent a fire that consumed some of the people at the extremity of the camp. But when Moses supplicated Jehovah, the blaze “sank down” or was extinguished. This incident gave rise to the name “Taberah.”​—Nu 11:1-3; De 9:22.

A transportable tent of worship used by Israel; at times also called “the tent of meeting.” (Ex 39:32, 40; see TENT OF MEETING.) In Hebrew it is called mish·kanʹ (residence; dwelling; tabernacle), ’oʹhel (tent), and miq·dashʹ (sanctuary). In Greek it is referred to as ske·neʹ, which means “tent; booth; residence; dwelling place.”​—See HOLY PLACE.

The tabernacle was a central feature of Jehovah’s arrangement for approach to him by the nation of Israel. It consisted of two compartments. (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 538) The first, the Holy, contained a golden lampstand, the golden altar of incense, the table of showbread, and golden utensils; and the innermost compartment, the Most Holy, contained the ark of the covenant, surmounted by two golden cherubs.​—See ARK OF THE COVENANT; MOST HOLY.

When Inaugurated. The tabernacle, or “tent of meeting” (called “the temple of Jehovah” at 1Sa 1:9 and “the house of Jehovah” at 1Sa 1:24), was constructed in the wilderness at Mount Sinai in 1512 B.C.E. It was completely set up, with its furniture and utensils installed, on the first day of the first month, Abib or Nisan. (Ex 40) The priesthood was installed at Jehovah’s direction by the mediator Moses on that day, and the full installation services occupied seven days. On the eighth day the priests began to carry out their official functions.​—Le chaps 8, 9; see INSTALLATION.

Design. Jehovah had spoken to Moses in the mountain, giving him the complete pattern for the tabernacle, commanding him: “See that you make all things after their pattern that was shown to you in the mountain.” It served in providing “a shadow of the heavenly things” and therefore had to be accurate to the least detail. (Heb 8:5) Jehovah inspired Bezalel and Oholiab, so that the work, which others including both men and women shared in, could be done perfectly, according to the instructions Moses gave. The result was: “According to all that Jehovah had commanded Moses, that was the way the sons of Israel did all the service.” (Ex 39:42; 35:25, 26; 36:1, 4) The materials were provided through voluntary contributions from the people. (Ex 36:3, 6, 7) Doubtless the gold, silver, and copper, as well as the yarns, fabrics, and skins, came as contributions largely from that which the Israelites had taken out of Egypt. (Ex 12:34-36; see SEALSKIN.) Acacia wood was available in the wilderness.​—See ACACIA.

The calculations in this article are based on a cubit of 44.5 cm (17.5 in.). However, the long cubit of about 51.8 cm (20.4 in.) may have been used.​—Compare 2Ch 3:3; Eze 40:5.

Coverings and screens. The entire framework of the structure was covered first by a linen covering embroidered with colorful figures of cherubs. The covering was in two large sections of five cloths each, the sections being joined by loops of blue thread that fastened over gold hooks. Each cloth was only 28 cubits (12.5 m; 40.8 ft) long, which would be at least one cubit (44.5 cm; 17.5 in.) short of reaching the ground on each side of the structure.​—Ex 26:1-6.

On top of the linen covering went a goat’s hair cover, made in two sections, one of six cloths and one of five. Each of the 11 cloths was 30 cubits (13.4 m; 43.7 ft) long. Over this was put the covering of ram skins dyed red and, finally, one of sealskins, apparently reaching to the ground and evidently provided with ropes so that the covering could be fastened at the ground by tent pins.​—Ex 26:7-14.

Another curtain placed inside between the Holy and Most Holy was embroidered with cherubs (Ex 36:35), and the screen to the entrance on the E was of colorful wool and linen material.​—Ex 36:37.

Dimensions. The Bible describes the tabernacle (evidently inside measurements) as being 30 cubits (13.4 m; 43.7 ft) long and 10 cubits (4.5 m; 14.6 ft) in height. (Compare Ex 26:16-18.) It was also evidently 10 cubits in width. (Compare Ex 26:22-24.) The width may be figured as follows: The rear or W wall was constructed of six panel frames of one and one half cubits each (totaling 9 cubits) and two panel frames called corner posts, which evidently were positioned so that each added one half cubit to the inside dimension. The Jewish scholar Rashi (1040-1105 C.E.), commenting on Exodus 26:23, noted: “All the eight boards were set in a row, only that the entire width of these two [the corner posts] did not show in the interior of the Tabernacle, but only a half cubit on the one side and a half cubit on the other side could be seen in the interior, thus making up the breadth to ten cubits. The remaining cubit of one board and the remaining cubit of the other board came against the cubit thickness of the boards of the Tabernacle on the north and the south sides, so that the outside should be even.”​—Pentateuch With Targum Onkelos, Haphtaroth and Rashi’s Commentary, Exodus, translated by M. Rosenbaum and A. M. Silbermann, p. 144; italics by the translators.

The Most Holy compartment was apparently a cube 10 cubits on a side​—even as the Most Holy of Solomon’s temple built later was cubical, each dimension being 20 cubits (8.9 m; 29.2 ft). (1Ki 6:20) The Holy compartment was twice as long as it was wide. As to the length of the Holy of the tabernacle, these points are significant: Each of the two sections of the linen covering was 20 cubits wide. (Ex 26:1-5) Thus, one section (20 cubits) would stretch from the entrance to the place where hooks joined it to the other section. The junction apparently was above the pillars supporting the curtain to the Most Holy. Then the other half of the covering (20 cubits) served to cover the Most Holy (10 cubits) and also the rear or W side of the tabernacle (10 cubits).

Panel frames. The walls were of acacia wood, gold overlaid, evidently in the form of panel frames (similar to window frames), instead of solid boards. (Ex 26:15-18) This view seems to be logical, for two reasons: (1) Solid acacia boards of the size described would be unnecessarily heavy, and (2) the cherubs embroidered on the linen covering that went over the boards would be hidden except for those seen on the ceiling of the structure, inside. (Ex 26:1) So it appears that each panel frame was constructed in such a way that the priests in the tabernacle could see the cherubs embroidered on the linen covering. Some modern scholars also hold the view that the panel-frame construction rather than a solid-board design was used. Thus, although the Hebrew word qeʹresh is rendered “board” in older versions, several modern translations render the word “frame” or “panel frame.”​—Ex 26:15-29, AT, JB, Mo, NW, RS.

There were 20 panel frames on the N side and 20 on the S side. (Ex 26:18, 20) Each frame was 10 cubits (4.5 m; 14.6 ft) high and one and one half cubits (67 cm; 26 in.) wide and of unspecified depth. On the rear or W end there were six panel frames and at the back corners two frames called “corner posts.”​—Ex 26:22-24.

In connection with the panel frames, the Bible mentions “rings.” The rings were no doubt fastened to the frames to accommodate the bars, three rows of which were passed through the rings to tie the structure together. Evidently the top and bottom rows consisted of two bars each, for only the bar at the center is described as “running through from end to end.” These bars were of wood overlaid with gold.​—Ex 26:26-29.

Pillars and foundation. Five pillars overlaid with gold were at the front, or entrance, and four such pillars supported the curtain dividing the Holy from the Most Holy. (Ex 26:32, 37) The foundation for the entire structure consisted of 100 pedestals that had sockets to receive tenons that were on the bottom of the 48 panel frames (two pedestals to a panel frame; four pedestals served for the four pillars dividing the Holy and Most Holy). These pedestals were all of silver (Ex 26:19-25, 32), each pedestal weighing a talent (c. 34 kg; 92 lb t). (Ex 38:27) Additionally, there were five copper pedestals for the pillars at the entrance. (Ex 26:37) Considering the weight of silver, these pedestals evidently would not be very thick, but would be more in the nature of heavy plates.

The courtyard. The courtyard surrounding the tabernacle was 100 by 50 cubits (44.5 by 22.2 m; 146 by 73 ft). The fencelike curtain around it was 5 cubits (2.2 m; 7.3 ft) high. Twenty pillars of copper were the supports for each side, and ten for each end of the area. The screen to the entranceway on the E was made of linen and colored material and was 20 cubits (8.9 m; 29 ft) across.​—Ex 38:9-20.

Estimated cost. The value of the gold and silver used for the tabernacle would be in the neighborhood of $12,000,000, and the cost of the entire tabernacle possibly more than $13,000,000, judged at present-day values.​—Ex 38:24-29.

Possible additions. It appears that in time chambers were built for the use of the priests in the courtyard of the tabernacle, probably at the sides of the structure. (1Sa 3:3) Also, booths may have been erected in the courtyard, so that some of those making communion offerings, along with their families, could eat the sacrifices there.

Its Location in Israel’s Camp. (DIAGRAM, Vol. 1, p. 538) The tabernacle was the center of the camp of Israel. Nearest it were encamped the families of the tribe of Levi, the caretakers of the structure. On the E was the priestly family of Aaron, on the S the Kohathites (from which Aaron’s family had been selected for the priesthood [Ex 6:18-20]), on the W the Gershonites, and on the N the Merarites. (Nu 3:23, 29, 35, 38) Farther away were the other 12 tribes: Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun on the E; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad on the S; Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin on the W; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali on the N. (Nu 2:1-31) From any part of the camp the tabernacle could always be easily located, because of the cloud by day and the fire by night, which stood over the Most Holy where the ark of the covenant was situated.​—Ex 40:36-38.

How Transported. In moving the tabernacle and its furniture and utensils, the priests covered the utensils of the holy place; and then the Kohathites carried the covered ark of the covenant, table of showbread, lampstand, and altars. They transported these things on their shoulders, walking. (Nu 4:4-15; 7:9) The Gershonites, having two wagons, transported the tent cloths (except the curtain to the Most Holy, which was placed over the Ark [Nu 4:5]), the tabernacle coverings, courtyard hangings, screens, related tent cords, and certain service utensils. (Nu 4:24-26; 7:7) The Merarites, with four wagons, took care of the very heavy items, including the panel frames and the pillars, socket pedestals and related tent pins, and cords.​—Nu 4:29-32; 7:8.

History. After Israel crossed the Jordan River into the Promised Land, the tabernacle was set up at Gilgal. (Jos 4:19) It was relocated at Shiloh during the time of dividing the land (Jos 18:1), where it remained for years (1Sa 1:3, 24) before being moved to Nob. (1Sa 21:1-6) Later it was at Gibeon. (1Ch 21:29) When the ark of the covenant was moved to Zion by David, it had not been in the tabernacle for many years. But until the temple was built by Solomon, sacrifices were still offered at the tabernacle in Gibeon, it being called “the great high place.” (1Ki 3:4) After the construction of the temple, Solomon had the tabernacle brought up to Jerusalem and apparently stored there.​—1Ki 8:4; 2Ch 5:5.

Figurative Use. The apostle Paul throws light upon the pictorial significance of the tabernacle. In a context discussing the pattern made by the tabernacle and the services carried on therein, he speaks of Jesus Christ as “a public servant of the holy place and of the true tent, which Jehovah put up, and not man.” (Heb 8:2) Farther on he says: “Christ came as a high priest of the good things that have come to pass, through the greater and more perfect tent not made with hands, that is, not of this creation.” (Heb 9:11) The tent in the wilderness was an arrangement set up by God’s command for approach to him in true worship, an arrangement for typical removal of sins. Being an illustration (Heb 9:9), it would foreshadow the arrangement that God established in which the great High Priest Jesus Christ could serve, appearing in heaven before his Father with the value of his sacrifice, which can actually remove sins. (Heb 9:24-26; see TEMPLE.) Through this arrangement faithful men can have real approach to God. (Heb 4:16) The heavenly “sanctuary of the tent of the witness” or tabernacle was seen by the apostle John in vision.​—Re 15:5.

The apostle Peter, being a spirit-begotten son of God with the hope of heavenly life in association with Christ Jesus, spoke of his fleshly body as a “tabernacle.” It was a ‘dwelling place,’ but was only temporary, since Peter knew his death was near and his resurrection would be not in the flesh but in the spirit.​—2Pe 1:13-15; 1Jo 3:2; 1Co 15:35-38, 42-44.

For the various articles of furniture and equipment used in the tabernacle, see articles under individual names.

See DORCAS.

The Hebrew term mi·shohrʹ, rendered “tableland,” is derived from a root meaning “be straight, right.” This Hebrew word may refer to “level land” in contrast to mountainous or hilly country (1Ki 20:23, 25; Isa 40:4; 42:16; Zec 4:7) and can mean “uprightness” (Ps 27:11; 45:6; 67:4; 143:10; Isa 11:4) or designate a situation free from obstacles. (Ps 26:12) At times mi·shohrʹ applies to the tableland situated E of the Dead Sea between Heshbon in the N and the torrent valley of Arnon in the S.​—De 3:10; Jos 13:9, 15-17; 20:8.

(Taʹbor).

1. An outstanding mountain in the territory of Issachar on its northern boundary. (Jos 19:17, 22) In Arabic it is called Jebel et-Tur; in Hebrew, Har Tavor. It is situated about 20 km (12 mi) W of the southern end of the Sea of Galilee and about 8 km (5 mi) ESE of the city of Nazareth.

Isolated from other mountains, Tabor rises abruptly from the Valley of Jezreel to an altitude of about 562 m (1,844 ft) above sea level. From the WNW it looks like a truncated cone, and from the SW like the segment of a sphere. From its summit, a rather flat elliptic area about 0.4 km (0.25 mi) wide from N to S and twice as long from E to W, it affords a magnificent view in all directions. The impressive prominence of this mountain probably explains why the psalmist mentions Tabor and Mount Hermon together as outstanding examples of the Creator’s majestic craftsmanship. (Ps 89:12) Jehovah also used the striking massiveness of Tabor​—standing alone in the Valley of Jezreel—​to illustrate the impressiveness of Nebuchadnezzar upon his entering Egypt with a mighty military force.​—Jer 46:13, 18.

Tabor was made particularly famous when Barak, at God’s direction, assembled 10,000 men from the tribes of Naphtali and Zebulun against Sisera and his army, which included 900 chariots with “iron scythes.” At the given signal Barak and his forces hurried down the slopes of Tabor, and after Jehovah had thrown the Canaanites into confusion, the Israelites won a decisive victory over the fleeing forces of Sisera.​—Jg 4:4-16.

Some years later Tabor witnessed the killing of Gideon’s brothers by Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian. (Jg 8:18, 19) By the middle of the eighth century B.C.E., the unfaithful priestly and regal houses of Israel were “as a net spread over Tabor,” possibly using that mountain W of the Jordan as a center for idolatry to snare the Israelites; Mizpah may have been so used E of the Jordan.​—Ho 5:1.

The summit of Tabor provided a commanding position and a most suitable location for a fortified city. The ruins show that such a city flourished there before and after the first century C.E. This fact gives reason to question the tradition that Tabor was the location of Jesus’ transfiguration, for the accounts say that Jesus and his three companions were in the mountain “by themselves,” “to themselves alone.” Mount Hermon is more likely that “lofty mountain,” and it is near Caesarea Philippi at the headwaters of the Jordan, where Jesus had been shortly before the transfiguration.​—Mt 17:1, 2; Mr 8:27; 9:2.

2. One of the cities in the territory of Zebulun given to the Levitical sons of Merari. Today its location is unknown.​—1Ch 6:1, 77.

3. “The big tree of Tabor” was presumably in Benjamin’s territory. It was a landmark that Samuel referred to in his instructions to Saul after Saul’s anointing, where he was to meet three men en route to Bethel. The site is unknown today.​—1Sa 10:1-3.

(Tab·rimʹmon) [Good Is Rimmon [the Assyrian storm-god]].

Father of Syrian King Ben-hadad I; son of Hezion.​—1Ki 15:18.

(Tadʹmor).

A wilderness location where Solomon did building work sometime after 1017 B.C.E. (2Ch 8:1, 4) Tadmor is commonly identified with the city known to the Greeks and Romans as Palmyra. Its ruins lie in an oasis on the northern edge of the Syrian Desert about 210 km (130 mi) NE of Damascus. A nearby village is still called Tudmur by the Arabs. If correctly identified with Palmyra, Tadmor may have served as a garrison city for defending the distant northern border of Solomon’s kingdom and also as an important caravan stop.​—See TAMAR No. 4.

(Taʹhan), Tahanites (Taʹhan·ites) [Of (Belonging to) Tahan].

Tahan was the founder of an Ephraimite tribal family, the Tahanites. (Nu 26:35) It is not certain whether he is the same Tahan mentioned at 1 Chronicles 7:25.

(Taʹhash) [Sealskin].

A son of Abraham’s brother Nahor by his concubine Reumah.​—Ge 22:23, 24.

(Taʹhath) [from a root meaning “lower; under”].

1. A descendant of Ephraim through Shuthelah.​—1Ch 7:20.

2. Another Ephraimite, related to No. 1.​—1Ch 7:20.

3. A Kohathite Levite; forefather of Samuel and Heman.​—1Ch 6:22, 24, 33, 37, 38.

4. A wilderness campsite of Israel; its location is unknown.​—Nu 33:26, 27.

(Tah·cheʹmo·nite).

A designation for one of David’s mighty men, Josheb-basshebeth. (2Sa 23:8) Spelled Hachmonite at 1 Chronicles 11:11, it indicates a descendant of Hachmoni.

(Tahʹpan·es), also Tahpanhes (Tahʹpan·hes), Tehaphnehes (Te·haphʹne·hes).

A city in Egypt regularly mentioned with other cities of northern (Lower) Egypt, such as Noph (Memphis), On (Heliopolis), and Pibeseth (Bubastis).

During the last years of the Judean kingdom, the prophet Jeremiah consistently warned his people against political alliances with Egypt or reliance on Egypt for help against the rising power of Babylon. Noph (Memphis), the Egyptian capital, and Tahpanhes are spoken of as “feeding on [Judah and Jerusalem] at the crown of the head” as a result of the apostasy of the Jews. Any support from Egypt was doubtless obtained at a high cost to the royal leaders of Judah; but they would become ashamed of Egypt, even as they had become ashamed of Assyria.​—Jer 2:1, 2, 14-19, 36.

Remnant Flee There. Following the Babylonian conquest of Judah in 607 B.C.E. and the subsequent assassination of Gedaliah, the remnant of Jews went down to Egypt, taking the prophet Jeremiah with them. The first place mentioned at which they arrived (or settled) in Egypt is Tahpanhes. (Jer 43:5-7) This would evidently locate Tahpanhes in the eastern Delta region, that is, the NE corner of Lower Egypt. Some of the refugees settled in Tahpanhes. (Jer 44:1, 7, 8) On arrival at Tahpanhes, Jeremiah enacted a prophetic scene directed by Jehovah, placing stones in the mortar of “the terrace of bricks that is at the entrance of the house of Pharaoh in Tahpanhes” in the presence of the other Jews. Then he made the proclamation that Nebuchadnezzar would come and place his throne and extend his state tent right over those very stones.​—Jer 43:8-13; compare 46:13, 14.

In faraway Babylon (in the 27th year of the first exile, that is, 591 B.C.E.), the prophet Ezekiel also foretold that Nebuchadnezzar would conquer Egypt and “in Tehaphnehes the day will actually grow dark,” for Jehovah would there break the yoke bars and the pride of Egypt’s strength. This statement and Ezekiel’s reference to the “dependent towns” of Tahpanhes indicate that the city was one of importance and size.​—Eze 29:19; 30:1, 2, 10-18.

Suggested Origin of Name. Some translators understand the name Tahpanhes to mean (in Egyptian) “the Fortress of Penhase,” Penhase being a general from the southern city of Thebes who overcame rebellious elements in the Delta region of Egypt, apparently in the latter part of the second millennium B.C.E.

The Greek Septuagint renders Tahpanhes as Taphʹnas, and it is generally believed that this name coincides with that of an important fortified city on Egypt’s eastern border called Daphnae by the Greek writers of the classical period. For this reason some geographers identify Tahpanhes with Tell Defneh, nearly 50 km (30 mi) SSW of Port Said and about 45 km (28 mi) WSW of Pelusium, the suggested site of Sin.

(Tahʹpe·nes).

Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh contemporary with David and Solomon. Tahpenes’ sister was given in marriage to Hadad, a resister of Solomon. Tahpenes raised Genubath, the child of this marriage, with her own children in the house of Pharaoh.​—1Ki 11:19, 20.

(Tahrʹe·a).

A ‘son’ of Micah and descendant of King Saul. (1Ch 9:39-41) He is called “Tarea” at 1 Chronicles 8:35.

(Tahʹtim-hodʹshi).

This was a “land” on the route of the census takers sent out by David. (2Sa 24:4-6) The exact location of Tahtim-hodshi is not known. However, it is mentioned between Gilead and Dan-jaan, placing it in the northern part of the Promised Land. The Lagardian edition of the Greek Septuagint says “land of the Hittites toward Kadesh,” a similar reading being used by some modern translations.​—JB, NE, RS.

The largest of the Hebrew units of weight and of monetary value. (Ex 38:29; 2Sa 12:30; 1Ki 10:10; 2Ki 23:33; 1Ch 29:7; 2Ch 36:3; Ezr 8:26) Calculated on the basis of its equaling 60 minas or 3,000 shekels (Ex 38:25, 26; see MINA), a talent weighed 34.2 kg (75.5 lb avdp; 91.75 lb t; 1101 oz t). In modern values a talent of silver would be reckoned at $6,606.00 and a talent of gold at $385,350.00.

Since a mina equaled 100 Greek drachmas in the first century C.E., a talent of 60 minas weighed 20.4 kg (44.8 lb avdp; 54.5 lb t; 654 oz t), less than in Hebrew Scripture times. Accordingly, in modern values, a first-century silver talent would be worth $3,924.00, and a gold talent $228,900.00.

