THERE is solid evidence that the Bible, the inspired Word of God, has been accurately copied and transmitted down to us. The evidence consists of ancient manuscripts available today​—perhaps 6,000 of the entire Hebrew Scriptures or portions of it and some 5,000 of the Christian Scriptures in Greek.

Original Writings

The original Bible writings were handwritten on perishable materials such as papyrus and vellum; none of the originals are known to exist today

Copies​—Hebrew or Greek

Soon after the originals were written, manuscript copies began to be produced. The copyists exercised great care to transmit the text accurately; the Masoretes counted even the letters that they copied

Early Translations

To make the Scriptures available in other languages, Bible translation became necessary. There exist today manuscripts of such early versions as the Septuagint (a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, from the third and second centuries B.C.E.) and Jerome’s Vulgate (a translation of Hebrew and Greek texts into Latin, originally produced c. 400 C.E.)

Master Texts

By a comparative study of hundreds of existing Bible manuscripts, scholars have prepared master texts. These printed editions of original-language texts suggest the best readings available while drawing attention to variations that may exist in certain manuscripts. Texts of the Hebrew Scriptures with comparative readings in footnotes have been prepared by such scholars as Ginsburg and Kittel. Included among the master texts of the Christian Greek Scriptures are those published by Westcott and Hort as well as by Nestle and Aland

Modern Translations

Bible translators today generally use original-language master texts to produce modern translations

JEHOVAH​—the name of the Sovereign Lord of the universe. It is the name by which he himself chose to be identified. The Tetragrammaton (as the four Hebrew letters of God’s name are known) occurs in the Hebrew text of the Bible nearly 7,000 times​—far more often than does any descriptive title for God. That name is no mere label. It distinguishes the true God from all other gods, including man-made gods. It is the name that all intelligent creatures should know, honor, and sanctify.

The name Jehovah identifies the Creator of heaven and earth (Ge 2:4), the God and Father of Jesus Christ (Mt 4:10; Joh 20:17), the One who has promised to establish “new heavens and a new earth” in which righteousness will prevail.​—Isa 65:17, 25; 2Pe 3:13.

Surprisingly, many Bible translations today do not contain the divine name at all. Why? A superstitious idea arose among the Jews that it was wrong to pronounce that name. This resulted first in avoiding spoken use of the divine name among the Jews, then in removal of God’s personal name from Greek manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures. Eventually, in most translations of the Bible the divine name was completely replaced by expressions such as “Lord” and “God.” It is noteworthy that only the most vital name of all​—Jehovah—​was tampered with; other Bible names were not.

Yet, it is vital for all mankind to know the divine name. (Ro 10:13) This involves much more than just knowing what God’s personal name is. It includes knowing also the person represented by the name and living in a way consistent with the purposes connected with that name. It is the responsibility of all who worship the true God to be diligent in making his name known to others, as Jesus did. (Joh 17:6, 26) Jehovah God promises to bless those who know, use, and honor his great name.​—Ps 91:14.

OVER 4,350 years ago, according to the Bible’s historical record, the floodgates of the heavens were opened and a deluge overwhelmed the entire earth. Ungodly, violent humans and all those who were so indifferent that they refused to take note of God’s warning were destroyed. The Flood was survived only by righteous Noah and his family, eight persons in all, along with a limited number of each kind of animal life, in a huge ark built at God’s direction.​—Ge 7:1-24.

The fact that the Flood really occurred is verified by a number of Bible writers. (Isa 54:9; 2Pe 3:5, 6; Heb 11:7) The strongest evidence, however, is the testimony of Jesus Christ himself, who was an eyewitness in the heavens. (Compare Joh 8:58.) He pointedly said: “In the days of Noah, . . . the flood arrived and destroyed them all.”​—Lu 17:26, 27.

The account of the Flood is far more than a story. Jesus Christ indicated that it has prophetic significance. In his prophecy about “the conclusion of the system of things,” he made specific reference to “the days of Noah.” He pointed to the Flood as a warning example of a greater destruction to come during “the presence of the Son of man.”​—Mt 24:3, 37-39.

ALL mankind descended from the first human pair, Adam and Eve. (Ge 1:28; 3:20; 5:1, 2) After the Flood, earth’s new population, including all the races and national groups on earth today, descended from Noah through his three sons and their wives, who were survivors of that global Deluge. Thus, after listing 70 offspring of the sons of Noah, the Genesis account says: “From these the nations were spread about in the earth.”​—Ge 10:32.