Reckoned according to the Greek standard, the symbolic hailstones weighing about one talent (20.4 kg; 44.8 lb), as referred to at Revelation 16:21, would be a devastating plague.

(Talʹi·tha cuʹmi).

The Semitic expression used by Jesus Christ at the time he resurrected Jairus’ daughter. It means, “Maiden, I say to you, Get up!” (Mr 5:41) The transliterations of this expression vary in Greek manuscripts. While it is often referred to as Aramaic, at least the latter part of the phrase (“cumi”) could be either Hebrew or Aramaic, according to Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words (1981, Vol. 4, p. 109). Lexicographer Gesenius derives “talitha” from the Hebrew word for lamb (ta·lehʹ).​—A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Brown, Driver, and Briggs, 1980, p. 378.

(Talʹmai).

1. Brother of Ahiman and Sheshai, sons of Anak. (Nu 13:22; Jos 15:14; Jg 1:10; see AHIMAN No. 1.) Some scholars think that the name Tanmahu, found in a hieroglyphic inscription depicting a tall, light-complexioned man, is the Egyptian equivalent for Talmai. This Canaanite name also occurs in the Ras Shamra texts of the period of the Judges.

2. A son of Ammihud; king of Geshur. (2Sa 13:37) Talmai’s daughter Maacah bore Absalom to David. (2Sa 3:3; 1Ch 3:2) After having Amnon killed for violating his sister Tamar, Absalom fled to his grandfather Talmai.​—2Sa 13:28, 29, 37, 38.

(Talʹmon).

Head of a postexilic Levitical family of gatekeepers. After having returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, he ‘and his brothers’ were chosen to live in Jerusalem.​—1Ch 9:3, 17; Ezr 2:42; Ne 7:45; 11:1, 19; 12:25.

(Taʹmar) [Palm Tree].

1. Daughter-in-law of Jacob’s son Judah. Tamar married Judah’s first son Er, but Jehovah put Er to death for his wickedness, leaving Tamar a widow. She was then given Onan, but Jehovah put him to death for failure to perform brother-in-law marriage, and Tamar still remained a childless widow. Judah procrastinated in giving her his third son. Tamar concealed her identity and disguised herself as a prostitute in order to get Judah himself to have relations with her, cleverly taking his seal ring, cord, and rod as security. When Judah learned that Tamar was pregnant, he at first commanded that she be burned after being stoned. (Compare Jos 7:15, 25.) But on learning that through her maneuvering to get an heir he had become the father, Judah exclaimed, “She is more righteous than I am.” In the difficult birth that followed, Tamar produced twins, Perez and Zerah. (Ge 38:6-30) The Messianic lineage is traced through her son Perez.​—Ru 4:12, 18-22; 1Ch 2:4; Mt 1:3.

2. A beautiful daughter of King David and full sister of Absalom. (1Ch 3:9; 2Sa 13:1) Her oldest half brother Amnon became infatuated with her and through craftiness succeeded in violating her, though she resisted him. Absalom consoled her, kept her in his house, and two years later avenged Tamar by having Amnon murdered.​—2Sa 13:1-33.

3. Daughter of Absalom, likely named after her aunt (No. 2). (2Sa 14:27) Like her father, she was very attractive in appearance. She may have married Uriel, which would have made her the mother of Rehoboam’s favored wife Maacah.​—2Ch 11:20, 21; 13:1, 2.

4. One of several cities built (possibly rebuilt or fortified) by King Solomon. (1Ki 9:17-19) Tamar is mentioned at 1 Kings 9:18 as being “in the land,” evidently indicating that it was found in Israelite territory. Yohanan Aharoni identifies Tamar with ʽAin Husb (ʽEn Hazeva), about 30 km (20 mi) SSW of the Dead Sea. The basis for his identification is a comparison of the boundary descriptions of Canaan found in Numbers 34:3-6; Joshua 15:1-4; and Ezekiel 47:19; 48:28.

Although the parallel text at 2 Chronicles 8:4 reads “Tadmor,” it evidently refers to a different city, one that is commonly identified with Palmyra.​—See TADMOR.

[Hebrew, ʼeʹshel].

The tamarisk grows as a tree or shrub. Though its trunk is gnarled, the branches are often wandlike, giving the tree a feathery appearance. The evergreen leaves are tiny, scalelike, and pressed close to the branches, so they lose very little moisture by transpiration, enabling the trees to live in desert regions and even on sand dunes. In spring the tree blossoms with spikes of tiny pink or white flowers, which give welcome color to otherwise barren regions. Salt-loving tamarisks will often grow very near the ocean and on salt marshes. Abundant tamarisks along the banks of the Jordan form junglelike thickets that are the habitat of wild animals, and in Bible times they may have helped compose “the proud thickets along the Jordan” where lions once found cover.​—Jer 49:19; Zec 11:3.

Though the tamarisk is generally of relatively low height, one kind of tamarisk tree (Tamarix aphylla) sometimes grows to a height of 18 m (60 ft). Abraham is recorded as having planted a tamarisk at Beer-sheba (Ge 21:33), King Saul sat in the shade of a tamarisk at Gibeah (1Sa 22:6), and his bones and those of his sons were buried under a large tamarisk tree in Jabesh-gilead.​—1Sa 31:13; compare 1Ch 10:12, where the Hebrew word for “big tree” (ʼe·lahʹ) is used.

Dr. Joseph Weitz, a noted authority on reforestation in Israel, said: “The first tree Abraham put in the soil of Beersheba was a tamarisk. Following his lead, four years ago we put out two million in the same area. Abraham was right. The tamarisk is one of the few trees we have found that thrives in the south where yearly rainfall is less than six inches.”​—The Reader’s Digest, March 1954, p. 30.

Another type of tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera), when pierced by a scale insect, exudes drops of honeylike sap that are gathered and sold to pilgrims in some places as “manna.” This has no relation, however, to the manna provided for Israel in the wilderness, since such true manna was miraculously provided and gathered from the ground.​—Ex 16:13-15.

A percussion instrument used since patriarchal times. The Hebrew word toph has also been translated “timbrel,” “tambour,” and “tabret.” (Ge 31:27, Kx, Da, AS) All these renderings essentially are descriptive of the same instrument​—a small hand drum of animal skin or parchment stretched on one or both sides of a wooden or metal frame, likely about 25 cm (10 in.) in diameter. In view of its festive use, some models may have had pieces of metal, perhaps jingles, attached to the sides and could have been played like a modern tambourine. Other types probably had more the appearance and use of a tom-tom, being beaten with both hands.

Although the tambourine is not mentioned in connection with temple worship, it was used by both men and women in praising Jehovah and on other joyful occasions such as feasts and weddings. (1Sa 10:5; 2Sa 6:5; Ps 150:4; Isa 5:12) Women especially would accompany themselves with tambourines in singing and dancing. (Ex 15:20; Jg 11:34; 1Sa 18:6) The tambourine is also associated with the prospective gladness of Israel when the time of her restoration would arrive.​—Jer 31:4.

(Tamʹmuz).

A deity over whom apostate Hebrew women in Jerusalem were seen weeping in the sixth year of the prophet Ezekiel’s exile (612 B.C.E.).​—Eze 8:1, 3, 14.

In Sumerian texts, Tammuz is called Dumuzi and is identified as the consort or lover of the fertility goddess Inanna (Babylonian Ishtar). It has been suggested that Tammuz was originally a king who was deified after his death. Sumerian texts believed to date from the 18th century B.C.E. show that the kings of Sumer were identified with Dumuzi.

Regarding the identification of Tammuz, D. Wolkstein and S. N. Kramer remarked: “There were quite a number of ‘dying gods’ in ancient Sumer, but the best known is Dumuzi, the biblical Tammuz, whom the women of Jerusalem were still mourning in the days of the prophet Ezekiel. Originally, the god Dumuzi was a mortal Sumerian ruler, whose life and death had made a profound impression on the Sumerian thinkers and mythographers.” (Inanna, Queen of Heaven and Earth, New York, 1983, p. 124) In addition, O. R. Gurney wrote: “Dumuzi was originally a man, a king of Erech . . . The humanity of Dumuzi is, moreover, confirmed by the mythological passage in which he says to Inanna ‘I will lead you to the house of my god’. This is not the way in which a god would speak.”​—Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol. 7, 1962, pp. 150-152.

(Tamʹmuz).

The postexilic name given to the fourth Jewish lunar month of the sacred calendar, but the tenth of the secular calendar. Thus, in the Targum of Jonathan the expression “the tenth month” at Genesis 8:5 is rendered “the month Tammuz.” Tammuz was the name of a Babylonian deity. (Eze 8:14) The Bible record does not apply this name to the fourth month but merely refers to the month by its numerical order. (Eze 1:1) The name does appear, however, in the Jewish Mishnah (Taʽanit 4:6) and other postexilic works. The use of the pagan name Tammuz as applying to the fourth month, as well as the use of the other postexilic names, may have been only a matter of convenience among the Jews. It should be remembered that they were then a subjugated people, obliged to deal with and report to the foreign powers dominating them, and in view of this it is no strange thing if they utilized the names of the months employed by these foreign powers. The Gregorian calendar used today has months named after the gods Janus and Mars, and the goddess Juno, as well as for Julius and Augustus Caesar, yet it continues to be used by Christians who are subject to “the superior authorities.”​—Ro 13:1.

This month, Tammuz, corresponded to part of June and part of July and, therefore, came in the growing heat of summer. By now the grapevines were beginning to yield their first ripe fruit.​—Nu 13:20.

It was on the ninth day of this fourth month (Tammuz) that Nebuchadnezzar breached the walls of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E. after an 18-month siege. (2Ki 25:3, 4; Jer 39:2; 52:6, 7) During the 70 years of exile that followed, the Jews customarily fasted on the ninth day of the fourth month in memory of this blow against Jerusalem. (Zec 8:19) However, following the second destruction of Jerusalem, in the year 70 C.E., the fast was observed on the 17th day of the fourth month, the day the walls of the temple were breached by Roman General Titus. There were no festivals appointed by Jehovah for this month.

(Tan·huʹmeth) [from a root meaning “comfort”].

The Netophathite father of Seraiah, a military leader of the Jews left in Jerusalem after the deportation to Babylon.​—2Ki 25:23; Jer 40:8.

A person skilled in the tanning profession, the craft of converting animal hides into leather that can then be used to make articles of various kinds. (2Ki 1:8; Mt 3:4) Doubtless the tanning operation was performed in the past as it has been recently in the Middle East​—in a one- or two-room tannery, housing tools and vats for preparing the hides. The basic process of preparing leather involved (1) loosening the hair, usually with a lime solution; (2) removing the hair, bits of flesh, and fat adhering to the hide; and (3) tanning the hide with a liquor made from such things as the bark of sumac or of oak, or from other kinds of plants.

Peter spent “quite a few days . . . in Joppa with a certain Simon, a tanner,” whose house was by the sea.​—Ac 9:43; 10:32.

(Taʹphath).

A daughter of King Solomon and wife of one of his 12 deputies.​—1Ki 4:7, 11.

(Tapʹpu·ah) [Apple (Tree)].

1. One of Hebron’s four sons and a descendant of Caleb. (1Ch 2:42, 43) Some suggest that his name is to be connected with Beth-tappuah, a town near Hebron.​—See BETH-TAPPUAH.

2. A town in the Shephelah region assigned to the tribe of Judah. (Jos 15:20, 33, 34) It is thus distinct from Beth-tappuah in the Hebron area. Horvat Bet Natif within the abandoned village of Beit Nattif, about 20 km (12 mi) W of Bethlehem, is tentatively identified as the site.

3. A town on the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh. (Jos 16:8) The surrounding area, “the land of Tappuah,” was allotted to Manasseh, but the city to Ephraim. (Jos 17:8) En-Tappuah (Jos 17:7) evidently refers to a nearby spring (Heb., ʽAʹyin, or En, meaning “fountain [spring],” when used as a prefix) and may have been a more complete name used for the city of Tappuah.

“The king of Tappuah” is mentioned among the rulers vanquished by Joshua in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 12:17), and “Tappuah” here probably refers to the Ephraimite city. Ephraimite Tappuah is identified with Tell Sheikh Abu Zarad (Tel ʼAbu Zarad), about 13 km (8 mi) SSW of Shechem and just below the town of Yasuf.

See BITUMEN.

(Tarʹa·lah).

A Benjamite city, the location of which is today unknown. It is listed, however, with other cities situated in the mountainous region N of Jerusalem.​—Jos 18:25-28.

(Ta·reʹa).

A descendant of King Saul through Jonathan; also called Tahrea.​—1Ch 8:33-35; 9:39-41.

(Tarʹshish) [from a root meaning “shatter”].

1. One of Javan’s four sons born after the Flood. (Ge 10:4; 1Ch 1:7) He is included among the 70 family heads from whom the nations were “spread about in the earth.” (Ge 10:32) As in the case of Javan’s other sons, the name Tarshish came to apply to a people and a region.

2. A descendant of Benjamin and son of Bilhan.​—1Ch 7:6, 10.

3. One of seven princely counselors of King Ahasuerus who considered the case of rebellious Queen Vashti.​—Es 1:12-15.

4. A region initially populated by offspring of Tarshish, a son of Javan and grandson of Japheth. There are some indications of the direction in which the descendants of Tarshish migrated during the centuries following the Flood.

The prophet Jonah (c. 844 B.C.E.), commissioned by Jehovah to go to Nineveh in Assyria, tried to escape his assignment by going to the Mediterranean seaport of Joppa (Tel Aviv-Yafo) and buying passage on “a ship going to Tarshish.” (Jon 1:1-3; 4:2) Thus, Tarshish must obviously have been in or on the Mediterranean in the opposite direction from Nineveh, and evidently it was better reached by sea than by land. “The heart of the open sea” is mentioned in connection with “the ships of Tarshish,” at Ezekiel 27:25, 26.​—Compare Ps 48:7; Jon 2:3.

An inscription of Assyrian Emperor Esar-haddon (of the seventh century B.C.E.) boasts of his victories over Tyre and Egypt, and it claims that all the kings of the islands from Cyprus “as far as Tarsisi” paid him tribute. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 290) Since Cyprus is in the eastern Mediterranean, this reference would also indicate a location in the western Mediterranean. Some scholars identify Tarshish with Sardinia, an island in the western Mediterranean.

Possibly Identified With Spain. Most scholars associate Tarshish with Spain, based on ancient references to a place or region in Spain called Tartessus by Greek and Roman writers. While Greek geographer Strabo (of the first century B.C.E.) placed a city called Tartessus in the region around the Guadalquivir River in Andalusia (Geography, 3, II, 11), the name Tartessis appears to have applied generally to the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula.

Many reference works give great emphasis to Phoenician colonization of the Spanish coastlands and refer to Tartessus as a Phoenician colony, but there appears to be no solid basis for such theory. Thus, the Encyclopædia Britannica (1959, Vol. 21, p. 114) states: “Neither the Phoenicians nor the Carthaginians left any very permanent mark upon the land, while the Greeks influenced it profoundly. Ships from Tyre and Sidon may have traded beyond the straits and in Cádiz at least as early as the 9th century B.C.; yet modern archaeology, which has located and excavated Greek, Iberian and Roman towns, has not laid bare a single Phoenician settlement or found more important Phoenician remains than the odds and ends of trinkets and jewels and similar articles of barter. The inference is clear that, except perhaps at Cádiz, the Phoenicians built no towns, but had mere trading posts and points of call.” History also shows that when the Phoenicians and Greeks began trading with Spain the land was already populated and the native inhabitants brought forth the silver, iron, tin, and lead that the traders sought.

There appears to be good reason for believing, then, that descendants of Javan (Ionians) through his son Tarshish eventually spread into and became prominent in the Iberian Peninsula. Such suggested location of Tarshish at least harmonizes satisfactorily with the other Biblical references.

Trade Relations With Solomon. Phoenician trading with Tarshish is clearly borne out by the record of King Solomon’s time (some 13 centuries after the Flood), when maritime commerce also began to be engaged in by the nation of Israel. Solomon had a fleet of ships in the Red Sea area, manned in part by experienced seamen provided by Phoenician King Hiram of Tyre, and trafficking especially with the gold-rich land of Ophir. (1Ki 9:26-28) Reference is thereafter made to “a fleet of ships of Tarshish” that Solomon had on the sea “along with Hiram’s fleet of ships,” and these ships are stated to have made voyages once every three years for the importation of gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks. (1Ki 10:22) It is generally believed that the term “ships of Tarshish” in course of time came to stand for a type of ship, as one lexicon puts it: “large, sea-going vessels, fit to ply to Tarshish.” (A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, by Brown, Driver, and Briggs, 1980, p. 1077) In a similar way, the name Indiamen originally was derived from the name applied to large British ships engaged in trade with India and in time came to apply to ships of that type no matter what their origin or destination. Thus 1 Kings 22:48 shows that King Jehoshaphat (936-911 B.C.E.) “made Tarshish ships to go to Ophir for gold.”

The Chronicles account, however, states that Solomon’s ships used for the triannual voyages “were going to Tarshish” (2Ch 9:21); also that Jehoshaphat’s ships were designed “to go to Tarshish” and, when wrecked, “did not retain strength to go to Tarshish.” (2Ch 20:36, 37) This would indicate that Ophir was not the only port of call of the Israelite “ships of Tarshish,” but that they also navigated Mediterranean waters. This, of course, poses a problem, since the launching site of at least some of these vessels is shown to have been Ezion-geber on the Gulf of ʽAqaba. (1Ki 9:26) For the ships to reach the Mediterranean Sea, they would either have to traverse a canal from the Red Sea to the Nile River and then into the Mediterranean or else circumnavigate the continent of Africa. While it is by no means possible to determine now the details of navigational routes (including canals) available or employed in Solomon’s and in Jehoshaphat’s time, there is likewise no need to view the record of their maritime projects as unfeasible.

In Prophecy. Tarshish appears to have been a major market for the merchant city of Tyre, perhaps her source of greatest riches during part of her history. From ancient times Spain has had mines working the rich deposits of silver, iron, tin, and other metals found there. (Compare Jer 10:9; Eze 27:3, 12.) Thus Isaiah’s prophetic pronouncement of Tyre’s overthrow depicts the ships of Tarshish as ‘howling’ upon reaching Kittim (Cyprus, perhaps their last port of call on the eastern run) and receiving the news that the wealthy port of Tyre has been despoiled.​—Isa 23:1, 10, 14.

Other prophecies foretell God’s sending some of his people to Tarshish, there to proclaim his glory (Isa 66:19), and of “ships of Tarshish” bringing Zion’s sons from far away. (Isa 60:9) “The kings of Tarshish and of the islands” are to pay tribute to the one Jehovah designates as king. (Ps 72:10) On the other hand, at Ezekiel 38:13 “the merchants of Tarshish” are represented along with other trading peoples as expressing selfish interest in Gog of Magog’s proposed plunder of Jehovah’s regathered ones. As included among other things symbolizing self-exaltation, haughtiness, and loftiness, the ships of Tarshish are to be brought low, and only Jehovah is to be exalted in “the day belonging to Jehovah of armies.”​—Isa 2:11-16.

(Tarʹsus).

The principal city and capital of the Roman province of Cilicia; birthplace of the apostle Paul. (Ac 9:11; 22:3) Ruins of the ancient town remain in the modern settlement of the same name, situated about 16 km (10 mi) from the mouth of the Cydnus River, which empties into the eastern Mediterranean about 130 km (80 mi) N of the eastern tip of Cyprus.

No one knows when Tarsus was first settled or by whom, for it is a city of great antiquity. First mentioned in secular history as being captured by the Assyrians (it was never a strongly fortified city), Tarsus was thereafter in servitude and paid tribute much of the time to the successive powers of Assyria, Persia, Greece, then to the Seleucid kings, and finally to Rome.

Tarsus was situated in a fertile coastal area where flax was raised, and this, in turn, supported flourishing industries such as the weaving of linens and the making of tents. Fabrics woven of goat’s hair and called cilicium also found special use in the making of tents. A more important factor, however, contributing to Tarsus’ fame and wealth was its excellent harbor strategically located along a prime E-W overland trade route. Running eastward, it led to Syria and Babylon; leading to the northern and western sections of Asia Minor, this route threaded itself through the Cilician Gates, a narrow gorge in the Taurus Mountains about 50 km (30 mi) to the N of the city.

During its history a number of noted personalities visited Tarsus, including Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Cleopatra, as well as several emperors. Cicero occasionally resided there while he served as governor of Cilicia from 51 to 50 B.C.E. Tarsus was also famous as a seat of learning in the first century C.E., and according to the Greek geographer Strabo, as such it outranked even Athens and Alexandria.​—Geography, 14, V, 13.

So, for these several reasons, Paul could well describe Tarsus as “no obscure city.” He said this when informing a military commander that he was a citizen of Tarsus, not an Egyptian.​—Ac 21:37-39.

From time to time in the course of his ministry, Paul returned to his hometown of Tarsus (Ac 9:29, 30; 11:25, 26), and no doubt he passed through there on some of his missionary journeys.​—Ac 15:23, 41; 18:22, 23.

(Tarʹtak).

A deity worshiped by the Avvites, whom the king of Assyria settled in the territory of Samaria after he took the Israelites of the ten-tribe kingdom into exile. (2Ki 17:31) According to the Babylonian Talmud, Tartak had the form of an ass. (Sanhedrin 63b) Based on the conclusion that the name Tartak may be comparable to the Pahlavi (Persian) word tar-thakh (intense darkness, hero of darkness), it has been suggested that Tartak may have been a demon of the lower regions. Aside from the brief reference to Tartak in the Scriptures, however, nothing can be stated with any certainty concerning the nature of this deity.

(Tarʹtan).

Assyrian writings indicate that the title Tartan applied to an officer of high rank, probably second only to the king. Concerning the order of the titles in Assyrian eponym lists, James B. Pritchard, editor of Ancient Near Eastern Texts (1974, p. 274), comments: “Later on, the position of the official within the hierarchy was decisive for the sequence, the highest official (tartanu) following the king immediately, while important palace officers . . . and the governors of the foremost provinces took their turn in well-established order.” (See CHRONOLOGY [Eponym (limmu) lists].) An inscription by Assyrian King Ashurbanipal, now in the British Museum, reads, in part: “I became very angry on account of these happenings, my soul was aflame. I called the turtan -official, the governors, and also their assistants and gave immediately the order.”​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 296.

King Sennacherib sent the Tartan along with other officials, including the Rabshakeh, the king’s chief cupbearer who acted as spokesman, to deliver an ultimatum of capitulation to Jerusalem. The Tartan is listed first, possibly because his was the superior position. (2Ki 18:17, 28-35) A Tartan was sent by King Sargon II of Assyria to besiege the city of Ashdod, in the days of Isaiah the prophet.​—Isa 20:1.

(Tarʹta·rus).

A prisonlike, abased condition into which God cast disobedient angels in Noah’s day.

This word is found but once in the inspired Scriptures, at 2 Peter 2:4. The apostle writes: “God did not hold back from punishing the angels that sinned, but, by throwing them into Tartarus, delivered them to pits of dense darkness to be reserved for judgment.” The expression “throwing them into Tartarus” is from the Greek verb tar·ta·roʹo and so includes within itself the word “Tartarus.”

A parallel text is found at Jude 6: “And the angels that did not keep their original position but forsook their own proper dwelling place he has reserved with eternal bonds under dense darkness for the judgment of the great day.” Showing when it was that these angels “forsook their own proper dwelling place,” Peter speaks of “the spirits in prison, who had once been disobedient when the patience of God was waiting in Noah’s days, while the ark was being constructed.” (1Pe 3:19, 20) This directly links the matter to the account at Genesis 6:1-4 concerning “the sons of the true God” who abandoned their heavenly abode to cohabit with women in pre-Flood times and produced children by them, such offspring being designated as Nephilim.​—See NEPHILIM; SON(S) OF GOD.

From these texts it is evident that Tartarus is a condition rather than a particular location, inasmuch as Peter, on the one hand, speaks of these disobedient spirits as being in “pits of dense darkness,” while Paul speaks of them as being in “heavenly places” from which they exercise a rule of darkness as wicked spirit forces. (2Pe 2:4; Eph 6:10-12) The dense darkness similarly is not literally a lack of light but results from their being cut off from illumination by God as renegades and outcasts from his family, with only a dark outlook as to their eternal destiny.

Tartarus is, therefore, not the same as the Hebrew Sheol or the Greek Hades, both of which refer to the common earthly grave of mankind. This is evident from the fact that, while the apostle Peter shows that Jesus Christ preached to these “spirits in prison,” he also shows that Jesus did so, not during the three days while buried in Hades (Sheol), but after his resurrection out of Hades.​—1Pe 3:18-20.

Likewise the abased condition represented by Tartarus should not be confused with “the abyss” into which Satan and his demons are eventually to be cast for the thousand years of Christ’s rule. (Re 20:1-3) Apparently the disobedient angels were cast into Tartarus in “Noah’s days” (1Pe 3:20), but some 2,000 years later we find them entreating Jesus “not to order them to go away into the abyss.”​—Lu 8:26-31; see ABYSS.

The word “Tartarus” is also used in pre-Christian heathen mythologies. In Homer’s Iliad this mythological Tartarus is represented as an underground prison ‘as far below Hades as earth is below heaven.’ In it were imprisoned the lesser gods, Cronus and the other Titan spirits. As we have seen, the Tartarus of the Bible is not a place but a condition and, therefore, is not the same as this Tartarus of Greek mythology. However, it is worth noting that the mythological Tartarus was presented not as a place for humans but as a place for superhuman creatures. So, in that regard there is a similarity, since the Scriptural Tartarus is clearly not for the detention of human souls (compare Mt 11:23) but is only for wicked superhuman spirits who are rebels against God.

The condition of utter debasement represented by Tartarus is a precursor of the abyssing that Satan and his demons are to experience prior to the start of the Thousand Year Reign of Christ. This, in turn, is to be followed after the end of the thousand years by their utter destruction in “the second death.”​—Mt 25:41; Re 20:1-3, 7-10, 14.

(Tatʹte·nai).

The governor of the Persian province “beyond the River” during the reign of Darius I (Hystaspis). When the Jews again started to rebuild the temple in Darius’ second year (520 B.C.E.), Tattenai and his colleagues came to Jerusalem to conduct an inquiry. The Jews appealed to Cyrus’ original decree; so Tattenai wrote to Darius asking if such a decree had been issued, as the Jews contended. The answer received confirmed Cyrus’ decree and the validity of the temple work, and it warned Tattenai not to interfere but to render material assistance to the Jews. This, Tattenai proceeded to do.​—Ezr 4:24–6:13.

A permanent mark or design on the skin made by cutting the skin to produce scars or by inserting coloring matter under the skin. The Israelites were forbidden to engage in this practice, one that was common among some other ancient peoples. (Le 19:28) For example, there were times when the Egyptians tattooed the names or symbols of their deities on their breast or arms. By complying with Jehovah’s law not to disfigure their bodies, the Israelites would have stood out as different from other nations. (De 14:1, 2) The prohibition would also have impressed upon them a proper respect for the human body as God’s creation, to be used in honoring him.​—Ps 100:3; 139:13-16; Ro 12:1.

[ת].

The 22nd and last letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The name of the letter literally means “mark.” (Compare Eze 9:4, ftn.) In the Hebrew, it is the initial letter in each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:169-176.

An assessment (of money, of goods, or of labor) imposed by an authority on persons or property. Forms of taxation have long been employed to support the services of government, public officials, and also priests. The taxes that were imposed anciently included the tithe, tribute, toll, head or poll tax, and tax on consumer items, exports, imports, and goods taken through a country by merchants.

Taxes for Maintaining Jehovah’s Sanctuary. The service of the sanctuary was maintained through taxation. Obligatory tithing provided the major source of maintenance for the Aaronic priests and Levites, and on at least one occasion, they received a share of the war booty in accordance with a tax stipulated by Jehovah. (Nu 18:26-29; 31:26-47; see TITHE.) Jehovah also instructed Moses that after he took a census, each person registered was to give a half shekel ($1.10) as “Jehovah’s contribution,” it serving in behalf of the tent of meeting. (Ex 30:12-16) It appears that it became customary for the Jews to give a fixed amount every year, even though a census was not taken annually. Jehoash, for example, called for “the sacred tax ordered by Moses.” (2Ch 24:6, 9) The Jews of Nehemiah’s time obligated themselves to pay a third of a shekel (c. 75 cents) yearly for the service of the temple.​—Ne 10:32.

In the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Jews paid two drachmas to the temple. When asked whether Jesus complied with this taxation, Peter replied in the affirmative. Later, in discussing the matter, Jesus pointed out that kings do not tax their sons, the sons being part of the royal household for whom tax is collected. However, though being the only-begotten Son of the One worshiped at the temple, Jesus, to avoid giving occasion for stumbling others, saw to it that the tax was paid.​—Mt 17:24-27.

Taxes Imposed by Rulers. With the establishment of kingship in Israel, taxes, including a tenth of the flock and of the produce, were imposed to support the king, his household, and the various governmental officials and servants. (1Sa 8:11-17; 1Ki 4:6-19) By the end of the reign of Solomon, conscription for forced labor and the support of the government had become so burdensome to the people that they requested Solomon’s son and successor, Rehoboam, to lighten ‘the hard service and the heavy yoke.’ Rehoboam’s refusal to do so prompted ten tribes to revolt.​—1Ki 12:3-19; see COMPULSORY SERVICE; FORCED LABOR.

Upon coming under foreign domination, the Israelites had to submit to still other forms of taxation. For instance, when Pharaoh Nechoh made Jehoiakim his vassal and imposed a heavy fine or tribute on Judah, Jehoiakim raised the necessary funds by having his subjects pay a certain sum “according to each one’s individual tax rate.”​—2Ki 23:31-35.

During the Persian period, the Jews (with the exception of the priests and others serving at the sanctuary, who were exempted by Artaxerxes Longimanus) had to pay tax (Aramaic, mid·dahʹ or min·dahʹ), tribute (belohʹ), and toll (halakhʹ). (Ezr 4:13, 20; 7:24) Mid·dahʹ is thought to designate personal tax on individuals; belohʹ, a tax on consumer items, excise; and halakhʹ, toll paid by travelers at road stations or river fords. The mid·dahʹ (translated “tribute” in AS, KJ, NW at Ne 5:4) must have been quite high, for many of the Jews had to borrow money to pay it. Besides having to care for the taxes levied by the Persians, the Jews normally also had to pay for the support of the governor.​—Ne 5:14, 15.

In the first century C.E., the Jews very much resented the payment of taxes, not only on account of the corruption prevalent among tax collectors but also because this forced them to acknowledge their subjection to Rome. (See TAX COLLECTOR.) However, both Jesus Christ and the apostle Paul showed that it was proper to pay taxes to “Caesar,” or “the superior authorities.” (Mt 22:17-21; Ro 13:1, 7; see CAESAR [God and Caesar].) Among the various kinds of taxes mentioned in the Christian Greek Scriptures is teʹlos (an indirect tax, duty, or tribute; Mt 17:25; Ro 13:7). Also referred to are kenʹsos (a head or poll tax; Mt 17:25; 22:17, 19; Mr 12:14) and phoʹros (a broader term thought to designate a tax levied upon houses, lands, and persons; Lu 20:22; 23:2).

In the Roman Empire, poll and land taxes were collected by imperial officers as part of their official function. But the authority to collect taxes on exports, imports, and goods taken through a country by merchants was purchased at public auction. Thus the right to collect such taxes went to the highest bidders. When they collected taxes, they made a profit from tax receipts that exceeded the amount of their bid. These men, known as publicans, farmed out to subcontractors the right to collect taxes in certain portions of their territory. The subcontractors, in turn, were in charge of other men who personally collected the taxes. Zacchaeus, for example, appears to have been the chief over the tax collectors in and around Jericho. (Lu 19:1, 2) And Matthew, whom Jesus called to be an apostle, was one who did the actual work of collecting taxes, apparently having his tax office in or near Capernaum.​—Mt 10:3; Mr 2:1, 14.

Thus, in Palestine many Jewish tax collectors were active. They were held in low esteem by their fellow countrymen, since they often exacted more than the tax rate. (Mt 5:46; Lu 3:12, 13; 19:7, 8) The other Jews generally avoided voluntary association with tax collectors and classified them with persons known to be sinners, including harlots. (Mt 9:11; 11:19; 21:32; Mr 2:15; Lu 5:30; 7:34) They also resented tax collectors because of their being in the service of a foreign power, Rome, and in close contact with “unclean” Gentiles. Hence, to treat a “brother” who proved to be an unrepentant wrongdoer like “a tax collector” meant having no voluntary association with him.​—Mt 18:15-17.

Christ Jesus did not condone the corruption prevalent among tax collectors. Though criticized for doing so, he was willing to help spiritually those who manifested a desire to hear him. (Mt 9:9-13; Lu 15:1-7) In one of his illustrations, Jesus showed that the tax collector who humbly recognized himself as a sinner and repented was more righteous than the Pharisee who proudly viewed himself as righteous. (Lu 18:9-14) And humble, repentant tax collectors (like Matthew and Zacchaeus) came in line for membership in the Kingdom of the heavens.​—Mt 21:31, 32.

A teacher is one who imparts information or skill to others by word or by example. An effective teacher usually provides explanation or supporting evidence or he employs some other method intended to help hearers to accept and remember what they hear.

Jehovah God, the Creator, is the Grand Instructor, or Teacher, of his servants. (1Ki 8:36; Ps 27:11; 86:11; 119:102; Isa 30:20; 54:13) The creative works themselves teach that an all-wise God exists, and they provide a field for investigation and observation that to the present day has only been partially tapped. (Job 12:7-9) Additionally, by means of special revelations, Jehovah God has taught humans his name, purposes, and laws. (Compare Ex 4:12, 15; 24:12; 34:5-7.) Such revelations are found in God’s Word, the Bible, and serve as a basis for correct teaching regarding his will. (Ro 15:4; 2Ti 3:14-17) God’s spirit also functions as a teacher.​—Joh 14:26.

Teaching Among the Israelites. In Israel, parents had the God-given responsibility of teaching their children. (De 4:9; 6:7, 20, 21; 11:19-21; Ps 78:1-4) For the nation as a whole, prophets, Levites, especially the priests, and other wise men served as teachers.​—Compare 2Ch 35:3; Jer 18:18; see EDUCATION.

Prophets. The prophets taught the people about Jehovah’s attributes and purposes, exposed the wrongdoing of the Israelites, and outlined the right course for them to take. Often prophets imparted their teaching orally, later committing it to writing. (Compare 1Sa 12:23-25; Isa 7:3, 4; 22:15, 16; Jer 2:2.) Their teaching methods included the use of questions (Jer 18:13, 14; Am 3:3-8; Hag 2:11-14), illustrations (2Sa 12:1-7; Isa 10:15; Jer 18:3-10), riddles (Eze 17:2), and symbolic acts (1Ki 11:30-32; Jer 13:4-11; 19:1-12; 27:2; 28:10-14; Eze 4:1–5:4).

Priests and Levites. It was the responsibility of the priests and Levites to teach God’s law to the nation of Israel. (Le 10:11; 14:57; 2Ch 15:3; 35:3) This was accomplished in various ways. Every Sabbath year, during the Festival of Booths, the entire Law was read to all the people​—men, women, children, and alien residents. (De 31:9-13) At times, by getting responses from the people, the Levites would impress the divine laws upon the listeners. (Compare De 27:14-26.) Besides reading the Law, the priests and Levites doubtless explained its significance. (Compare Ne 8:8.) And the judicial decisions rendered by them taught principles of divine justice.​—De 17:8-13; 1Ch 26:29; 2Ch 19:8-11.

Scribes. In the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry, the scribes were prominent as teachers of the Law. But they did not come to grips with the real problems and needs of the people. Like the Pharisees, the scribes placed greater emphasis on technical regulations and traditions than on mercy, justice, and faithfulness. They made the Law burdensome to the people. (Mt 23:2-4, 23, 24; Lu 11:45, 46) Their teaching was not as effective as it could have been, for they assumed a superior attitude toward the common people and did not prove themselves to be examples worthy of imitation.​—Compare Mt 23:3, 6, 7; Joh 7:48, 49; see SCRIBE.

What made the teaching done by Jesus outstandingly effective?

Although the religious leaders of Judaism evidently were not sincere in addressing him as “Teacher [Gr., Di·daʹska·los],” Jesus Christ was recognized as such by both believers and unbelievers. (Mt 8:19; 9:11; 12:38; 19:16; 22:16, 24, 36; Joh 3:2) Officers sent to arrest him were so impressed with his teaching that they returned empty-handed, saying: “Never has another man spoken like this.” (Joh 7:46) Jesus taught “as a person having authority, and not as [the] scribes.” (Mt 7:29) The Source of his teaching was God (Joh 7:16; 8:28), and Jesus conveyed information with simplicity, irrefutable logic, thought-provoking questions, striking figures of speech, and meaningful illustrations drawn from things familiar to his listeners. (Mt 6:25-30; 7:3-5, 24-27; see ILLUSTRATIONS.) Jesus also used object lessons, on one occasion washing the feet of his disciples in order to teach them that they should serve one another.​—Joh 13:2-16.

Jesus’ knowledge was enhanced by his having had an intimate relationship with his Father and God before coming to the earth. Therefore he knew God as no other man did, and this enabled him to provide authoritative teaching concerning his Father. As Jesus himself said: “No one fully knows the Son but the Father, neither does anyone fully know the Father but the Son and anyone to whom the Son is willing to reveal him.”​—Mt 11:27; Joh 1:18.

Jesus was also thoroughly acquainted with God’s written Word. When asked which commandment was the greatest in the Law, without hesitation he summed up the entire Law in two commandments, quoting from Deuteronomy (6:5) and Leviticus (19:18). (Mt 22:36-40) During the course of his ministry, he is known to have referred to or expressed thoughts that parallel passages from about half of the books of the Hebrew Scriptures​—Genesis (2:24; Mt 19:5; Mr 10:7, 8), Exodus (3:6; Mt 22:32; Lu 20:37), Leviticus (14:2-32; Mt 8:4), Numbers (30:2; Mt 5:33), Deuteronomy (5:16; Mt 15:4; Mr 7:10), First Samuel (21:4-6; Mt 12:3, 4), First Kings (17:9; Lu 4:26), Job (42:2; Mt 19:26), Psalms (8:2; 110:1; Mt 21:16; 22:44), Proverbs (24:12; Mt 16:27), Isaiah (6:9, 10; Mt 13:14, 15; Joh 12:40), Jeremiah (7:11; Mt 21:13; Mr 11:17; Lu 19:45, 46), Lamentations (2:1; Mt 5:35), Daniel (9:27; Mt 24:15), Hosea (6:6; Mt 9:13), Jonah (1:17; Mt 12:40), Micah (7:6; Mt 10:21, 35, 36), Zechariah (13:7; Mt 26:31), and Malachi (3:1; Mt 11:10).

Additionally, Jesus’ perfect example lent real force to what he taught. (Joh 13:15) He was not like the scribes and Pharisees, concerning whom Jesus said: “All the things they tell you, do and observe, but do not do according to their deeds, for they say but do not perform.”​—Mt 23:3.

Other aspects that made Jesus’ teaching authoritative and effective were his understanding of man and his loving concern for others. His keen discernment was enhanced by miraculous knowledge of the background and reasoning of others. (Mt 12:25; Lu 6:8; Joh 1:48; 4:18; 6:61, 64; 13:11) “He himself knew what was in man.” (Joh 2:25) His heart went out to the people to such an extent that he sacrificed needed rest to teach them. On one occasion Jesus and his disciples took a boat and headed for an isolated spot to rest up a bit. “But people saw them going and many got to know it, and from all the cities they ran there together on foot and got ahead of them. Well, on getting out, he saw a great crowd, but he was moved with pity for them, because they were as sheep without a shepherd. And he started to teach them many things.”​—Mr 6:31-34.

Jesus treated his listeners with understanding. When his disciples did not get the point of an illustration, he patiently explained it to them. (Mt 13:10-23) Aware of their limitations, he did not give them too much information. (Joh 16:4, 12) When needed, Jesus repeated practically identical information. (Mr 9:35; 10:43, 44) In answering questions, Jesus often fortified his reply by means of illustrations or object lessons, thereby leaving a deep impression on the minds of the listeners and stirring up their thinking faculties.​—Mt 18:1-5, 21-35; Lu 10:29-37.

God’s Spirit Teaches. During the three and a half years of his earthly ministry, Jesus trained his apostles to continue the work he had started. As imperfect humans, they could not possibly remember every detail of his teaching. But Jesus promised them: “The helper, the holy spirit, which the Father will send in my name, that one will teach you all things and bring back to your minds all the things I told you.” (Joh 14:26) This meant that God’s spirit would teach them whatever they needed to know to accomplish their ministry. Particularly would it open up to their understanding what they had previously heard but not understood. As a remembrancer, the holy spirit would bring back to their minds things that Jesus had said while with them. And, as a teacher, it would show them the correct application of his words.​—Compare Joh 2:19-22; see TRUTH (“The Spirit of the Truth”).

When brought before public assemblies, kings, and other men in high governmental station, Jesus’ disciples could confidently rely on God’s spirit as a remembrancer and teacher. Like a friend, it would bring back to their minds things to say and it would help them to make appropriate applications. This would result in giving a good witness and would also silence opposers. (Mt 10:18-20; Mr 13:11; Lu 12:11, 12; 21:13-15) That is why Peter and John were able to speak boldly when questioned by the highest Jewish court, the Sanhedrin, about their having healed a man lame from birth. Their outspokenness was something completely unexpected from ‘unlettered and ordinary men.’ It caused the members of the Sanhedrin to wonder. And Peter’s words, coupled with the presence of the cured man, left these learned men with “nothing to say in rebuttal.”​—Ac 4:5-14.

Since all of God’s Word was written under inspiration (2Ti 3:16), it alone contains the spirit’s teaching. Therefore, teaching that conflicts with God’s Word is not to be given any attention by Christians. As the apostle John wrote: “You do not need anyone to be teaching you; but, as the anointing from him is teaching you about all things, and is true and is no lie, and just as it has taught you, remain in union with him.” (1Jo 2:27) Those to whom John directed these words were spirit-begotten Christians. They had come to know both Jehovah God and his Son, Christ Jesus. They were fully acquainted with God’s truth. So they did not need persons as teachers who denied the Father and the Son. Such teachers would only mislead them from what they knew to be the truth as taught by God’s spirit and plainly set forth in the Sacred Writings. (1Jo 2:18-26) For this reason Christians were not to receive apostate teachers into their homes or even to say a greeting to them.​—2Jo 9-11.