THE life of Abraham is of great interest to us today. Why? Because it was to him that Jehovah said: “All the families of the ground will certainly bless themselves by means of you.” However, for Abraham to enjoy such a role in God’s purpose, he had to prove himself to be a man of faith and obedience to God.​—Ge 12:1-3; Ac 7:2, 3.

This involved leaving behind his home and relatives in prosperous Ur, never to return. On foot and using primitive transport, he moved some 960 km (600 mi) to Haran. On Nisan 14, 1943 B.C.E., he crossed the Euphrates River and went south. He finally arrived in the heart of Canaan after a journey totaling about 1,650 km (1,025 mi).

At Jehovah’s appointed time, among Abraham’s descendants, God caused his own Son from the heavens, Jesus, to be born as a human. Through Jesus, the blessing of eternal life was made possible for us.

THE land that God gave to ancient Israel includes an extraordinary variety of geographic features. In the north are snowcapped mountains; areas in the south are tropical. Within its borders are productive lowlands, hill country for orchards and the grazing of flocks, as well as areas of desolate wilderness. Here in a relatively small area is a cross section of geographic features of the earth.

Bordering the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea is a strip of fertile plain. To the east of that is the Shephelah, hilly lowland where vineyards and olive groves flourish. Farther east a mountain range runs the length of the land like a huge backbone. Then the land takes a dramatic plunge into the Rift Valley, which slices the land lengthwise. Through this valley the Jordan River winds its way from the Sea of Galilee down to the Salt Sea. East of the Jordan are fertile hills and grazing lands. Beyond this inviting land, to the east, the Arabian Desert begins.

At its peak, the Promised Land with all its diversity was like the garden of Eden. Israel thus provided a small-scale example of what Paradise under the Kingdom of God will mean for mankind in all parts of the earth.

JACOB was favored by God because he demonstrated deep appreciation for sacred things. (Heb 12:16, 17) Jehovah assured Jacob that his offspring would inherit the land promised to Abraham, and he added: “By means of your seed all the families of the ground will certainly bless themselves.”​—Ge 28:4, 10-15.

Though he was blessed with material wealth and 12 sons, Jacob’s life was not without difficulties. Yet Jacob never lost his faith in Jehovah and the reliability of his word. Even on his deathbed, he expressed faith in the Messianic promise. (Ge 49:10) Among Jacob’s offspring was born Jesus Christ, through whom God will eternally bless mankind.

BECAUSE of Israel’s repeated contact with Egypt, the Bible contains many details regarding that land. By events in Egypt, Jehovah’s own name was magnified in a wonderful way.

Egypt was a land where many gods were worshiped. Certain animals were viewed as gods; others were considered to be sacred to specific ones of the Egyptian gods. Is it any wonder that Moses said that if Israel was to offer animal sacrifices to Jehovah in Egypt, this would bring violence at the hands of the people? (Ex 8:26) We can understand, too, why, when the hearts of Israel in the wilderness turned back to Egypt, they would use a molten statue of a calf in what they referred to as “a festival to Jehovah.”​—Ex 32:1-5.

Another prominent feature of Egyptian worship was belief in an afterlife. This belief found expression in the practice of embalming the dead and in the erection of huge tombs to honor them.

Despite the fact that Moses was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” the commandments regarding worship of Jehovah recorded by him were in no way tainted by Egyptian beliefs. (Ac 7:22) What he wrote was not of human origin but was divinely inspired.

EVENTS during the period of over two centuries that the forefathers of the nation of Israel were in Egypt are an important part of the Bible record.

Jacob’s son Joseph was sold into slavery and taken to Egypt. (Ge 37:28, 36) Some years later, because of divine intervention, he came to the attention of Pharaoh and, as food administrator, was granted authority second only to Pharaoh himself. (Ge 41:38-45) But in time there arose over Egypt a new king who did not respect the memory of Joseph and who imposed tyrannical slavery on the offspring of Jacob (Israel). (Ex 1:8-14) Secular Egyptian history is completely silent about all of this, including Joseph’s prominent position. Is that surprising?

This lack of any mention of Joseph’s prominence and of Israel’s bondage comes as no surprise to those who are acquainted with the records on the monuments of ancient Egypt. It was common for later rulers or religious scribes to remove names from earlier monuments, either because they considered these to be undesirable or to enhance their own prominence. For example, King Horemheb changed inscriptions to credit himself for building work done by Tutankhamen. (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 532) The Cairo Museum in Egypt and the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago contain numerous examples of such dishonesty.