Making and Teaching Disciples. After his resurrection Jesus Christ commissioned his followers to make disciples, baptizing them and teaching them all the things he had commanded. (Mt 28:19, 20) This extensive teaching work had its beginning on the day of Pentecost in 33 C.E., when about 3,000 Jews and proselytes accepted Jesus as the promised Messiah and were baptized. The teaching of these new disciples did not end with the apostle Peter’s discourse that led to their becoming followers of Christ Jesus. There was much more for them to learn. For this reason those who had come to Jerusalem from distant places to be present for the Festival of Pentecost extended their stay in order to be able to devote themselves to the apostles’ teaching. Day after day they would assemble in the temple area, evidently to listen to the apostles. Other Jews and proselytes also got to hear the good news there, and the number of believing men eventually increased to about 5,000. (Ac 2:14–4:4) Besides teaching publicly at the temple, the apostles also declared the good news about Jesus Christ from house to house.​—Ac 5:42; see PREACHER, PREACHING (“From House to House”).

Later, the scattering of the believers through persecution and the beginning of the preaching among the non-Jews extended the disciple-making work to distant places. (Ac 8:4-12; 11:1-26) As in Jerusalem, however, often public preaching and teaching was employed to locate interested ones, after which those who became disciples continued to be taught. In Ephesus, for example, the apostle Paul taught publicly in the synagogue. After opposition arose, he separated the disciples from the unbelieving Jews, delivering discourses to them in the school auditorium of Tyrannus. (Ac 19:8-10) Paul also taught disciples in their homes and he searched out other interested persons by teaching from house to house. As he reminded the older men of the Ephesus congregation: “I did not hold back from telling you any of the things that were profitable nor from teaching you publicly and from house to house.”​—Ac 20:20, 21; compare Ac 18:6, 7 regarding Paul’s activity in Corinth; see DISCIPLE.

Teachers in the Christian Congregation. Through the activity of the apostle Paul and others, Christian congregations were established in many places, and these continued to enjoy increases. Qualified teachers were needed to assist all associated with these congregations to “attain to the oneness in the faith and in the accurate knowledge of the Son of God, to a full-grown man, to the measure of stature that belongs to the fullness of the Christ.” (Eph 4:11-13) This placed a weighty responsibility on those serving as teachers, one that had a direct bearing upon the lives of fellow Christians. The position of teachers was of such importance that it is listed third, right after apostles and prophets, in the placement of members in the congregation. (1Co 12:28) It was not a position filled by Christians generally (1Co 12:29), and it was never filled by women. Wrote the apostle Paul: “I do not permit a woman to teach, or to exercise authority over a man.” (1Ti 2:12) Overseers, or older men, appointed to their positions by holy spirit served in this capacity.​—Ac 20:17, 25-30; 1Ti 3:1, 2; 5:17.

These older men had to be examples worthy of imitation and accurate in their teaching, always adhering to the inspired Word of God. As qualified teachers, they served as a bulwark against the falling away from true belief, being ever alert to correct those who had fallen victim to wrong teaching and taking action against those promoting sects.​—1Ti 4:6, 7, 16; 6:2b-6; 2Ti 2:2, 14-26; 3:14-17; Tit 1:10, 11; 2:1, 6, 7; 3:9-11; compare Re 2:14, 15, 20-24.

The older men (Gr., pre·sbyʹte·roi) who worked hard in teaching fellow Christians were deserving of respect, consideration (compare Heb 13:17), and even voluntary material assistance. This is what the apostle Paul meant when he wrote: “Moreover, let anyone who is being orally taught [literally, being sounded down to] the word share in all good things with the one who gives such oral teaching.” (Ga 6:6, ftn) “Let the older men who preside in a fine way be reckoned worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard in speaking and teaching. For the scripture says: ‘You must not muzzle a bull when it threshes out the grain’; also: ‘The workman is worthy of his wages.’”​—1Ti 5:17, 18.

Men who unselfishly sought to be overseers, qualified to teach others in the congregation, were “desirous of a fine work.” (1Ti 3:1) Obviously, therefore, it was not to discourage such men from becoming qualified to teach that the disciple James wrote: “Not many of you should become teachers, my brothers, knowing that we shall receive heavier judgment.” (Jas 3:1) Rather, these words emphasized the heavy responsibility that as a result comes upon teachers in the congregation. Evidently some had set themselves up as teachers, although not being appointed or qualifying as such. The persons whom James had in mind were probably much like those of whom Paul wrote to Timothy: “Certain ones have been turned aside into idle talk, wanting to be teachers of law, but not perceiving either the things they are saying or the things about which they are making strong assertions.” (1Ti 1:6, 7) Evidently such men desired the prominence that came with being a teacher of fellow believers. But James placed matters in the right perspective by showing that more would be required of teachers in the congregation. They would have to render a more serious account than Christians generally. (Compare Ro 14:12.) Yet like others, they too would stumble in word.​—Jas 3:2.

How all Christians should be teachers. While relatively few served as teachers in the congregation itself, the desirable goal for all Christians was to have the ability to teach their beliefs to others, at least privately. This point was made clear to Hebrew Christians: “Although you ought to be teachers in view of the time, you again need someone to teach you from the beginning the elementary things of the sacred pronouncements of God.” As the Jews had been the first to receive the good news about the Christ, they really should have been, not spiritual babes, but examples in Christian maturity and ability to teach others. (Heb 5:12–6:2) Thus the inspired writer is here evidently speaking of teaching in a general sense, rather than in an appointed capacity. Somewhat similar, therefore, is his reference to the Jew who, on the basis of his knowledge, becomes “a corrector of the unreasonable ones, a teacher of babes.” (Ro 2:17-20) Paul shows, however, that in such teaching also one’s life course must harmonize with what is taught if the teaching is to bring honor to God.​—Ro 2:21-24.

Christians could also learn from one another. Younger women, for instance, could be taught by aged women about such matters as ‘loving their husbands, loving their children, being sound in mind, chaste, workers at home, good, subjecting themselves to their own husbands, so that the word of God may not be spoken of abusively.’ Such teaching in private was effective when backed up by a good example.​—Tit 2:3-5; compare 2Ti 1:5; 3:14, 15.

(Teʹbah) [Slaughter].

First-named son of Abraham’s brother Nahor by his concubine Reumah. (Ge 22:23, 24) His descendants may be connected with the town of Betah (Tibhath).​—2Sa 8:8; 1Ch 18:8; see BETAH.

(Teb·a·liʹah) [possibly, Good for Jehovah].

A Merarite Levite, the third-listed son of Hosah, and a gatekeeper in the time of David.​—1Ch 26:1, 10, 11, 16.

(Teʹbeth).

The postexilic name of the tenth Jewish lunar month of the sacred calendar, but the fourth of the secular calendar. (Es 2:16) It corresponds to part of December and part of January. It is generally referred to simply as “the tenth month.”​—1Ch 27:13.

The name Tebeth is believed to have come from an Akkadian root meaning “sink” or “sink down,” and this may have reference to the muddy conditions that prevail during this winter month when rainfall is at its peak. The winter rains are often torrential, like the one that ended the three-and-a-half-year drought in Elijah’s day or the kind that Jesus described in his illustration of the house, the sand foundation of which was washed away by the lashing rain. (1Ki 18:45; Mt 7:24-27) According to The Geography of the Bible by Denis Baly (1957, p. 50), the latter part of December brings frequent frosts in the hill country and occasional snow flurries in Jerusalem. (2Sa 23:20) Though it is unusual, there have been times when roads were temporarily blocked by heavy snowfall. It may have been during this month, Tebeth, that a heavy snowfall hindered the Syrian army commander Tryphon when on his way to Jerusalem. (Jewish Antiquities, XIII, 208 [vi, 6]; 1 Maccabees 13:22) The month Tebeth was evidently neither a month for traveling nor a month in which shepherds would spend the night in the fields. For these and other reasons it could not have been the month in which Jesus was born.

It was on the tenth day of Tebeth in 609 B.C.E. that Nebuchadnezzar began his siege against the city of Jerusalem. (2Ki 25:1; Jer 39:1; 52:4; Eze 24:1, 2) Possibly in memory of this event the Jews observed “the fast of the tenth month.”​—Zec 8:19.

Hard, bony appendages in the mouth that are used for the chewing of food and, in the case of animals, also as weapons.

Job, the faithful servant of God, barely escaping death in his sufferings, said: “I escape with the skin of my teeth.” (Job 19:20) It seems that Job was simply saying that he had escaped with nothing or with next to nothing. He had escaped with the skin of his teeth, that is, with the “skin” of what apparently has no skin.

Grinding or gnashing of the teeth is frequently used to denote rage (Job 16:9; Ac 7:54) or anguish and despair. (Mt 8:12; 13:42, 50; 22:13; 24:51; 25:30) Such gnashing may be accompanied by bitter words and violent action against the object of anger.

At Amos 4:6 the expression “cleanness of teeth” is paralleled with “want of bread,” representing famine conditions.

Teeth also symbolize destructive power of a nation or a people. (Da 7:5, 7, 19; Joe 1:6; Re 9:8) David likens the wicked enemies of the righteous to ferocious lions, and he petitions God to strike them in the jaw and to break their teeth. This would render them powerless to do harm. (Ps 3:7; 58:6) The false prophets of Israel are pictured as greedy and voracious, “biting with their teeth,” and sanctifying war against anyone who does not feed them.​—Mic 3:5; compare Eze 34:2, 3; Mt 7:15; Ac 20:29.

In the days before Jerusalem’s destruction, a common saying of the people was: “The fathers were the ones that ate the unripe grape, but it was the teeth of the sons that got set on edge.” (Jer 31:29; Eze 18:2-4) By this means they tried to excuse themselves of the blame for the adverse conditions brought upon the nation because of its wickedness, saying that what they were experiencing was as a result of what their fathers had done.

See TAHPANES, TAHPANHES, TEHAPHNEHES.

(Te·hinʹnah) [Request for Favor].

Descendant of Chelub in the genealogies of Judah. He is also identified as the father of Ir-nahash, probably meaning that he was the founder of such a community.​—1Ch 4:11, 12.

[ט].

The ninth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The sound represented by the letter corresponds to an emphatic English “t,” produced by pressing the tongue strongly against the palate. Its sound differs from that of the letter taw [ת] primarily because of its lack of aspiration after the “t” sound. In the original Hebrew, it appears at the beginning of each verse of Psalm 119:65-72.

See MENE.

(Te·koʹa).

A town in the territory of Judah that is commonly identified with Khirbet ʼet-Tuquʽ, some 16 km (10 mi) S of Jerusalem and lying at an elevation of about 820 m (2,700 ft). To the E stretches the Wilderness of Judah, of which “the wilderness of Tekoa” (where the Ammonites, Moabites, and the forces from Mount Seir suffered a crushing defeat during Jehoshaphat’s reign) was apparently a part. (2Ch 20:20, 24) King Rehoboam, David’s grandson, rebuilt and fortified Tekoa, and for centuries thereafter the city evidently served as an outpost in the Judean defense system. (2Ch 11:5, 6; compare Jer 6:1.) It was the home of Ikkesh, the father of Ira, one of David’s mighty men. (1Ch 11:26, 28) From there came the wise woman who, at the direction of Joab, appealed to King David in behalf of Absalom. (2Sa 14:1-21) And there, in the ninth century B.C.E., the prophet Amos raised sheep.​—Am 1:1.

Some may conclude that the Tekoa mentioned in the Judean genealogical records (1Ch 2:3, 24; 4:5) was a son of Ashhur. However, Tekoa is not listed in 1 Chronicles 4:5-7 among the seven sons of Ashhur’s two wives, suggesting that Ashhur, rather than being the father of a son named Tekoa, may have been the founder of the town or of its population.

(Te·koʹite) [Of (Belonging to) Tekoa].

An inhabitant of Tekoa. (2Ch 11:6; Jer 6:1) The term is applied to Ikkesh, the father of David’s warrior Ira (2Sa 23:26; 1Ch 11:28; 27:9); likewise to a wise woman who, at the behest of Joab, feigned widowhood before David in a scheme to accomplish Absalom’s return from banishment. (2Sa 14:2, 4, 9) After the return from Babylonian exile, Tekoites were among those who shared in repairing Jerusalem’s walls, though their “majestic ones” (“nobles,” AT) took no part in the work.​—Ne 3:5, 27.

(Tel-aʹbib) [Mound of Green Ears].

A place by the river Chebar in the land of the Chaldeans where Ezekiel and other Jews were exiled. Its exact location is unknown.​—Eze 1:1-3; 3:15; see CHEBAR.

(Teʹlah).

An Ephraimite ancestor of Joshua the son of Nun.​—1Ch 7:20, 25-27.

(Te·laʹim).

A site, apparently in Judah, where Saul numbered his forces before striking the Amalekites. (1Sa 15:1-4) Telaim appears to be the same as Telem, listed with southern Judean cities. (Jos 15:21, 24) It is also probably to be connected with “Telam.”​—1Sa 27:8.

(Teʹlam).

Twelve manuscripts of the Greek Septuagint say that Tela(m) was one of the limits of the dwellings of the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites in David’s day. (1Sa 27:8) This would appear to connect Telam with Telaim, referred to at 1 Samuel 15:4, and Telem in southern Judah. (Jos 15:21, 24) At 1 Samuel 27:8, the Hebrew Masoretic text reads “from long ago,” which differs from the expression “from Telam” by only two Hebrew consonants.

(Tel-asʹsar).

A place inhabited by “the sons of Eden” mentioned along with Gozan, Haran, and Rezeph​—sites in northern Mesopotamia. (2Ki 19:12; Isa 37:12) Sennacherib boasted, through his messengers, that the gods worshiped by the people of these places had been unable to deliver them from the power of his forefathers. Because of the reference to “the sons of Eden,” Tel-assar is generally associated with the small kingdom of Bit-adini along the Upper Euphrates. Assyrian monarchs Tiglath-pileser III and Esar-haddon both refer to a Til-Ashuri, but its location is considered to have been near the Assyrian border of Elam. Hence, identification of Tel-assar remains uncertain.

(Teʹlem).

1. A gatekeeper among those dismissing their foreign wives in the days of Ezra.​—Ezr 10:16, 17, 24.

2. A city in the southern part of Judah. (Jos 15:21, 24) It is possibly the same as Telaim.

(Tel-harʹsha).

A Babylonian site from which certain persons unable to establish their genealogy as Israelites came to Judah with the exiles in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 2:1, 59; Ne 7:6, 61) Otherwise the site is unknown.

(Tel-meʹlah) [Mound of Salt].

One of the Babylonian places from which individuals unable to tell their genealogy came to Judah in 537 B.C.E.​—Ezr 2:1, 59; Ne 7:6, 61.

(Teʹma).

1. One of the sons of Ishmael.​—Ge 25:13-15; 1Ch 1:29, 30.

2. The same as modern Taima, an oasis located about 400 km (250 mi) SE of Ezion-geber, where two major caravan routes crossed. (Job 6:19) Tema, along with nearby Dedan, is mentioned in the prophecies of Isaiah (21:13, 14) and Jeremiah (25:15-23). In this latter prophecy Tema was specifically named as among the places whose inhabitants would be compelled to drink of Jehovah’s “cup of the wine of rage.” Babylonian King Nabonidus apparently established a second capital in Tema, leaving Belshazzar at Babylon in charge during his absence.

(Teʹmah).

Forefather of a family of Nethinim who returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 53; Ne 7:55.

(Teʹman) [Right Side; South].

1. A descendant of Esau through his firstborn Eliphaz (Ge 36:10, 11; 1Ch 1:35, 36); an Edomite sheik.​—Ge 36:15, 16, 34, 42.

2. A place identified by some scholars with Tawilan, about 5 km (3 mi) E of Petra. It was evidently an Edomite city or district (the land of the Temanites), where the descendants of Teman resided. (Ge 36:34; Jer 49:7, 20; Eze 25:13; Am 1:11, 12; Ob 9) The place became noted as a center of wisdom. (Jer 49:7) In the book of Habakkuk, God is spoken of as coming from “Teman, even a Holy One from Mount Paran.” This may refer to Jehovah’s shining forth in glory, his splendor reflecting from the mountains as he brought his newly formed nation past Edom en route to the Promised Land.​—Hab 3:3, 4; compare De 33:2.

(Teʹman·ite) [Of (Belonging to) Teman].

A term generally understood to refer to a native of Teman in Edom. An early Edomite king, Husham, came from “the land of the Temanites,” and Eliphaz, one of Job’s three companions, was a Temanite. (Ge 36:31-34; Job 2:11; 4:1; 42:7) That Eliphaz came from Teman in Edom is suggested by the understanding that the land of Uz, where Job lived, was near Edom. Some scholars, however, believe that there is a possibility that the Eliphaz named in the book of Job was, not from Teman, but from Tema, a place identified with an oasis on the Arabian Peninsula about 400 km (250 mi) SE of Ezion-geber.​—Job 6:19.

(Teʹme·ni) [from a root meaning “right side; south”].

A son of Ashhur by his wife Naarah; of the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 4:1, 5, 6.

A divine habitation, sacred place or sanctuary, either physical or spiritual, that is employed for worship. The Hebrew word heh·khalʹ, translated “temple,” also means “palace.” The Greek hi·e·ronʹ and na·osʹ are both rendered “temple” and may refer to the entire temple complex or to its central edifice; na·osʹ, meaning “sanctuary” or “divine habitation (dwelling),” at times refers specifically to the sacred inner rooms of the temple.​—See HOLY PLACE.

Solomon’s Temple. King David entertained a strong desire to build a house for Jehovah, to contain the ark of the covenant, which was “dwelling in the middle of tent cloths.” Jehovah was pleased with David’s proposal but told him that, because he had shed much blood in warfare, his son (Solomon) would be privileged to do the building. This was not to say that God did not approve David’s wars fought in behalf of Jehovah’s name and His people. But the temple was to be built in peace by a man of peace.​—2Sa 7:1-16; 1Ki 5:3-5; 8:17; 1Ch 17:1-14; 22:6-10.

Cost. Later David purchased the threshing floor of Ornan (Araunah) the Jebusite on Mount Moriah as the temple site. (2Sa 24:24, 25; 1Ch 21:24, 25) He amassed 100,000 talents of gold, 1,000,000 talents of silver, and copper and iron in great abundance, besides contributing from his personal fortune 3,000 talents of gold and 7,000 talents of silver. He also received as contributions from the princes, gold worth 5,000 talents and 10,000 darics and silver worth 10,000 talents, as well as much iron and copper. (1Ch 22:14; 29:3-7) This total, amounting to 108,000 talents and 10,000 darics of gold and 1,017,000 talents of silver, would be worth $48,337,047,000 at current values. His son Solomon did not spend the entire amount in building the temple; the remainder he put in the temple treasury.​—1Ki 7:51; 2Ch 5:1.

Workmen. King Solomon began building the temple for Jehovah in the fourth year of his reign (1034 B.C.E.), in the second month, Ziv, following the architectural plan that David had received by inspiration. (1Ki 6:1; 1Ch 28:11-19) The work continued over a seven-year period. (1Ki 6:37, 38) In exchange for wheat, barley, oil, and wine, Hiram king of Tyre supplied timbers from Lebanon along with skilled workers in wood and stone, and one special expert, also named Hiram, whose father was a Tyrian and his mother an Israelitess of the tribe of Naphtali. This man was a fine workman in gold, silver, copper, iron, wood, stones, and fabrics.​—1Ki 5:8-11, 18; 7:13, 14, 40, 45; 2Ch 2:13-16.

In organizing the work, Solomon conscripted 30,000 men out of Israel, sending them to Lebanon in shifts of 10,000 for a month, with a two-month stay at home between shifts. (1Ki 5:13, 14) As burden bearers, he conscripted 70,000 from among the “alien residents” in the land, and as cutters, 80,000. (1Ki 5:15; 9:20, 21; 2Ch 2:2) As foremen over the work, Solomon appointed 550 men and apparently 3,300 as assistants. (1Ki 5:16; 9:22, 23) It appears that, of these, 250 were Israelites and 3,600 were “alien residents” in Israel.​—2Ch 2:17, 18.

Length of “cubit” used. In the following discussion of the measurements of the three temples​—built by Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod—​we shall calculate them on the basis of the cubit of 44.5 cm (17.5 in.). However, it is possible that they used the longer cubit of about 51.8 cm (20.4 in.).​—Compare 2Ch 3:3 (which mentions a “length in cubits by the former measurement,” this perhaps being a longer measure than the cubit that came to be commonly in use) and Eze 40:5; see CUBIT.

Plan and materials. The temple, a most magnificent structure, followed the general plan of the tabernacle. However, the inside dimensions of the Holy and Most Holy were greater than those of the tabernacle. The Holy was 40 cubits (17.8 m; 58.3 ft) long, 20 cubits (8.9 m; 29.2 ft) wide, and evidently 30 cubits (13.4 m; 43.7 ft) high. (1Ki 6:2, 17) The Most Holy was a cube 20 cubits on a side. (1Ki 6:20; 2Ch 3:8) Additionally, there were roof chambers over the Most Holy that were approximately 10 cubits (4.5 m; 14.6 ft) high. (1Ch 28:11) There was also a side structure around the temple on three sides, containing storage chambers, and so forth.​—1Ki 6:4-6, 10.

Materials used were primarily stone and wood. The floors of these rooms were overlaid with juniper wood; the inside walls were of cedar engraved with carvings of cherubs, palm trees, and blossoms; the walls and ceiling were entirely overlaid with gold. (1Ki 6:15, 18, 21, 22, 29) The doors of the Holy (at the temple entrance) were made of juniper​—carved and overlaid with gold foil. (1Ki 6:34, 35) Doors of oil-tree wood, likewise carved and overlaid with gold, provided entrance between the Holy and Most Holy. Whatever their exact position, these doors did not fully replace the curtain arrangement that had been in effect in the tabernacle. (Compare 2Ch 3:14.) Two gigantic cherubs of oil-tree wood, gold overlaid, occupied the Most Holy. Under these the ark of the covenant was placed.​—1Ki 6:23-28, 31-33; 8:6; see CHERUB No. 1.

All the utensils of the Holy were of gold: the altar of incense, the ten tables of showbread, and the ten lampstands, together with their appurtenances. Beside the entrance to the Holy (the first compartment) stood two copper pillars, called “Jachin” and “Boaz.” (1Ki 7:15-22, 48-50; 1Ch 28:16; 2Ch 4:8; see BOAZ, II.) The inner courtyard was constructed of fine stone and cedarwood. (1Ki 6:36) The courtyard furnishings, the altar of sacrifice, the great “molten sea,” ten carriages for water basins, and other utensils were of copper. (1Ki 7:23-47) Dining rooms were provided around the perimeter of the courtyards.​—1Ch 28:12.

An outstanding feature of the construction of this temple was the fact that all the stone was cut at the quarry, so that it fit perfectly at the temple site. “As for hammers and axes or any tools of iron, they were not heard in the house while it was being built.” (1Ki 6:7) The work was completed in seven and a half years (from spring 1034 B.C.E. to fall [Bul, the eighth month] 1027 B.C.E.).​—1Ki 6:1, 38.

Inauguration. In the seventh month, Ethanim, apparently in the 12th year of Solomon’s reign (1026 B.C.E.), Solomon congregated the men of Israel to Jerusalem for the temple inauguration and the Festival of Booths. The tabernacle with its holy furniture was brought up, and the ark of the covenant was placed in the Most Holy. (See MOST HOLY.) At this Jehovah’s cloud filled the temple. Solomon then blessed Jehovah and the congregation of Israel and, standing on a special platform before the copper altar of sacrifice (see ALTAR), offered a long prayer praising Jehovah and asking for his loving-kindness and mercy in behalf of those who turned toward Him to fear and to serve Him, both the Israelite and the foreigner. A grand sacrifice of 22,000 cattle and 120,000 sheep was offered. The inauguration occupied 7 days, and the Festival of Booths 7 days, after which, on the 23rd day of the month, Solomon sent the people home joyful and thankful for Jehovah’s goodness and bountifulness.​—1Ki 8; 2Ch 5:1–7:10; see SOLOMON (Inauguration of the temple).

History. This temple existed until 607 B.C.E., when it was destroyed by the Babylonian army under King Nebuchadnezzar. (2Ki 25:9; 2Ch 36:19; Jer 52:13) Because of the falling away of Israel to false religion, God permitted the nations to harass Judah and Jerusalem, at times stripping the temple of its treasures. The temple also suffered periods of neglect. King Shishak of Egypt robbed it of its treasures (993 B.C.E.) in the days of Rehoboam the son of Solomon, only about 33 years after its inauguration. (1Ki 14:25, 26; 2Ch 12:9) King Asa (977-937 B.C.E.) had respect for Jehovah’s house, but to protect Jerusalem he foolishly bribed King Ben-hadad I of Syria, with silver and gold from the treasures of the temple, to break his covenant with Baasha king of Israel.​—1Ki 15:18, 19; 2Ch 15:17, 18; 16:2, 3.

After a period of turbulence and neglect of the temple, King Jehoash of Judah (898-859 B.C.E.) oversaw its repair. (2Ki 12:4-12; 2Ch 24:4-14) In the days of his son Amaziah, Jehoash king of Israel robbed it. (2Ki 14:13, 14) King Jotham (777-762 B.C.E.) did some construction work on the temple area, building “the upper gate.” (2Ki 15:32, 35; 2Ch 27:1, 3) King Ahaz of Judah (761-746 B.C.E.) not only sent the treasures of the temple to Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria, as a bribe but he also polluted the temple by building an altar patterned after one in Damascus and by replacing the copper altar of the temple with it. (2Ki 16:5-16) Finally he closed the doors of Jehovah’s house.​—2Ch 28:24.

Ahaz’ son Hezekiah (745-717 B.C.E.) did what he could to undo the bad works of his father. At the very beginning of his reign, he reopened the temple and had it cleaned up. (2Ch 29:3, 15, 16) However, later on, for fear of Sennacherib king of Assyria, he cut off the doors and the doorposts of the temple that he himself had caused to be overlaid with gold and sent them to Sennacherib.​—2Ki 18:15, 16.

But when Hezekiah died, the temple entered a half century of desecration and disrepair. His son Manasseh (716-662 B.C.E.) went beyond any of Judah’s previous kings in wickedness, setting up altars “to all the army of the heavens in two courtyards of the house of Jehovah.” (2Ki 21:1-5; 2Ch 33:1-4) By the time of Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (659-629 B.C.E.), the formerly magnificent edifice was in a state of disrepair. Evidently it was in a disorganized or cluttered condition, for High Priest Hilkiah’s finding the book of the Law (likely an original scroll written by Moses) was an exciting discovery. (2Ki 22:3-13; 2Ch 34:8-21) After the temple’s repair and cleansing, the greatest Passover since the days of Samuel the prophet was celebrated. (2Ki 23:21-23; 2Ch 35:17-19) This was during the ministry of the prophet Jeremiah. (Jer 1:1-3) From this time until the temple’s destruction, it remained open and in use by the priesthood, though many of the priests were corrupt.

The Temple Built by Zerubbabel. As foretold by Jehovah’s prophet Isaiah, God raised up Cyrus king of Persia as a liberator of Israel from the power of Babylon. (Isa 45:1) Jehovah also stirred up his own people under the leadership of Zerubbabel of the tribe of Judah to return to Jerusalem. This they did in 537 B.C.E., after 70 years of desolation, as Jeremiah had foretold, for the purpose of rebuilding the temple. (Ezr 1:1-6; 2:1, 2; Jer 29:10) This structure, though not nearly so glorious as Solomon’s temple, endured longer, standing for nearly 500 years, from 515 B.C.E. to very late in the first century B.C.E. (The temple built by Solomon had served about 420 years, from 1027 to 607 B.C.E.)

In Cyrus’ decree he ordered: “As for anyone that is left from all the places where he is residing as an alien, let the men of his place assist him with silver and with gold and with goods and with domestic animals along with the voluntary offering for the house of the true God, which was in Jerusalem.” (Ezr 1:1-4) Cyrus also returned 5,400 vessels of gold and silver that Nebuchadnezzar had taken from Solomon’s temple.​—Ezr 1:7-11.

In the seventh month (Ethanim, or Tishri) of the year 537 B.C.E., the altar was set up; and in the following year, the foundation of the new temple was laid. As Solomon had done, the builders hired Sidonians and Tyrians to bring cedar timbers from Lebanon. (Ezr 3:7) Opposition, particularly from the Samaritans, disheartened the builders, and after about 15 years those opposers even incited the king of Persia to ban the work.​—Ezr 4.

The Jews had stopped their temple building work and had turned to other pursuits, so Jehovah sent his prophets Haggai and Zechariah to stir them to renew their efforts in the second year of Darius I (520 B.C.E.), and thereafter a decree was made upholding Cyrus’ original order and commanding that moneys be provided from the royal treasury, to supply what the builders and priests needed. (Ezr 5:1, 2; 6:1-12) The building work was carried on, and the house of Jehovah was completed on the third day of Adar in the sixth year of Darius (probably March 6 of 515 B.C.E.), after which the Jews inaugurated the rebuilt temple and held the Passover.​—Ezr 6:13-22.

Little is known about the details of the architectural plan of this second temple. Cyrus’ decree authorized the building of a structure “its height being sixty cubits [c. 27 m; 88 ft], its width sixty cubits, with three layers of stones rolled into place and one layer of timbers.” The length is not stated. (Ezr 6:3, 4) It had dining rooms and storerooms (Ne 13:4, 5), and undoubtedly it had roof chambers, and possibly other buildings were associated with it, along the same lines as Solomon’s temple.

This second temple did not contain the ark of the covenant, which seems to have disappeared before Nebuchadnezzar captured and looted Solomon’s temple in 607 B.C.E. According to the account in the Apocryphal book of First Maccabees (1:21-24, 57; 4:38, 44-51), there was one lampstand instead of the ten that were in Solomon’s; the golden altar, the table of showbread, and the vessels are mentioned, as is the altar of burnt offering, which, instead of being of copper as was the altar in Solomon’s temple, is there described as being of stone. This altar, after being defiled by King Antiochus Epiphanes (in 168 B.C.E.), was rebuilt with new stones under the direction of Judas Maccabaeus.

The Temple Rebuilt by Herod. This temple is not described in any detail in the Scriptures. The primary source is Josephus, who personally saw the structure and who reports on its construction in The Jewish War and Jewish Antiquities. The Jewish Mishnah supplies some information, and a little is gained from archaeology. Therefore the description set forth here is from these sources, which in some instances may be open to question.​—PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 543.

In The Jewish War (I, 401 [xxi, 1]), Josephus says that Herod rebuilt the temple in the 15th year of his reign, but in Jewish Antiquities (XV, 380 [xi, 1]), he says it was in the 18th year. This latter date is generally accepted by scholars, although the beginning of Herod’s reign, or how Josephus calculated it, is not established with certainty. The sanctuary itself took 18 months to build, but the courtyards, and so forth, were under construction for eight years. When certain Jews approached Jesus Christ in 30 C.E., saying, “This temple was built in forty-six years” (Joh 2:20), these Jews were apparently talking about the work that continued on the complex of courts and buildings up until then. The work was not finished until about six years before the destruction of the temple in 70 C.E.

Because of hatred and distrust of Herod, the Jews would not permit him to rebuild the temple, as he proposed, until he had everything prepared for the new building. For the same reason they did not consider this temple as a third one, but only as a rebuilt one, speaking only of the first and second temples (Solomon’s and Zerubbabel’s).

As to Josephus’ measurements, Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible (1889, Vol. IV, p. 3203) says: “His horizontal dimensions are so minutely accurate that we almost suspect he had before his eyes, when writing, some ground-plan of the building prepared in the quartermaster-general’s department of Titus’s army. They form a strange contrast with his dimensions in height, which, with scarcely an exception, can be shown to be exaggerated, generally doubled. As the buildings were all thrown down during the siege, it was impossible to convict him of error in respect to elevations.”

Colonnades and gates. Josephus writes that Herod doubled the size of the temple area, building up the sides of Mount Moriah with great stone walls and leveling off an area on the top of the mountain. (The Jewish War, I, 401 [xxi, 1]; Jewish Antiquities, XV, 391-402 [xi, 3]) The Mishnah (Middot 2:1) says the Temple Mount measured 500 cubits (223 m; 729 ft) square. On the outer edge of the area were colonnades. The temple faced the E, as did the previous ones. Along this side was the colonnade of Solomon, consisting of two aisles with columns of marble pillars. On one occasion, in the wintertime, Jesus was approached here by certain Jews asking if he was the Christ. (Joh 10:22-24) In the N and W were also colonnades, dwarfed by the Royal Colonnade on the S, consisting of four rows of Corinthian pillars, 162 in all, with three aisles. The pillars’ circumferences were so great that it took three men with outstretched arms to reach around one of them, and they stood much higher than those of the other colonnades.

There were evidently eight gates leading into the temple area: four on the W side, two on the S, and one each on the E and N. (See GATE, GATEWAY [Temple Gates].) Because of these gates, the first court, the Court of the Gentiles, also served as a thoroughfare, travelers preferring to go through it instead of outside around the temple area.

Court of the Gentiles. The colonnades surrounded the large area named the Court of the Gentiles, so called because Gentiles were permitted to enter it. It was from it that Jesus, on two occasions, once near the beginning and once at the close of his earthly ministry, expelled those who had made the house of his Father a house of merchandise.​—Joh 2:13-17; Mt 21:12, 13; Mr 11:15-18.

There were several courts through which a person passed as he proceeded to the central building, the sanctuary itself. Each succeeding court was of a higher degree of sanctity. Passing through the Court of the Gentiles, one encountered a wall three cubits (1.3 m; 4.4 ft) high, with openings through which to pass. On its top were large stones bearing a warning in Greek and Latin. The Greek inscription read (according to one translation): “Let no foreigner enter inside of the barrier and the fence around the sanctuary. Whosoever is caught will be responsible for his death which will ensue.” (The New Westminster Dictionary of the Bible, edited by H. Gehman, 1970, p. 932) On the occasion when the apostle Paul was mobbed in the temple, it was because the Jews rumored that he had brought a Gentile within the forbidden area. We are reminded of this wall, though Paul was using the term “wall” symbolically, when we read that Christ “destroyed the wall” that fenced off Jew from Gentile.​—Eph 2:14, ftn; Ac 21:20-32.

Court of Women. The Court of Women was 14 steps higher. Here women could enter for worship. Among other things, the Court of Women contained treasure chests, near one of which Jesus sat when he commended the widow for giving her all. (Mr 12:41-44; Lu 21:1-4) In this court were also several buildings.

Court of Israel and Court of Priests. Fifteen large semicircular steps led up to the Court of Israel, which could be entered by men who were ceremonially clean. Against the outside wall of this court were storage chambers.

Then came the Court of Priests, which corresponded to the courtyard of the tabernacle. In it was the altar, built of unhewn stones. According to the Mishnah, it was 32 cubits (14.2 m; 46.7 ft) square at the base. (Middot 3:1) Josephus gives a higher figure. (The Jewish War, V, 225 [v, 6]; see ALTAR [Postexilic Altars].) The priests reached the altar by an inclined plane. A “laver” was also in use, according to the Mishnah. (Middot 3:6) Around this court also were various buildings.

The temple building. As previously, the temple proper consisted primarily of two compartments, the Holy and the Most Holy. The floor of this building was 12 steps above the Court of Priests. Even as with Solomon’s temple, chambers were built on the sides of this building and there was an upper chamber. The entrance was closed by golden doors, each 55 cubits (24.5 m; 80.2 ft) high and 16 cubits (7.1 m; 23.3 ft) broad. The front of the building was wider than the back, having wings or “shoulders” that extended out 20 cubits (8.9 m; 29.2 ft) on each side. The inside of the Holy was 40 cubits (17.8 m; 58.3 ft) long and 20 cubits wide. In the Holy were the lampstand, the table of showbread, and the altar of incense​—all of gold.

The entrance to the Most Holy was a beautifully ornamented thick curtain, or veil. At the time of Jesus’ death, this curtain was torn in two from top to bottom, exposing the Most Holy as containing no ark of the covenant. In place of the Ark was a stone slab upon which the high priest sprinkled the blood on the Day of Atonement. (Mt 27:51; Heb 6:19; 10:20) This room was 20 cubits long and 20 cubits wide.

The Jews used the temple area as a citadel, or fortress, during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. They themselves set fire to the colonnades, but a Roman soldier, contrary to the wishes of the Roman commander Titus, fired the temple itself, thereby fulfilling Jesus’ words regarding the temple buildings: “By no means will a stone be left here upon a stone and not be thrown down.”​—Mt 24:2; The Jewish War, VI, 252-266 (iv, 5-7); VII, 3, 4 (i, 1).

Jehovah’s Great Spiritual Temple. The tabernacle constructed by Moses and the temples built by Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod were only typical, or pictorial. This was shown by the apostle Paul when he wrote that the tabernacle, the basic features of which were included in the later temples, was “a typical representation and a shadow of the heavenly things.” (Heb 8:1-5; see also 1Ki 8:27; Isa 66:1; Ac 7:48; 17:24.) The Christian Greek Scriptures disclose the reality represented by the type. These Scriptures show that the tabernacle and the temples built by Solomon, Zerubbabel, and Herod, along with their features, represented a greater, spiritual temple of Jehovah, “the true tent, which Jehovah put up, and not man.” (Heb 8:2) As revealed by its various features, that spiritual temple is the arrangement for approaching Jehovah in worship on the basis of the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus Christ.​—Heb 9:2-10, 23.

The inspired letter to the Hebrews states that in this spiritual temple the Most Holy is “heaven itself,” the area where the person of God is. (Heb 9:24) Since only the Most Holy is “heaven itself,” then the Holy and the priestly courtyard, as well as their features, must pertain to things on earth, those things having to do with Jesus Christ during his ministry on earth and his followers who are “partakers of the heavenly calling.”​—Heb 3:1.

The curtain was a barrier separating the Holy from the Most Holy; in Jesus’ case it represented “his flesh,” which he had to lay down in sacrifice, giving it up forever, to be able to enter heaven, the antitypical Most Holy. (Heb 10:20) Anointed Christians must also pass the fleshly barrier that separates them from access to God’s presence in heaven. Consistently, the Holy represents their condition as spirit-begotten sons of God, with heavenly life in view, and they will attain to that heavenly reward when their fleshly bodies are laid aside in death.​—1Co 15:50; Heb 2:10.

While still in the antitypical Holy, these who have been anointed with holy spirit and who serve as underpriests with Christ are able to enjoy spiritual enlightenment, as from the lampstand; to eat spiritual food, as from the table of showbread; and to offer up prayer, praise, and service to God, as if presenting sweet-smelling incense at the golden altar of incense. The Holy of the typical temple was screened off from the view of outsiders, and similarly, how a person knows that he is a spirit-begotten son of God and what he experiences as such cannot be fully appreciated by those who are not.​—Re 14:3.

In the ancient temple courtyard was the altar for offering sacrifices. This foreshadowed God’s provision, according to his will, for a perfect human sacrifice to ransom the offspring of Adam. (Heb 10:1-10; 13:10-12; Ps 40:6-8) In the spiritual temple the courtyard itself must pertain to a condition related to that sacrifice. In the case of Jesus, it was his being a perfect human that made the sacrifice of his life acceptable. In the case of his anointed followers, all of these are declared righteous on the basis of their faith in Christ’s sacrifice, and thus they are viewed by God as sinless while in the flesh.​—Ro 3:24-26; 5:1, 9; 8:1.

The features of “the true tent,” God’s great spiritual temple, already existed in the first century C.E. This is indicated by the fact that, with reference to the tabernacle constructed by Moses, Paul wrote that it was “an illustration for the appointed time that is now here,” that is, for something that existed when Paul was writing. (Heb 9:9) That temple certainly existed when Jesus presented the value of his sacrifice in its Most Holy, in heaven itself. It must actually have come into existence in 29 C.E., when Jesus was anointed with holy spirit to serve as Jehovah’s great High Priest.​—Heb 4:14; 9:11, 12.

Jesus Christ promises the spirit-begotten Christians that the one who conquers, who endures faithfully to the end, will be made “a pillar in the temple of my God, and he will by no means go out from it anymore.” (Re 3:12) So, such a one is granted a permanent place in “heaven itself,” the antitypical Most Holy.

Revelation 7:9-15 reveals “a great crowd” of other worshipers of Jehovah sharing in pure worship at the spiritual temple. Those making up this “great crowd” are not described in terms that identify them as underpriests. The ones who make up this “great crowd” are said to have “washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb.” Because of their faith in the sacrifice of Christ, they are credited with a righteous standing that makes possible their preservation through “the great tribulation,” so they are said to “come out of” it as survivors.

At Isaiah 2:1-4 and Micah 4:1-4, reference is made to a ‘lifting up’ of “the mountain of the house of Jehovah” in “the final part of the days,” and it is foretold that there would be a gathering of people of “all the nations” to that “house of Jehovah.” Since there has been no physical temple of Jehovah in Jerusalem since 70 C.E., this must refer, not to some physical structure, but to an elevating of true worship in the lives of Jehovah’s people during “the final part of the days” and a great gathering of people of all nations to share in worship at Jehovah’s great spiritual temple.

Ezekiel’s Temple Vision. Detailed description of a temple of Jehovah is also found at Ezekiel chapters 40-47, but it is not a temple that was ever built on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem, nor would it fit there. It was a visionary temple, and not an illustration of God’s great spiritual temple. Special consideration is given in the account to the provisions that emanate from the temple and to the fact that precautions are taken to keep out all who are unworthy to be among the worshipers in its courtyards.

In 593 B.C.E., in the 14th year after the destruction of Jerusalem and Solomon’s temple therein, the priest-prophet Ezekiel, transported in vision to a high mountaintop, beheld a great temple of Jehovah. (Eze 40:1, 2) To humiliate and bring about repentance of the exiled Jews, also doubtless to comfort faithful ones, Ezekiel was instructed to relate everything he saw to “the house of Israel.” (Eze 40:4; 43:10, 11) The vision gave careful attention to the details of measurement. The units of measure used were the “reed” (the long reed, 3.11 m; 10.2 ft) and the “cubit” (the long cubit, 51.8 cm; 20.4 in.). (Eze 40:5, ftn) This attention to measurement has led some to believe that this visionary temple was to serve as a model for the temple later constructed by Zerubbabel in the postexilic period. There is, however, no conclusive substantiation of this assumption.

The entire temple area was evidently a square 500 cubits to a side. It contained an outer courtyard, an elevated inner courtyard, the temple with its altar, various dining rooms, and a building to the W, or rear, of the temple. Providing access to the temple’s outer and inner courtyards were six huge gateways, three for the outer courtyard and three for the inner courtyard. These faced N, E, and S, each inner gate being directly behind (in line with) its corresponding outer gate. (Eze 40:6, 20, 23, 24, 27) Inside the outer wall was the lower pavement. It was 50 cubits (25.9 m; 85 ft) wide, the same as the length of the gateways. (Eze 40:18, 21) Thirty dining rooms, likely places for the people to eat their communion sacrifices, were located there. (Eze 40:17) At each of the four corners of this outer courtyard were locations where the people’s portions of their sacrifices were cooked by the priests, according to the Law’s requirement; then they were apparently consumed in the provided dining rooms. (Eze 46:21-24) The remainder of the outer courtyard between the lower pavement and the gates to the inner courtyard was apparently 100 cubits in width.​—Eze 40:19, 23, 27.