In contrast, the Bible record bears every indication of authenticity. It is very unlikely that any nation would claim that its origin is to be traced to slaves in a foreign country if that was not true. The Bible account regarding these events contains a wealth of detail of Egyptian life that could only have been conveyed by one who lived there. Further, the Passover is celebrated annually by the Jews down to this day, a celebration that the Bible reports began while their forefathers were in Egypt and as a result of what occurred there. Any claim that the true account regarding these matters has perished and that the only record in existence is false defies all reason.

JEHOVAH instructed Moses to appear before Pharaoh and, speaking in Jehovah’s name, to say: “Send my people away.” (Ex 5:1) Pharaoh refused. He did not want to lose a nation of slaves. More than that, Pharaoh did not know, or recognize, Jehovah as the true God. (Ex 5:2) Pharaoh worshiped the gods of Egypt and even considered himself to be a god! Thus the issue was pressed to the fore: Who is the true God? By means of ten plagues Jehovah executed judgment “on all the gods of Egypt,” resulting in Israel’s release and giving evidence that Jehovah is the living and true God.​—Ex 12:12.

As a group, Israel departed from Rameses in Egypt on Nisan 15, 1513 B.C.E. As the throng moved to the east they were undoubtedly joined by others from Goshen. After they reached Etham, Jehovah ordered them to “turn back and encamp before Pihahiroth . . . by the sea.” To the Egyptians, it appeared that the people were lost. (Ex 13:20; 14:1-3) They seemed to be trapped between the Red Sea and the mountains. With the Egyptian war chariots behind them, there appeared to be no way out! It was under these circumstances that Jehovah delivered Israel and destroyed Pharaoh and his army. (Ex 14:13-31) Thus, Jehovah demonstrated his great power and caused what he did for Israel to be talked about “in all the earth.”​—Ex 9:16; Jos 2:10; 9:9.

AT Jehovah’s direction, the tabernacle was first set up in 1512 B.C.E. in the wilderness at Mount Sinai. It was the center for true worship for Israel; it was also at the center of the Israelite camp. The apostle Paul explains that the tabernacle was a prophetic illustration of “the greater and more perfect tent,” God’s great place of worship.​—Heb 9:9, 11.

AFTER their deliverance from Egypt, Israel wandered for 40 years in Sinai, much of the time far away from well-traveled trade routes. It was a “great and fear-inspiring wilderness, with poisonous serpents and scorpions and with thirsty ground that has no water.” (De 8:15) Why were they made to undergo this ordeal?

At Mount Sinai, Jehovah assembled the Israelites after their departure from Egypt, gave them his laws through Moses, and organized them into a nation. After that they could have entered the Promised Land within a short time, but they did not. Why? Despite all that Jehovah had done for them, they failed to exercise faith and they rebelled against Moses, whom God had appointed to lead them. Choosing to believe a bad report about Canaan, the Israelites longed to be taken back to Egypt! (Nu 14:1-4) This brought Jehovah’s swift judgment: Forty years would pass before the nation would enter the Promised Land. By then, the faithless members of that generation would have died off.

The wilderness experience of Israel is a powerful warning to Christians today to avoid the snare of lack of faith.​—Heb 3:7-12.

OLIVE, almond, caper berry, date palm​—these are just a few of the nearly one hundred plants and trees mentioned in the Scriptures. Our knowing something about the plants of the Bible provides helpful background, shedding light on the meaning of certain Biblical statements.

Consider as an example the olive tree​—one of the most valuable plants in Bible times. This beautiful tree, often twisted, gnarled, and knotty, is quite hardy, frequently living for centuries. It receives early mention in the Scriptures. Following the Flood, a dove returned to Noah in the ark “and, look! there was an olive leaf freshly plucked in its bill.” This indicated to Noah that the floodwaters had receded.​—Ge 8:11.

The Bible psalmist alluded to some characteristics of the olive tree when he promised those fearing Jehovah: “Your sons will be like slips of olive trees all around your table.” (Ps 128:1-3) Cuttings, or slips, cut from a grown olive tree are often used for starting new trees. In addition, aged olive trees may send up shoots from their roots, thereby perpetuating themselves. Like such shoots, sons would surround a father, contributing their part to the happiness of the family.

The evergreen olive tree was especially appreciated for its oil. Olive oil was a basic food in the Israelite diet and was widely used as a cosmetic and as a fuel, and it was an important trade commodity. It was applied to bruises and wounds to soften and soothe them. (Lu 10:33, 34) Applied to the head, olive oil is likewise soothing and refreshing. Thus, older men of the Christian congregation are admonished to pray over a spiritually sick person, figuratively “greasing him with oil in the name of Jehovah”​—applying God’s Word to soothe, correct, and comfort him.​—Jas 5:13-15.