The priests’ dining rooms were separated from the people’s, being placed closer to the temple. Two of these, along with two dining rooms for the temple singers, were in the inner courtyard beside the massive inner gateways. (Eze 40:38, 44-46) The priests also had dining-room blocks, to the N and S of the sanctuary itself. (Eze 42:1-12) These dining rooms, in addition to their most evident purpose, were places for the priests to change the linen garments used in temple service prior to their entering the outer courtyard. (Eze 42:13, 14; 44:19) Also in that area, to the rear of the dining-room blocks, were the boiling and baking places of the priests, intended for the same basic purpose as those in the outer courtyard, but these for only the priests.​—Eze 46:19, 20.

Progressing across the outer courtyard and through the inner gateway, one entered the inner courtyard. The edge of the inner courtyard was 150 cubits (77.7 m; 255 ft) from the edge of the outer courtyard on the E, N, and S. The inner courtyard was 200 cubits (103.6 m; 340 ft) wide. (Ezekiel 40:47 says the inner courtyard was 100 cubits square. This evidently refers to just the area in front of the temple and into which the inner gateways led.) Prominent in the inner courtyard was the altar.​—Eze 43:13-17; see ALTAR (Altar of Ezekiel’s Temple).

The sanctuary’s first room, 40 cubits (20.7 m; 68 ft) long and 20 cubits (10.4 m; 34 ft) wide, was entered by a doorway having two 2-leaved doors. (Eze 41:23, 24) Therein was “the table that is before Jehovah,” a wooden altar.​—Eze 41:21, 22.

The outer walls of the sanctuary had side chambers four cubits (2 m; 6.8 ft) wide incorporated into and against them. Rising three stories, they covered the western, northern, and southern walls, 30 chambers to a story. (Eze 41:5, 6) To ascend the three stories, winding passages, seemingly circular staircases, were provided on the N and S. (Eze 41:7) To the rear, or W, of the temple, lying apparently lengthwise N to S, was a structure called bin·yanʹ, a ‘building to the west.’ (Eze 41:12) Although some scholars have attempted to identify this building with the temple or sanctuary itself, there appears no basis for such an identification in the book of Ezekiel; the ‘building to the west,’ for one thing, was of different shape and dimensions from those of the sanctuary. This structure doubtless served some function in connection with the services carried on at the sanctuary. There may have been a similar building or buildings W of Solomon’s temple.​—Compare 2Ki 23:11 and 1Ch 26:18.

The Most Holy was of the same shape as that of Solomon’s temple, being 20 cubits square. In the vision, Ezekiel saw Jehovah’s glory come from the E, filling the temple. Jehovah described this temple as “the place of my throne.”​—Eze 43:1-7.

Ezekiel describes a wall 500 reeds (1,555 m; 5,100 ft) on each side, around the temple. This has been understood by some scholars to be a wall at a distance of about 600 m (2,000 ft) from the courtyard, a space surrounded by the wall “to make a division between what is holy and what is profane.”​—Eze 42:16-20.

Ezekiel also beheld a stream of water flowing “from under the threshold of the House eastward” and south of the altar, growing into a deep and mighty torrent as it flowed down through the Arabah into the north end of the Salt Sea. Here it healed the salt waters so that they became filled with fish.​—Eze 47:1-12.

Anointed Christians​—A Spiritual Temple. Anointed Christians on earth are likened to a number of things, including a temple. This comparison is fitting because God’s spirit dwells within the congregation of anointed ones. Paul wrote to the Christians in Ephesus “in union with Christ Jesus,” those who are “sealed with the promised holy spirit,” saying: “You have been built up upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, while Christ Jesus himself is the foundation cornerstone. In union with him the whole building, being harmoniously joined together, is growing into a holy temple for Jehovah. In union with him you, too, are being built up together into a place for God to inhabit by spirit.” (Eph 1:1, 13; 2:20-22) These “sealed” ones, laid upon Christ as Foundation, are shown to number 144,000. (Re 7:4; 14:1) The apostle Peter speaks of these as “living stones” being “built up a spiritual house for the purpose of a holy priesthood.”​—1Pe 2:5.

Since these underpriests are “God’s building,” he will not let this spiritual temple suffer defilement. Paul emphasizes the holiness of this spiritual temple, and the danger to one who attempts to defile it, when he writes: “Do you not know that you people are God’s temple, and that the spirit of God dwells in you? If anyone destroys the temple of God, God will destroy him; for the temple of God is holy, which temple you people are.”​—1Co 3:9, 16, 17; see also 2Co 6:16.

Jehovah God and the Lamb ‘Are Its Temple.’ When John sees New Jerusalem coming down from heaven, he remarks: “And I did not see a temple in it, for Jehovah God the Almighty is its temple, also the Lamb is.” (Re 21:2, 22) Since the members of New Jerusalem will have direct access to the face of Jehovah himself, they will not need a temple through which to approach God. (1Jo 3:2; Re 22:3, 4) Those who make up New Jerusalem will render sacred service to God directly under the high priesthood of the Lamb, Jesus Christ. For this reason the Lamb shares with Jehovah in being, in effect, the temple of the New Jerusalem.

An Impostor. The apostle Paul, in warning of the apostasy to come, spoke of “the man of lawlessness” as setting himself up “so that he sits down in the temple of The God, publicly showing himself to be a god.” (2Th 2:3, 4) This “man of lawlessness” is an apostate, a false teacher, so he actually seats himself only in what he falsely claims to be that temple.​—See MAN OF LAWLESSNESS.

An Illustrative Use. On one occasion, when the Jews demanded a sign from Jesus, he replied: “Break down this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.” The Jews thought he was speaking of the temple building, but the apostle John explains: “He was talking about the temple of his body.” When he was resurrected by his Father Jehovah on the third day of his death, the disciples recalled and understood this saying and believed it. (Joh 2:18-22; Mt 27:40) He was resurrected, but not in his fleshly body, which was given as a ransom sacrifice; yet that fleshly body did not go into corruption, but was disposed of by God, just as a sacrifice was consumed on the altar. Jesus, when resurrected, was the same person, the same personality, in a new body made for his new dwelling place, the spiritual heavens.​—Lu 24:1-7; 1Pe 3:18; Mt 20:28; Ac 2:31; Heb 13:8.

See NUMBER, NUMERAL.

See TEN WORDS.

A collapsible shelter made of cloth or skin and supported by poles. Tents were one of the earliest types of man-made dwellings (Ge 4:20; 9:21) and were commonly used by nomadic peoples in the Middle East.​—Ge 9:27; Ps 83:6.

Some details of the design and use of tents are available from the Bible. This is supplemented by knowledge of tents used by Arabs in more recent years, since it seems that these do not differ substantially from those of the Biblical period. Many scholars believe that the earliest tents were of animal skins. (Ge 3:21; Ex 26:14) Among modern-day Bedouin, tents made of blackish goat-hair cloth are customary. (Compare Ex 36:14; Ca 1:5.) Strips of this material are sewn together, the overall size of the rectangular tent depending on the wealth of the owner and the number of occupants. The tent is supported by a number of poles about 1.5 to 2 m (5 to 7 ft) long, the highest being near the middle; it is held fast against wind by cords fastened to tent pins. (Jg 4:21) For privacy and protection from the wind, cloths are hung along the sides of the tent, but these can be raised or removed for ventilation.

It appears that in Bible times larger tents were usually divided into at least two compartments by means of hanging tent cloths. The “tent of Sarah” mentioned at Genesis 24:67 may refer to her compartment or to a tent that she alone occupied, for some wealthy men had a number of tents, and women sometimes were assigned their own tents. (Ge 13:5; 31:33) Probably mats were used on the ground inside the tent.

Tents were a distinctive feature of nomadic life, contrasting with the houses of those having a more settled life. Thus, Abraham is described as ‘dwelling in tents’ while he was “awaiting the city having real foundations.” (Heb 11:9, 10) It seems that during their stay in Egypt, the Israelites mainly lived in houses, not tents. (Ex 12:7) But upon leaving Egypt, they reverted to tents (Ex 16:16) and used them throughout the 40 years in the wilderness. (Le 14:8; Nu 16:26) During this period two particular tents were especially important, “the tabernacle” and Moses’ tent.​—Ex 25:8, 9; 26:1; 33:7; see TABERNACLE; TENT OF MEETING.

Even after the Israelites conquered the Promised Land, tents were still used at times by shepherds or agricultural workers in the field. (Ca 1:8) Zechariah 12:7 likely refers to such ones, as they would be the first to be affected and in need of protection if an enemy nation came against the land to attack the city of Jerusalem. Also, tents were used by military commanders and armies when on distant expeditions.​—1Sa 17:54; 2Ki 7:7; compare Da 11:45.

The long contact of the Israelites with tents undoubtedly gave rise to the poetic use of “tent” to refer to any habitation, even if it was a normal house.​—Ex 12:23, 30; 1Sa 13:2; 1Ki 12:16; Ps 78:51.

Figurative Uses. This familiarity with tents is also reflected in the Bible’s many figurative references to tents. Regarding the time he was approaching death, Hezekiah wrote: “My own habitation has been pulled out and removed from me like the tent of shepherds.” (Isa 38:12) As a tent occupying a spot could quickly be taken down and removed, the poles taken out and the pegs pulled up, so Hezekiah’s place in the land of the living seemed transitory and easily removed. Eliphaz likened death to pulling out the tent cord, which would make a tent collapse.​—Job 4:21.

Somewhat similarly, Paul used the metaphor of a tent when speaking of the human bodies of spirit-begotten Christians. A collapsible tent is a more fragile and temporary dwelling than a normal house. Though existing on earth in a mortal body of flesh, the Christians who have the spirit as a token of the heavenly life to come look forward to “a building from God,” a heavenly body that is everlasting, incorruptible.​—1Co 15:50-53; 2Co 5:1-5; compare 2Pe 1:13, 14.

In portraying the destruction to come upon the Jews, Jeremiah used the figure of a tent. (Jer 4:20) He likened the desolated nation to a woman whose tent was down, with its cords cut. Adding to the pathetic condition, her sons were in exile, so there was no one remaining who could help her with the work of raising and stretching the tent. (Jer 10:20) When the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem, the city as a former collection of dwellings could be described as “the tent of the daughter of Zion” into which God had poured his rage.​—La 2:4.

A “tent” also served in another figurative way in a number of instances. The tent of an individual was a place of rest and protection from the elements. (Ge 18:1) In view of the customs regarding hospitality, visitors had reason to believe that they would be cared for and respected when welcomed into someone’s tent. Consequently, when Revelation 7:15 says about the great crowd that God “will spread his tent over them,” it suggests protective care and security. (Ps 61:3, 4) Isaiah speaks of the preparations that God’s wife, Zion, is to make for the sons she will produce. She is told to “make the place of your tent more spacious.” (Isa 54:2) Thus, she enlarges the protective place for her children.

At Revelation 21:1-3, God projected John’s vision into the Thousand Year Reign of Christ and said: “Look! The tent of God is with mankind, and he will reside with them [or, tent with them].” In a way foreshadowed by the tent, or tabernacle, in the wilderness, God will dwell, not personally, but representatively with mankind as he deals with them through “the Lamb of God,” who is also the great High Priest.​—Ex 25:8; 33:20; Joh 1:29; Heb 4:14.

See TITHE.

One who makes or repairs tents. Acts 18:3 designates the trade of Paul, Aquila, and Priscilla by the Greek term ske·no·poi·osʹ. Various opinions have been offered as to the exact type of craftsman indicated by this word (whether a tentmaker, weaver of tapestry, or ropemaker); however, numerous scholars acknowledge that “there seems no reason to depart from the translation ‘tent-makers.’”​—The Expositor’s Greek Testament, edited by W. Nicoll, 1967, Vol. II, p. 385.

When Paul first visited Corinth he stayed with Aquila and Priscilla “on account of being of the same trade.” (Ac 18:1-3) The apostle Paul was from Tarsus in Cilicia, an area famous for its goat-hair cloth named cilicium from which tents were made. (Ac 21:39) Among the Jews of the first century C.E., it was considered honorable to teach a lad a trade even if he was to receive a higher education. So Paul likely gained experience in the manufacture of tents while still a youth. Tentmaking may also have been the type of work the apostle did in Thessalonica (1Th 2:9; 2Th 3:8) and other places. (Ac 20:34, 35; 1Co 4:11, 12) The work was not easy, for it is reported that the cilicium tended to be stiff and rough, consequently difficult to cut and sew.

An expression applied both to the tent of Moses (Ex 33:7) and to the sacred tabernacle erected in the wilderness. (Ex 39:32, 40; 40:2, 6, 7, 22, 24, 26, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35) For a time until the erection of the tabernacle, the tent of Moses served as a temporary sanctuary. This was because the cloud, representing Jehovah’s presence, stationed itself “at” (likely, in front of) the entrance of this tent whenever Moses entered, and Jehovah communicated with Moses there. It was called the “tent of meeting,” evidently because the people had to go there to inquire of Jehovah and thus, in effect, they met Jehovah there. (Ex 33:7-11) Apparently for the same reason the sacred tabernacle was termed the “tent of meeting.”​—See TABERNACLE.

See TABERNACLE.

This translation of the Hebrew expression ʽaseʹreth had·deva·rimʹ, found only in the Pentateuch, designates the ten basic laws of the Law covenant; commonly called the Ten Commandments. (Ex 34:28; De 4:13; 10:4) This special code of laws is also spoken of as the “Words” (De 5:22) and as “the words of the covenant.” (Ex 34:28) The Greek Septuagint (Ex 34:28; De 10:4) reads deʹka (ten) loʹgous (words), from which combination the word “Decalogue” is derived.

Source of Tablets. The Ten Words were first orally given at Mount Sinai by the angel of Jehovah. (Ex 20:1; 31:18; De 5:22; 9:10; Ac 7:38, 53; see also Ga 3:19; Heb 2:2.) Moses then ascended the mountain to receive the Ten Words in written form on two stone tablets, along with other commandments and instructions. During his extended 40-day stay, the people grew restless and made a molten calf to worship. Descending the mountain, Moses saw this spectacle of idolatry and threw down “the tablets [that] were the workmanship of God,” the very tablets upon which the Ten Words had been written, and shattered them.​—Ex 24:12; 31:18–32:19; De 9:8-17; compare Lu 11:20.

Jehovah later told Moses: “Carve out for yourself two tablets of stone like the first ones, and I must write upon the tablets the words that appeared on the first tablets, which you shattered.” (Ex 34:1-4) And so after another 40 days spent in the mountain, a duplicate copy of the Ten Words was obtained. These were kept by Moses in an ark of acacia wood. (De 10:1-5) The two tablets were called “the tablets of the covenant.” (De 9:9, 11, 15) Evidently this is why the gold-overlaid ark later made by Bezalel, in which the tablets were eventually kept, was called “the ark of the covenant.” (Jos 3:6, 11; 8:33; Jg 20:27; Heb 9:4) This legislation of the Ten Words was also called “the testimony” (Ex 25:16, 21; 40:20) and the “tablets of the Testimony” (Ex 31:18; 34:29), hence the expressions “the ark of the testimony” (Ex 25:22; Nu 4:5), and also “the tabernacle of the Testimony,” that is, the tent where the Ark was housed.​—Ex 38:21.

Concerning the first set of tablets, it is stated that they not only were made by Jehovah but were also “written on by God’s finger,” evidently denoting God’s spirit. (Ex 31:18; De 4:13; 5:22; 9:10) Likewise, the second set of tablets, although carved out by Moses, were written upon by Jehovah. When, at Exodus 34:27, Moses was told, “Write down for yourself these words,” reference was not to the Ten Words themselves, but, rather, as on a previous occasion (Ex 24:3, 4), he was to write down some of the other details pertaining to the covenant regulations. Hence, the pronoun “he” in Exodus 34:28b refers to Jehovah when it says: “And he [Jehovah, not Moses] proceeded to write upon the tablets the words of the covenant, the Ten Words.” Verse 1 shows this to be so. Later, when recalling these events, Moses confirms that it was Jehovah who duplicated the tablets.​—De 10:1-4.

Contents of the Commandments. By way of an introduction to these Ten Words is the forthright statement in the first person: “I am Jehovah your God, who have brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slaves.” (Ex 20:2) This not only states who is speaking to whom but shows why the Decalogue was especially given to the Jews at that time. It was not given to Abraham.​—De 5:2, 3.

The first commandment, “You must not have any other gods against my face,” put Jehovah first. (Ex 20:3) It involved his lofty office and unique position as God Almighty, the Most High, the Supreme Sovereign. This commandment indicated that the Israelites were not to have any other gods as rivals to Jehovah.

The second commandment was a natural follow-up of the first in that it forbade idolatry in any shape or form as an open affront to Jehovah’s glory and Personage. ‘You must not make a carved image or a form like anything in the heavens, on the earth, or in the waters under the earth, nor are you to bow down to or serve them.’ This prohibition is underscored with the declaration: “Because I Jehovah your God am a God exacting exclusive devotion.”​—Ex 20:4-6.

The third commandment, in its proper and logical sequence, declared: “You must not take up the name of Jehovah your God in a worthless way.” (Ex 20:7) This harmonizes with the prominence attached to Jehovah’s name throughout the Hebrew Scriptures (6,979 times in NW; see JEHOVAH [Importance of the Name]). Within just these few verses of the Ten Words (Ex 20:2-17), the name occurs eight times. The phrase “not take up” has the thought of “not pronounce” or “not lift up (carry).” To do this to God’s name in “a worthless way” would be to lift up that name to a falsehood, or “in vain.” The Israelites who were privileged to bear Jehovah’s name as his witnesses and who became apostate were in effect taking up and carrying about Jehovah’s name in a worthless way.​—Isa 43:10; Eze 36:20, 21.

The fourth commandment stated: “Remembering the sabbath day to hold it sacred, you are to render service and you must do all your work six days. But the seventh day is a sabbath to Jehovah your God. You must not do any work, you nor your son nor your daughter, your slave man nor your slave girl nor your domestic animal nor your alien resident who is inside your gates.” (Ex 20:8-10) By their holding this day as holy to Jehovah, all, even the slaves and the domestic animals, would have the benefit of refreshing rest. The Sabbath day also provided opportunity to concentrate on spiritual matters without distraction.

The fifth commandment, “Honor your father and your mother,” may be viewed as linking together the first four, which define man’s duties toward God, and the remaining commandments, which set forth man’s obligations toward fellow creatures. For since parents serve as God’s representatives, by keeping the fifth command one is honoring and obeying both the Creator and those creatures upon whom God has conferred authority. This command was the only one of the ten with a promise attached: “in order that your days may prove long upon the ground that Jehovah your God is giving you.”​—Ex 20:12; De 5:16; Eph 6:2, 3.

The next commandments in the code were stated very tersely: the sixth, “You must not murder”; the seventh, “You must not commit adultery”; the eighth, “You must not steal.” (Ex 20:13-15) This is the way these laws are listed in the Masoretic text​—from laws dealing with crimes causing the greatest harm to one’s neighbor to the one causing the least, in that order. In some Greek manuscripts (Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Ambrosianus) the order is ‘murder, theft, adultery’; Philo (The Decalogue, XII, 51) has “adultery, murder, theft”; the Codex Vaticanus, ‘adultery, theft, murder.’ Going next from deeds to words, the ninth says: “You must not testify falsely as a witness against your fellowman.”​—Ex 20:16.

The tenth commandment (Ex 20:17) was unique in that it forbade covetousness, that is, wrong desire for the property and possessions, including the wife, belonging to a fellowman. No human lawmakers originated such a law, for, indeed, there would be no way humanly possible of enforcing it. Jehovah, on the other hand, by this tenth commandment made each one directly accountable to Him as the one who sees and knows all the secret thoughts of a person’s heart.​—1Sa 16:7; Pr 21:2; Jer 17:10.

Other Listings of These Laws. The above division of the Ten Words as found at Exodus 20:2-17 is a natural one. It is the same as given by Josephus, Jewish historian of the first century C.E. (Jewish Antiquities, III, 91, 92 [v, 5]), and by the Jewish philosopher Philo, also of the first century C.E., in The Decalogue (XII, 51). Others, however, including Augustine, combined the two laws against foreign gods and images (Ex 20:3-6; De 5:7-10) into one commandment, and then, in order to recover a tenth, divided Exodus 20:17 (De 5:21) into two commandments, thus making a ninth against coveting a man’s wife, and a tenth against coveting his house, and so forth. Augustine sought to support his theoretical division on the later parallel listing of the Decalogue at Deuteronomy 5:6-21, where two different Hebrew words in verse 21 are found (“Neither must you desire [form of Heb. cha·madhʹ] . . . Neither must you selfishly crave [form of Heb. ʼa·wahʹ]”), rather than on the earlier text in Exodus 20:17, where just the one verb (desire) occurs twice.

There are other minor differences in the wording between the parallel enumerations of the Ten Commandments in Exodus and Deuteronomy, but these in no way affect the force or the meaning of the laws. Whereas, in the former listing, the Ten Words are stated in formal legislative style, its later repetition is more narrative in form, for on the latter occasion Moses was merely rehearsing God’s commandment in the way of a reminder. The Ten Words also appear elsewhere in still other variations, for they were often quoted or cited along with other instructions by Bible writers of both the Hebrew and Christian Greek Scriptures.​—Ex 31:14; 34:14, 17, 21; Le 19:3, 11, 12; De 4:15-19; 6:14, 15; Mt 5:27; 15:4; Lu 18:20; Ro 13:9; Eph 6:2, 3.

The Ten Words were God-given, hence comprise a perfect law code. When a man “versed in the Law” asked Jesus Christ, “Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the Law?”, Jesus quoted a command that, in effect, epitomized the first four (or possibly five) of the Ten Commandments, saying: “You must love Jehovah your God with your whole heart and with your whole soul and with your whole mind.” The rest of the Decalogue, Jesus then summed up in the few words of another command: “You must love your neighbor as yourself.”​—Mt 22:35-40; De 6:5; Le 19:18.

Christians Not Under Decalogue. Jesus was born under the Law, and he kept it perfectly, finally giving up his life as a ransom for mankind. (Ga 4:4; 1Jo 2:2) Furthermore, by his death on the torture stake, he freed those under the Law (including the basic Ten Words or Commandments) “by becoming a curse instead” of them. His death provided for the ‘blotting out of the handwritten document,’ it being nailed to the torture stake.​—Ga 3:13; Col 2:13, 14.

Nevertheless, a study of the Law with its Ten Words is essential for Christians, for it reveals God’s viewpoint of matters, and it had “a shadow of the good things to come,” of the reality that belongs to the Christ. (Heb 10:1; Col 2:17; Ga 6:2) Christians are “not without law toward God but under law toward Christ.” (1Co 9:21) But they are not condemned as sinners by that law, for the undeserved kindness of God through Christ provides forgiveness for their errors due to fleshly weakness.​—Ro 3:23, 24.

(Teʹrah) [possibly from Babylonian, meaning “Ibex”].

1. Abraham’s father, the eighth generation from Shem. (Lu 3:34; Ge 11:10-24; 1Ch 1:24-26) Terah, through his sons Abraham, Nahor, and Haran, became a forefather of numerous tribes. (Ge 11:27; 22:20-24; 25:1-4, 13-15; 1Ch 1:28-42; 2:1, 2) Terah began having children at 70. While Abraham is listed first, this appears to be because he is the most famous of Terah’s sons rather than the firstborn. When Terah died at 205, Abraham was only 75, so Terah must have been 130 when Abraham was born. (Ge 11:26, 32; 12:4) Sarah was Abraham’s half sister, likely a daughter of Terah by a different wife. (Ge 20:12) Terah’s firstborn was most likely Haran, whose daughter was old enough to marry Terah’s other son Nahor.​—Ge 11:29.

Terah lived in Ur of the Chaldeans, and there his family grew up. (Ge 11:28) According to Joshua 24:2, Terah at one time worshiped gods other than Jehovah, perhaps the moon-god Sin, the favored deity of Ur. Nonetheless, when Jehovah called Abraham to leave Ur, Terah as family head went along to Haran where they all lived until after his death about 1943 B.C.E.​—Ge 11:31, 32; Ac 7:2-4.

2. One of the campsites during Israel’s wilderness wandering; its location is unknown.​—Nu 33:27, 28.

Family gods or idols. (Ge 31:30, 34) Although in the plural, the designation “teraphim” can also apply to a single idol. At least some of these idols may have been the size and shape of a man. (1Sa 19:13, 16) Others must have been much smaller, able to fit inside a woman’s saddle basket. (Ge 31:34) The teraphim were, on occasion, consulted for omens.​—Eze 21:21; Zec 10:2.

The findings of archaeologists in Mesopotamia and adjacent areas indicate that the possession of the teraphim images had a bearing on who would receive the family inheritance. According to one tablet found at Nuzi, the possession of the household gods could under certain circumstances entitle a son-in-law to appear in court and claim the estate of his deceased father-in-law. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 219, 220, and ftn 51) Perhaps Rachel, with this in mind, reasoned that she was justified in taking the teraphim because of her father’s deceptive dealings with her husband Jacob. (Compare Ge 31:14-16.) The importance of the teraphim with respect to inheritance rights would also explain why Laban was so anxious to recover them, even to the point of taking his brothers with him and pursuing Jacob for a distance of seven days’ journey. (Ge 31:19-30) Of course, what Rachel had done was completely unknown to Jacob (Ge 31:32), and there is no indication that he ever attempted to use the teraphim to gain the inheritance from Laban’s sons. Jacob had nothing to do with idols. At the latest, the teraphim would have been disposed of when Jacob hid all the foreign gods turned over to him by his household under the big tree that was close to Shechem.​—Ge 35:1-4.

In Israel the idolatrous use of teraphim existed in the days of the Judges as well as the kings. (Jg 17:5; 18:14, 17, 20; Ho 3:4) It is not likely, though, that the teraphim served for purposes of inheritance in Israel, in view of God’s express command against the making of images. (Ex 20:4) Also, the prophet Samuel spoke of teraphim in parallel with uncanny power, comparing the use of both to pushing ahead presumptuously (1Sa 15:23), and the teraphim were among the appendages of idolatry cleared out of Judah and Jerusalem by faithful King Josiah. (2Ki 23:24) Hence, the fact that Michal, the wife of David, had a teraphim image among her possessions suggests that her heart was not complete with Jehovah and that David either did not know about her having the teraphim image or else tolerated it because she was the daughter of King Saul.​—1Sa 19:12, 13.

(Teʹresh).

One of two doorkeepers in the Persian palace who conspired against King Ahasuerus. Upon learning of the plot, Mordecai informed Queen Esther who, in turn, revealed it to the king. Teresh and his accomplice were hanged on a stake, and the incident was entered in the royal records.​—Es 2:21-23; 6:1, 2.

(Terʹtius) [from Lat., meaning “Third”].

The writer or transcriber of Paul’s letter to the Romans, and the only one of Paul’s “secretaries” identified by name. Tertius inserts his own personal greetings to the Romans.​—Ro 16:22.

(Ter·tulʹlus) [from Lat., diminutive of Tertius].

A public speaker who presented the Jews’ case against Paul before Governor Felix in Caesarea. Of what Luke recorded, much of Tertullus’ statement personally praises Felix, with only a very brief accusation against Paul, attempting to implicate him with the frequent seditions against Rome. (Ac 24:1-8) Nothing definite is known as to Tertullus’ nationality, whether Jewish or Roman.

Male genital glands. God’s law to Israel barred from the priesthood a man having his testicles broken, as one of several disqualifying physical defects. (Le 21:17-21, 23) This high standard for the priesthood was in harmony with the holiness of the office of the priests as representatives of Jehovah’s holiness before Israel. It likewise accords with the fact that Israel’s priesthood symbolized the heavenly priesthood of Christ and his congregation of underpriests, among whom there is found no blemish. (Heb 7:26; Eph 5:27; Re 14:1, 5; 20:6) Furthermore, God wanted priests who could have children to succeed them. The Law provided, however, that such a defective person could eat of the holy things provided for the sustenance of the priesthood.​—Le 21:21, 22.

For similar reasons an animal having its testicles squeezed, crushed, cut off, or pulled off could not be offered up as a sacrifice. (Le 22:24; compare Mal 1:6-8; 1Pe 1:19.) On this account the Israelites did not castrate their animals, for the Law required that all domestic animals slaughtered for food be brought to the sanctuary to be killed and eaten as a communion offering. The same law applied in the Promised Land for those who did not live far off from Jerusalem.​—Le 17:3-5; De 12:20-25.

The Law further read: “No man castrated by crushing the testicles or having his male member cut off may come into the congregation of Jehovah.” (De 23:1) Such ‘castration’ did not relate to congenital defects or to an accidental condition. (Compare Le 21:17-21; De 25:11, 12.) Evidently, therefore, it had to do with deliberate emasculation for immoral purposes, such as homosexuality. Such a one was to be kept out of the congregation, not being allowed to associate with it, thereby protecting its purity.

The respect that Jehovah has for man’s right to have children by his wife, and for the reproductive powers He has placed in man and woman, was emphasized by the Law. Brother-in-law marriage provided for the continuance of a man’s family line, name, and inheritance. (De 25:5-10) Immediately following the statement of this arrangement, the Law went on to say that if two men were struggling together and the wife of one of them grabbed the other man by his private parts in order to assist her husband (an act that could destroy the reproductive powers of the man), her hand was to be amputated. (De 25:11, 12) So the law of like for like did not here apply. (De 19:21) God did not require the destruction of her reproductive organs or those of her husband. In this way the marriage could still be fruitful, her husband’s family line being carried on through it.

In the case of the Christian congregation, persons who have been castrated are not barred from entry, for the Law has been set aside on the basis of Christ’s sacrifice. (Col 2:13, 14) Nevertheless, the laws above quoted illustrate God’s regard for the reproductive organs and strongly indicate that an operation that would destroy a person’s procreative powers simply because he had no appreciation for that gift from God would be wrong.

Genital Organ. The Hebrew word for “flesh” (ba·sarʹ) is used in the Scriptures at Leviticus 15:2, 3 with reference to the man’s genital organ, the penis, as separate from the testicles.​—See CLEAN, CLEANNESS; compare Isa 57:8, ftn.

The male genital organ was an object of sex worship by pagans in ancient times, as it is today in some countries. Reference may be made at Ezekiel 8:17 (NW, ftn) to such worship as infecting the apostate Israelites in Ezekiel’s day.

(Thad·daeʹus).

An apostle of Jesus Christ. (Mt 10:2, 3; Mr 3:18) He appears to be called elsewhere “Judas the son of James.”​—Lu 6:16; Joh 14:22; Ac 1:13; see JUDAS No. 3.

A structure (referred to by the Greeks as theʹa·tron) where dramatic performances, tragedies, comedies, dances, musical presentations, and spectacles were staged. The theater was often the scene of immoral presentations, shunned by faithful Christians. (Eph 5:3-5) But it also served as a place of public assembly for other purposes.

It was to the theater in Ephesus that Paul’s traveling companions were brought when Demetrius the silversmith stirred up a riot against these Christian missionaries. Though the apostle was willing to go before the people assembled in the theater, the disciples and some friendly commissioners of festivals and games dissuaded him.​—Ac 19:23-31.

Theaters were constructed in Greece from about the fifth century B.C.E. onward, and in time they were built in various principal cities. Most Greek theaters were constructed in semicircular fashion on a hillside of concave formation. The seats might have been made of wood or stone. Aisles separated them into sections, and they were lined up in tiers on the hill’s gradual incline. At the center was the or·kheʹstra (a dancing or chorus area), behind which there was a raised stage backed by a ske·neʹ, or background.

Ruins of theaters have been found in such places as Ephesus, Athens, and Corinth. The large theater excavated at Ephesus had 66 rows of seats and could hold an audience of about 25,000 persons. The acoustics were, and still are, so good that even a low voice from the stage can be heard in the topmost row with ease.

The Romans frequently constructed theaters as individual buildings dependent upon no natural sloping ground formation. Sometimes their theaters had a roof over the stage and a portion of the seating area. Another type, the Roman amphitheater, was a roofless circular or oval structure that enclosed a large center space or arena, from which the seats radiated in tiers. The partially standing Colosseum in Rome, finished in 80 C.E., is a noted Roman amphitheater. Herod the Great constructed theaters in various cities, including Damascus and Caesarea. Josephus said that Herod “built a theatre in Jerusalem, and after that a very large amphitheatre in the plain.”​—Jewish Antiquities, XV, 268 (viii, 1).

The Greek word theʹa·tron can denote either the place where a show is presented or the “theatrical spectacle” itself. Paul wrote: “For it seems to me that God has put us the apostles last on exhibition as men appointed to death, because we have become a theatrical spectacle [theʹa·tron] to the world, and to angels, and to men.” (1Co 4:9) Paul thus alluded to the customary closing event of Roman gladiatorial contests in the amphitheater arena when certain participants were brought out unclad and defenseless, being subjected to butchery and certain death.

The Greeks and Romans customarily led criminals condemned to death through the theater, where they were subjected to ridicule by the assembled throngs. Paul wrote to the Hebrew Christians, apparently referring to this practice. Though there is no record to the effect that these Christians had been subjected to that treatment, they had endured sufferings that were comparable. The apostle urged them: “Keep on remembering the former days in which, after you were enlightened, you endured a great contest under sufferings, sometimes while you were being exposed as in a theater both to reproaches and tribulations, and sometimes while you became sharers with those who were having such an experience.”​—Heb 10:32, 33.

(Theʹbez).

A city having a strong tower. When Abimelech had taken Thebez and was attempting to assault the tower where the populace had sought refuge, a woman pitched an upper millstone upon him from atop the wall. His skull shattered by the blow, Abimelech had his attendant put him to death so that no one could say, “It was a woman that killed him.”​—Jg 9:50-54; 2Sa 11:21.

Thebez is tentatively connected with modern Tubas, about 15 km (9.5 mi) NNE of Shechem, although no suitable remains have been found.

(The·ophʹi·lus) [Loved by God; Friend of God].

The person to whom Luke addressed both his Gospel and the Acts of Apostles. (Lu 1:3, 4; Ac 1:1) His being called “most excellent” may indicate a high position of some kind, or it may simply be an expression of high esteem. Theophilus apparently was a Christian, having been orally taught about Jesus Christ and his ministry. Luke’s written statement served to assure him of the certainty of what he had learned previously by word of mouth.

Two inspired letters of the Christian Greek Scriptures, perhaps the first to be composed by the apostle Paul, who identifies himself as the writer of both. (1Th 1:1; 2:18; 2Th 1:1; 3:17) At the time these letters were committed to writing, Silvanus (Silas) and Timothy were with Paul. (1Th 1:1; 2Th 1:1) This points to Corinth as the place from which the letters were sent, as there is no record that all three men labored together again after their stay at Corinth in the course of Paul’s second missionary journey. (Ac 18:5) Since the apostle’s 18-month activity in Corinth appears to have begun in the autumn of 50 C.E., likely it was at about this time that the first letter was written to the Thessalonians. (Ac 18:11; see CHRONOLOGY [The later apostolic period].) The second letter must have followed not long thereafter, probably about 51 C.E.

In all outstanding catalogs of the second, third, and fourth centuries C.E., both letters are listed as canonical. They also harmonize fully with the rest of the Scriptures in admonishing God’s servants to maintain fine conduct at all times. Noteworthy, too, is the emphasis placed on prayer in these letters. Paul, along with his fellow workers, always remembered the Thessalonians in prayer (1Th 1:2; 2:13; 2Th 1:3, 11; 2:13), and the apostle encouraged them: “Pray incessantly. In connection with everything give thanks.” (1Th 5:17, 18) “Brothers, continue in prayer for us.”​—1Th 5:25; 2Th 3:1.

Background for First Thessalonians. Practically from the beginning the congregation to which First Thessalonians was addressed experienced persecution. After arriving at Thessalonica, Paul preached in the synagogue there for three Sabbaths. A considerable number of persons became believers, and a congregation was established. Fanatical Jews, however, stirred up mob violence. Not finding Paul and Silas at the home of Jason, the mob dragged Jason and certain other brothers before the city rulers, accusing them of sedition. Only upon giving “sufficient security” were Jason and the others released. This prompted the brothers to send Paul and Silas to Beroea by night, evidently for the sake of the congregation and the safety of the two men.​—Ac 17:1-10.

Thereafter, besides continued persecution (1Th 2:14), the congregation seemingly experienced great sorrow over losing one(s) of their number in death. (4:13) Aware of the pressure that was being brought to bear against the new congregation and very much concerned about its effect, Paul dispatched Timothy to comfort and strengthen the Thessalonians. Earlier the apostle had tried to visit them twice, but ‘Satan cut across his path.’​—2:17–3:3.

Receiving Timothy’s encouraging report about the faithfulness and love of the Thessalonians, Paul rejoiced. (1Th 3:6-10) However, they needed further encouragement and admonition to resist weaknesses of the flesh. For this reason Paul, besides commending the Thessalonians for their faithful endurance (1:2-10; 2:14; 3:6-10) and comforting them with the resurrection hope (4:13-18), exhorted them to continue following a course approved by God and to do so more fully. (4:1, 2) The apostle, among other things, counseled them to abstain from fornication (4:3-8), love one another in fuller measure, work with their hands (4:9-12), stay awake spiritually (5:6-10), have regard for those working hard among them, “admonish the disorderly, speak consolingly to the depressed souls, support the weak, be long-suffering toward all,” and “abstain from every form of wickedness” (5:11-22).

Background for Second Thessalonians. The faith of the Christians at Thessalonica was growing exceedingly, their love for one another was increasing, and they were continuing to endure persecution and tribulation faithfully. Therefore, the apostle Paul, as in his first letter, commended them and encouraged them to continue standing firm.​—2Th 1:3-12; 2:13-17.

Some in the congregation, however, were wrongly contending that the presence of Jesus Christ was imminent. Possibly even a letter wrongly attributed to Paul was interpreted as indicating that “the day of Jehovah is here.” (2Th 2:1, 2) This may have been why the apostle made a point of the genuineness of his second letter, saying: “Here is my greeting, Paul’s, in my own hand, which is a sign in every letter; this is the way I write.” (3:17) Not wanting the brothers to be seduced into accepting erroneous teaching, Paul showed that other events had to precede the coming of Jehovah’s day. He wrote: “It will not come unless the apostasy comes first and the man of lawlessness gets revealed.”​—2:3.

A problem that had already existed earlier in the congregation still needed attention. In his first letter to the Thessalonians, Paul had told them: “We exhort you, brothers, . . . to make it your aim to live quietly and to mind your own business and work with your hands, just as we ordered you; so that you may be walking decently as regards people outside and not be needing anything.” (1Th 4:10-12) There were those in the congregation who had not taken this admonition to heart. Hence Paul ordered such persons to work with quietness and eat food they had themselves earned, adding: “But if anyone is not obedient to our word through this letter, keep this one marked, stop associating with him, that he may become ashamed. And yet do not be considering him as an enemy, but continue admonishing him as a brother.”​—2Th 3:10-15.

[Box on page 1090]

HIGHLIGHTS OF FIRST THESSALONIANS

Encouragement and counsel to a relatively new congregation

Written by Paul about 50 C.E., a few months after he had left Thessalonica because of mob violence

Commendation for the congregation (1:1-10)

Paul warmly commends the Thessalonians for their faithful work and endurance

The Thessalonians have become an example to other believers in accepting the word under tribulation and with the joy that God’s spirit produces

Everywhere it is being reported how they abandoned idolatry and turned to slaving for the living God and to waiting for Jesus

Paul’s example when among them (2:1-12)

After suffering insolent treatment at Philippi, Paul drew strength from God and preached boldly to the Thessalonians

Paul shunned flattery, covetousness, and glory-seeking

He avoided becoming a burden to the brothers, but instead treated them gently as a nursing mother would and exhorted them as a loving father

Encouragement to remain firm in the face of persecution (2:13–3:13)

The brothers in Thessalonica, after accepting the message proclaimed to them as the word of God, were persecuted by their fellow countrymen; the same things have happened in Judea, where Christians are suffering at the hands of Jews

Paul has greatly desired to see the Thessalonians; when he could no longer bear the lack of news about them, he sent Timothy, and Timothy has just returned with good news about their spiritual condition

Paul prays for their continued increase

Admonition regarding attitude and conduct (4:1–5:28)

Walk more fully in the course pleasing to God; abstain from fornication

Love the brothers to an even greater degree; work with your hands so that even people outside can see that you walk decently

Comfort one another with the hope that at Christ’s presence spirit-begotten believers who have died will be raised first and united with Christ; afterward those still living will join him and the resurrected ones

Jehovah’s day is coming as a thief​—when they say: “Peace and security!” sudden destruction will come; in view of this, remain spiritually awake, protected by faith and love as a breastplate and by the hope of salvation as a helmet

Have deep regard for those presiding in the congregation; be peaceable, pursue what is good, always rejoice, render thanksgiving, make sure of all things, hold fast to what is fine, and abstain from wickedness

[Box on page 1091]

HIGHLIGHTS OF SECOND THESSALONIANS

A letter to correct a wrong view regarding Christ’s presence and to offer counsel on how to treat disorderly persons

Written by Paul shortly after his first letter to the Thessalonians

Relief to come at the revelation of Christ (1:1-12)

The Thessalonians are commended for their endurance and faith while experiencing persecutions and distress

Relief will come at Christ’s revelation; then Jesus Christ, accompanied by powerful angels, will destroy those not obeying the good news and will be glorified in connection with his holy ones

Paul prays that the Thessalonians will be counted worthy so that the Lord Jesus’ name will be glorified in them

Man of lawlessness to be revealed before the presence of Christ (2:1-17)

The Thessalonians are admonished not to be unsettled or excited by any message suggesting that Jehovah’s day is already upon them

The apostasy has to come first, and the man of lawlessness has to be revealed; he will lift himself up over every object of reverence and display himself to be a god

When he that acts as a restraint is removed, the lawless one will be revealed, he whose presence is marked by lying signs and every unrighteous deception in order to deceive those who are perishing

Jesus Christ will bring him to nothing at the manifestation of his presence

How to deal with disorderly persons (3:1-18)

Withdraw from disorderly ones, those meddling in what does not concern them, those disregarding the order: “If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat”

Mark such ones as persons with whom there is to be no fraternizing, but admonish them as brothers so that they may change their ways

(Thes·sa·lo·niʹca).

The principal seaport of Macedonia where Paul established a Christian congregation about the year 50 C.E.; now the city is called Salonika (or, Thessaloniki). (PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 749) Originally, a nearby town named Therme, meaning “Hot Spring,” was one of the some 26 towns destroyed by Cassander, who then built Thessalonica in 316 or 315 B.C.E. He named it after his wife, the sister of Alexander the Great. This new city was situated on the W side of the Chalcidice Peninsula, on the Thermaicus Sinus (now called the Gulf of Salonika), at the junction between the road running N to the Danube and the main road (the paved Via Egnatia built by the Romans) that extended for hundreds of miles across Macedonia to the Adriatic Sea.

Macedonia was divided into four districts before the middle of the second century B.C.E., with Thessalonica the capital of the second. A few years later when Macedonia became a Roman province, Thessalonica was made the administrative seat of its provincial government. So, when the apostle Paul and Silas arrived there, about 120 km (75 mi) W of Philippi, they found it to be a thriving metropolis of quite some importance.

For three Sabbaths, Paul preached in Thessalonica’s synagogue. As a result, some Jews and a great multitude of Greek proselytes became believers and associated themselves with Paul and Silas; among them were “not a few of the principal women.” (Ac 17:1-4) How long Paul remained there is not disclosed, though it was long enough for him and his companion to obtain work so they could support themselves. Although as an apostle Paul had the authority to receive material help from those to whom he ministered spiritual things, he set the example that ‘a person should eat food he himself earns.’ (1Co 9:4-18; 1Th 2:9; 2Th 3:7-12) This was probably done partly because of the tendency toward idleness that some there had. During his stay there Paul received from the brothers in Philippi two different gifts supplying things he needed.​—Php 4:16.

In time those Thessalonian Jews that rejected Paul’s message rounded up a mob of idlers from the marketplace and assaulted the house of Jason where Paul was staying. But when they learned that the object of their search was not there, they dragged Jason and other believers off to the city rulers, that is, “the politarchs,” according to the literal Greek. (Ac 17:5-9; Int) It is of special interest that inscriptions from that period have been found in and about Thessalonica that refer to certain of their local officials as politarchs.

For safety’s sake, Paul and Silas were sent away at night to Beroea by the Thessalonian brothers. There Paul found the Beroeans ‘more noble-minded than those in Thessalonica, in that they not only received the word with great eagerness but also carefully examined the Scriptures daily as to whether what the apostle said was so.’ Soon, however, trouble developed when opposing Jews arrived from Thessalonica and stirred up a mob, making it again necessary for Paul to slip away secretly.​—Ac 17:10-15.

In less than a year after leaving Thessalonica, Paul, by now down in Corinth, wrote his first letter to the Thessalonians. He had sent Timothy to comfort and encourage them and had received Timothy’s good report. In the letter he commended them for their fine example “to all the believers in Macedonia and in Achaia” and urged them not to be discouraged because of the persecution. (1Th 1:1-8; 3:1-13; 4:1) This letter may well have been the first of Paul’s canonical writings and, with the probable exception of Matthew’s Gospel, the first book of the Christian Greek Scriptures to be put into writing. Shortly thereafter Paul wrote a second letter to the Thessalonians, that they might not be turned aside by false teachers.​—2Th 1:1; 2:1-3.

Over the years Paul no doubt revisited Thessalonica on occasions when passing through Macedonia in the course of his travels. (Ac 20:1-3; 1Ti 1:3) And certain Thessalonians who are mentioned by name, Aristarchus and Secundus, were traveling companions of Paul. (Ac 20:4; 27:2) Demas, who forsook Paul in Rome, went to Thessalonica, possibly his hometown.​—2Ti 4:10.

(Theuʹdas).

A rebel who started an insurrection with a following of about 400 men sometime before 6 C.E. By using this Theudas as his first example of a movement that caused no more trouble after its leader was put to death, the Pharisee Gamaliel persuaded the Sanhedrin not to bother the youthful Christian congregation so soon after Jesus’ death.​—Ac 5:34-40.

One who deliberately takes that which belongs to another without permission, especially one who practices fraud and deception or who steals secretly. The ways of thieves were much the same in the past as today. They came to steal usually at night (Job 24:14; Jer 49:9; Mt 24:43; Lu 12:39; Joh 10:10; 1Th 5:2-5; 2Pe 3:10; Re 3:3; 16:15), and one of their common entrances was through a window. (Joe 2:9) On the other hand, robbers and highwaymen lay in wait and fell upon their victims in lonely areas, where it was virtually impossible to get help. Often they did not hesitate to use violence or to threaten and endanger the lives of those whose valuables they seized.​—Jg 9:25; Lu 10:30, 36; 2Co 11:26.

The original-language terms rendered “rob” and “robber” can also refer to withholding from another what is rightfully his, or getting things from others by fraudulent means or by appropriating to one’s own use that which one was obligated to give to others. By failing to pay tithes for the support of true worship at the temple, the Jews of Malachi’s time were ‘robbing God.’ (Mal 3:8, 9) Proverbs 28:24 speaks of a man robbing his father or his mother, evidently meaning depriving his parents in some way of what was rightfully theirs. Jesus Christ condemned the money changers for having made the temple into “a cave of robbers.” This suggests that the money changers were charging exorbitant fees for their services.​—Mt 21:12, 13.

In his second letter to the Corinthians, the apostle Paul wrote: “Other congregations I robbed by accepting provisions in order to minister to you.” (2Co 11:8) There was nothing fraudulent about Paul’s receiving provisions from others. But evidently he spoke as though he had robbed those congregations in the sense of having used what he had received from them to supply his needs while laboring, not with them, but in behalf of the Corinthians.

In some cases, stealing may refer to the justified act of taking what one has a right to take, the emphasis being on the stealthy manner in which the act is executed. For example, Israelites ‘stole’ the body of Saul from the public square of Beth-shan. (2Sa 21:12) The aunt of young Jehoash saved his life by ‘stealing him away from among his brothers,’ who were killed by wicked Athaliah.​—2Ki 11:1, 2; 2Ch 22:11.

Condemned by God. Most of the Biblical references to stealing, however, pertain to the unlawful taking of what belongs to someone else. Jehovah’s law to Israel explicitly stated: “You must not steal.” (Ex 20:15; Le 19:11, 13; De 5:19; Mt 19:18) A thief had to make twofold, fourfold, or as much as fivefold compensation, depending upon what the Law outlined. If he could not do so, he was sold into slavery, evidently regaining his freedom upon making full compensation. (Ex 22:1-12) In addition to making compensation, the disgraced thief (Jer 2:26) was to bring a guilt offering and have the priest make atonement for his sins.​—Le 6:2-7.

Eventually the nation of Israel came to disregard these laws, and as a consequence, Jehovah allowed robbers and thieves from within and from without to plague the nation. (De 28:29, 31; Eze 7:22) Fraudulent practices, especially the oppression of poor and needy persons, became common.​—Isa 1:23; 3:14; Jer 7:9-11; 21:12; 22:3; Eze 22:29; Mic 2:2.

While the thief who steals for hunger’s sake may not be as reprehensible as one who, like Achan and Judas Iscariot, steals out of greed and because of a bad heart (Jos 7:11, 20, 21; Pr 6:30; Mt 15:19; Joh 12:4-6), those desiring God’s approval cannot be guilty of thievery. (Isa 61:8; Ro 2:21) Although Christians are not under the Mosaic Law, they are under command to love their fellowman. “Love does not work evil to one’s neighbor”; therefore, thievery has no place among Christians. (Ro 13:9, 10; Mt 22:39; Jas 2:8) Any thief wanting to live under God’s Kingdom rule must repent of his former course of conduct and learn to do hard work for a living. (1Co 6:10; Eph 4:28; 1Pe 4:15) And the genuinely repentant ex-thief can rest assured of Jehovah’s forgiveness.​—Eze 33:14-16.

A Hebrew idiom literally meaning “steal the heart” has the sense “outwit.”​—Ge 31:20, 26, ftn; compare 2Sa 15:6.

That part of the leg that extends from the hip to the knee. Since it is on a person’s side, the Hebrew word also may refer to the side of something, as “the side” of the tabernacle, or of an altar.​—Ex 40:24; 2Ki 16:14.

The sword was worn at the side, on the thigh. (Ex 32:27; Jg 3:16, 21; Ca 3:8; Ps 45:3) In Revelation 19:11-21, Christ Jesus is portrayed as riding a white war mount into the battle against “the wild beast” and the kings of the earth with their armies. His title “King of kings and Lord of lords” is plainly announced in writing on his outer garment at the thigh, where usually the sword of authority is worn.

The drawers of the priests in Israel extended from the hips and to the thighs, that is, to where the thighs ended, so that their nakedness was well covered when they served at the sanctuary and Jehovah’s altar. Otherwise, they would die.​—Ex 28:42, 43.

When swearing an oath, a custom occasionally followed was for the swearer to put his hand under the thigh of the person to whom it was sworn. (Ge 24:2-4, 9; 47:29-31) As to the significance of this, see ATTITUDES AND GESTURES (Swearing). The practice of slapping the thigh denoted grief, sorrow, or remorse.​—Jer 31:19; Eze 21:12.

Reproductive Organs. The thigh being in the general area of the body in which the reproductive organs are located, offspring are said to ‘issue out of the upper thigh.’ (Ge 46:26; Ex 1:5; Jg 8:30) This sheds light on the nature of the punishment to come upon a woman found guilty of secret adultery.

In case a husband suspected his wife of unfaithfulness, he was to bring her to the priest. The priest made the woman stand before Jehovah, took some holy water (evidently pure, fresh water), sprinkled into it some dust from the tabernacle floor, and washed or wiped into it the cursings he had written down. After swearing to her innocence, she was required to drink the water. If guilty, her ‘thigh fell away’ and her belly swelled. If she was innocent, no harm would come upon her.​—Nu 5:12-31.

What was meant by the ‘falling away of the thigh’ of an adulterous woman?

The thigh is apparently used as an inoffensive substitution in this passage to refer to the sexual organs. (Compare Ge 46:26.) Logically the punishment affected those organs that were involved in committing the wrong. (Compare Mr 9:43-47.) The expression “fall away” is understood to mean “waste away” (The Holy Bible, translated by the Catholic Biblical Association of America), “shrink” (Da) or “shrivel” (Mo), and may suggest that the sex organs atrophied and that there was a loss of fertility and ability to conceive. The fact that the innocent wife was to be made pregnant by her husband would seem to indicate that future pregnancy would be denied the adulterous woman. (Nu 5:28) Moreover, the belly of the guilty wife would swell because of the curse, but not as a result of the blessing of pregnancy.

This was by no means a trial by ordeal that sometimes required a virtual miracle to survive, such as those practiced in the Dark Ages. There was nothing in the water itself to cause the affliction. However, it was holy water and had in it holy ground or dust and the writing of the cursings washed off in it. Therefore, it contained powerful symbolisms, and it was drunk before Jehovah and with a solemn oath to him. There was no uncertainty as to the outcome of matters. If the woman was guilty, Jehovah caused the drink to have miraculous potency to produce the deserved results. Adultery carried the death penalty, but in this instance there were not the required two witnesses. (Nu 35:30; De 19:15) Also, usually in this case the identity of the guilty man, who would likewise be worthy of death, had not been revealed.

The Hebrew term mezim·mahʹ is used to designate thinking ability, or the ability to give wise and thoughtful consideration to a matter, based on thorough knowledge (Pr 5:2; 8:12); the schemes, devices, and foolish ideas of wicked men (Ps 10:2, 4; 21:11; 37:7; 139:19, 20; Pr 12:2; 24:8; Jer 11:15); or the purposeful ‘ideas’ of Jehovah God or of his “heart” (Job 42:2; Jer 23:20; 30:24; 51:11).

One of the aims of the Proverbs is to give to a young man knowledge and thinking ability. (Pr 1:1-4) The information contained in the Proverbs enables an individual to formulate wholesome thoughts and ideas that can give purposeful direction to his life. Thinking ability safeguards him from following a wrong course and associating with those who would influence him toward bad, as it helps him to see what such action would lead to. This results in blessing for the individual. Wisdom and thinking ability safeguard him from engaging in activities leading to calamity and thus prove to be life to his soul. He enjoys security, not needing to fear that justice might catch up with him for having become guilty of wrongdoing.​—Pr 3:21-25.

However, the one who truly exercises thinking ability may also become an object of hatred. This could be the thought expressed at Proverbs 14:17: “The man of thinking abilities is hated.” Often persons who are not thinkers themselves look unfavorably upon those who utilize their mental faculties. Also, in principle, those who exercise their minds in doing God’s will are hated. As Jesus Christ said: “Because you are no part of the world, but I have chosen you out of the world, on this account the world hates you.” (Joh 15:19) Of course, the original-language term for “thinking abilities” at Proverbs 14:17 can embrace malicious thinking. Therefore, the text may also mean that a man who devises evil is hated, and some translations read accordingly: “And a man of wicked devices is hated.”​—JP, Ro.

[Heb., dar·darʹ; Gr. triʹbo·los].

Any of a variety of plants having prickly, irregular-edged leaves, tough stems, and bearing round or cylindrical heads that produce soft and silky purple, yellow, or white flowers. Adam, and later his descendants, had to contend with troublesome thistles when cultivating the cursed ground. (Ge 3:17, 18) Since their seeds are scattered by the wind, thistles readily gain a foothold in neglected and desolated areas. (See Ho 10:8.) Jesus Christ referred to thistles in illustrating that people, just like plants, are recognized by their fruits. (Mt 7:16) In Palestine it is not uncommon to see a number of star thistles being driven along as a rolling mass by fall winds, a feature perhaps alluded to at Psalm 83:13 and Isaiah 17:13.

(Thomʹas) [from Aramaic, meaning “Twin”].

This apostle of Jesus Christ was called “The Twin,” or Didymous. (Mt 10:3; Mr 3:18; Lu 6:15; Joh 11:16, ftn) He appears to have been somewhat impetuous in expressing his feelings or in voicing his doubts. However, upon having his doubts removed, Thomas did not hesitate to make acknowledgment of his belief.

When Jesus proposed returning to Judea that he might awaken Lazarus from death, Thomas declared: “Let us also go, that we may die with him.” (Joh 11:16) Since the Judeans had shortly before this time sought to stone Jesus (Joh 11:7, 8), Thomas perhaps had in mind encouraging the other disciples to accompany Jesus even though this might result in their joining Lazarus or Jesus in death.

Thomas showed a doubting attitude in response to Jesus’ comment about going away to prepare a place for the apostles, saying: “Lord, we do not know where you are going. How do we know the way?” (Joh 14:2-6) Similarly, after hearing about Jesus’ resurrection, Thomas stated: “Unless I see in his hands the print of the nails and stick my finger into the print of the nails and stick my hand into his side, I will certainly not believe.” Eight days later Thomas had the opportunity to do this when Jesus again appeared to the disciples. But whether Thomas actually did feel the wounds on this occasion is not stated. He was nevertheless convinced and exclaimed: “My Lord and my God!” Christ then mildly reproved him, saying: “Happy are those who do not see and yet believe.”​—Joh 20:24-29.

Any of numerous thorny or prickly plants. Over 70 varieties of thorny plants have been reported as growing in Israel, among them being the thorny burnet, the thorny caper, the acanthus, the boxthorn, and hawthorns. Although thorns proved to be troublesome to man, they were not altogether useless. Thorny plants were employed as hedges (Ho 2:6) and for fuel (Ec 7:6), and they served as food for asses, camels, and goats. In more recent times, as may have been the case anciently, the boxthorn and the bramble in particular have been used for hedges, and the thorny burnet has been cut up as fuel for limekilns.​—Isa 33:12.

The effects of the cursed ground, with its thorns and thistles, were keenly felt by the descendants of Adam (Ge 3:17, 18), so that Noah’s father Lamech spoke of “the pain of our hands resulting from the ground which Jehovah has cursed.” (Ge 5:29) After the Flood, Jehovah blessed Noah and his sons, stating that his purpose for them was to fill the earth. (Ge 9:1) God’s curse on the ground was apparently lifted. (Ge 13:10) However, Jehovah did not, as in perfect Adam’s case, tell Noah and his family to ‘subdue the earth.’ (Compare Ge 1:28 with Ge 8:21–9:2.) This suggests that imperfect man, without divine guidance, could never subdue the earth in the way God had originally purposed. Man would continue experiencing difficulties in cultivating the soil, including having to fight such troublesome plants as thorns and thistles. Undoubtedly man’s mismanagement of earth’s resources has increased his problems in this regard.

In the Promised Land, “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8), the Israelites had to work to keep the land free of thorns and other weeds, as these quickly take over neglected or desolated land. (Isa 5:6; 7:23-25; 34:13) Eventually, through disobedience to Jehovah, Israel brought spiritual ruin to the nation, God’s “inheritance,” and this was reflected both figuratively and literally in their laboring in vain, sowing wheat but reaping thorns.​—Jer 12:7, 13.

As highlighted by Jesus’ illustration concerning the sower, thorns threaten the growth of cultivated crops. (Mt 13:7; Lu 8:7) So before a field covered with thorns and thistles was cultivated, these troublesome plants were removed, generally by burning the field over. (Heb 6:8) Thorns also presented somewhat of a fire hazard. Especially at harvesttime, when the thorns alongside the standing grain are dry, they readily catch fire, and an entire field can be consumed as the fire spreads from the thorns to the standing grain.​—Ex 22:6.

In mockery, Roman soldiers braided a crown of thorns and placed it on Jesus’ head. (Mr 15:17; Joh 19:2) While the particular plant in question has been linked by many with Paliurus spina-christi, a shrub growing to a height of 6 m (20 ft) and having flexible branches with stiff thorns, no certain identification is possible.

Figurative Use. Frequently “thorns” are mentioned in a figurative, or an illustrative, sense. The Assyrians, although interwoven like thorns, were to be consumed as fully dry stubble. (Na 1:10) Thorns are used to denote people, even rulers, whose actions being bad, are in line for adverse judgment. (2Ki 14:9, 10; Isa 9:18, 19; 10:17-19) Wicked opposers of Jehovah’s servant are depicted as being extinguished like a fire of thornbushes. (Ps 118:10, 12) Jesus Christ referred to thorns when illustrating the truth that individuals are known by their fruits.​—Mt 7:16.

Thorns designate persons and things that cause injury and are troublesome. (Nu 33:55; Pr 22:5; Eze 28:24) Paul’s “thorn in the flesh” (2Co 12:7) may have been an affliction of his eyes or another part of his body (see Ac 23:1-5; Ga 4:15; 6:11) or perhaps the false apostles and other disturbers who challenged Paul’s apostleship and work. (See 2Co 11:5, 6, 12-15; Ga 1:6-9; 5:12; 6:17.) Jehovah, through his prophet Jeremiah, compared the hearts of the men of Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem to ground covered with thorns, that is, with untruth, injustice, and unrighteousness. (Jer 4:1-4; compare Ho 10:12, 13.) Fittingly the replacement of thorns by trees represents the restoration of divine favor.​—Isa 55:13; see BRAMBLE; BRIER; BUSH; LOTUS TREE; WEEDS.

See BUSH.

A resting-place attested to in ancient writings, situated on the Appian Way, the well-known highway that ran from Rome to Brundisium by way of Capua. The place perhaps got its name from three inns where travelers could stop to rest and refresh themselves. The site of Three Taverns is 49 km (30 mi) SE of Rome. The Marketplace of Appius was about 15 km (9.5 mi) farther down the Appian Way. A few Roman ruins are all that remain today at the site. Having heard about Paul’s coming, part of the delegation of the Christians from Rome waited at Three Taverns while the rest traveled as far as the Marketplace of Appius.​—Ac 28:13-15.

The process of releasing grain from its stalk and chaff. If gleaners had a small amount to thresh, or if the grain was of small size like cumin, or if the threshing was done secretly during dangerous times, a rod or flail was used to beat the grain by hand, either on the ground or in a winepress.​—Jg 6:11; Ru 2:17; Isa 28:27.

The threshing floor, however, was the location of normal threshing operations. Usually situated on a higher elevation exposed to the wind, it consisted of a flat circular area, up to 15 m (50 ft) in diameter, made either of stone or hard-packed earth. Threshing floors not privately owned were often clustered together near a village for communal use. The sheaves of barley or wheat, the principal grains of Palestine, were spread out on the floor (today generally to a depth of 30 to 46 cm [12 to 18 in.]). The treading by bulls or other animals, as they constantly circled the floor, gradually broke down the straw and freed the grain from the chaff. The animals were not muzzled while treading the grain.​—De 25:4; Ho 10:11; 1Co 9:9, 10.

Threshing instruments pulled by animals speeded up the process and were more thorough than animal hooves alone. (Isa 41:15; Am 1:3) Models used in more modern times are either broad flat heavy sledges with sharp teeth of stone or of iron on their underside or frames that pull heavy cylindrical rollers fitted with knives to cut and break down the grain stalks. Such sledges and roller devices covered an additional swath each round, and the added weight of the driver riding on top increased the effectiveness.​—Compare Isa 28:28.

After the grain had been thoroughly threshed, and turned over several times in the process, it was winnowed.​—See WINNOWING.

Because of providing an open, level space, threshing floors were often used for other purposes. The mourning rites for Jacob were held on the threshing floor of Atad near the Jordan. (Ge 50:10, 11) At Jehovah’s direction, David purchased the threshing floor of Araunah (Ornan), built there an altar, and made a sacrifice to Jehovah. (2Sa 24:16-25; 1Ch 21:15-28) Later this threshing floor became the site of Solomon’s temple. (2Ch 3:1) When Jehoshaphat and Ahab conferred about warring against Syria, their thrones were set up on a threshing floor at the entrance of the gate of Samaria.​—1Ki 22:10.

Figurative Use. In a figurative sense, the treatment the stalks of grain receive on the threshing floor is a very fitting symbol of how Jehovah’s enemies will be beaten and cut to pieces. (Isa 41:15; Jer 51:33; Mic 4:12, 13; Hab 3:12) Threshing also illustrates the crushing treatment men sometimes mete out to others. (2Ki 13:7) Or the separation of wheat from chaff may depict the separation of the righteous from the wicked by Jehovah’s judgment. (Mt 3:12) In yet another sense, a long and bountiful threshing denotes prosperity and Jehovah’s blessing.​—Le 26:5; Joe 2:24.

See NECK.