WHEN Jehovah gave Israel the land that he had promised to Abraham, morally debased nations were occupying it. The Bible candidly reports that God decreed the destruction of those wicked nations, and he appointed the Israelites to be the executioners. (De 7:2) Many persons have criticized that action. Others humbly acknowledge that it is hardly appropriate for imperfect humans to set themselves up as judges of God. (Compare Eze 18:29.) Their desire is to understand God’s ways. What do they learn?

This record clearly demonstrates that all people are accountable to mankind’s Creator, Jehovah God, whether they profess to believe in him or not. It shows that God is patient but does not shut his eyes to wrongdoing. (Ge 15:16) It makes clear that Jehovah leaves the responsibility for young children on the shoulders of their parents; he does not relieve the parents of this and thus allow them to feel that their actions affect only themselves. (De 30:19; Jos 10:40) It also shows that all who will turn from their bad way and worship Jehovah can be spared from destruction.​—Jos 6:25; 9:3–10:11.

The Bible clearly identifies the wicked practices in which the inhabitants of Canaan indulged. Halley’s Bible Handbook (1964, p. 161) concludes: “Archaeologists who dig in the ruins of Canaanite cities wonder that God did not destroy them sooner than he did.” The lesson is clear: Jehovah does not forever tolerate wickedness.

THE land that God gave to Israel was indeed a good land. When Moses sent spies ahead of the nation to explore the Promised Land and to obtain samples of its produce, they brought back figs, pomegranates, and a cluster of grapes that was so large that two men carried it between them on a bar! Though they drew back in fear because of lack of faith, they did report: The land “is indeed flowing with milk and honey.”​—Nu 13:23, 27.

Just before they finally entered the land, Jehovah’s spokesman assured the people: “Jehovah your God is bringing you into a good land, a land of torrent valleys of water, springs and watery deeps issuing forth in the valley plain and in the mountainous region, a land of wheat and barley and vines and figs and pomegranates, a land of oil olives and honey . . . in which you will lack nothing, a land the stones of which are iron and out of the mountains of which you will mine copper.” (De 8:7-9) To this day, the land continues to yield abundantly.

The beauty and splendor of that ancient land of promise is of keen interest to us today. Why? Because Messianic prophecies use the abundance with which Jehovah blessed ancient Israel to illustrate what God will do for all mankind under the rule of Jesus Christ, the “Prince of Peace.”​—Isa 9:6; Ps 67:4-7; 72:16.

THE book of Judges is a thrilling record of the exploits of men of faith who were raised up by Jehovah to deliver Israel from oppression. The oppressors came from various directions; the areas where the Judges were active were not always the same. But, regardless of how powerful the enemy was, when Israel humbly repented of their bad practices and truly trusted in Jehovah, the Judge would deliver them. This Bible book gives a foregleam of the greater deliverance that God will provide for his servants by means of his Son.

Jehovah himself determined the boundaries of the Promised Land. He also gave directions for apportioning the land among the tribes of Israel. Families were given specific portions of land, and these allotments were safeguarded for future generations. What was done in ancient Israel illustrates Jehovah’s sovereign right to assign land to humans in such a way that his purpose is accomplished.​—Ps 24:1.

DAVID the son of Jesse was an outstanding musician, poet, warrior, and statesman. But David’s prominence in Scripture is primarily due to his relationship with God. Jehovah called him “a man agreeable to my heart.”​—Ac 13:22; 1Sa 13:14.

God selected David as future king of Israel when he was but a shepherd youth. Soon thereafter, with full reliance on Jehovah, David courageously confronted and slew the Philistine giant Goliath. However, King Saul became jealous of David’s mounting popularity, and David was forced to take up the life of a fugitive. During this trialsome period David composed many heartfelt psalms, which bring comfort to Bible readers even today.

When finally established as king, David shared in historic events in the nation’s history: Israel’s boundaries were pushed to their promised limits. The ark of the covenant was brought to Jerusalem. Plans were drawn up for a glorious temple of Jehovah. Highly significant, too, was God’s covenant promise to David to raise up a permanent ruler in his royal line. (2Sa 7:12-16) This covenant points the way to the earth-wide rule by Jesus Christ.​—Ro 1:3; Lu 1:32.

THE reign of King Solomon gives us a prophetic glimpse of the future. During his royal rule Israel reached its pinnacle of wealth and glory. Solomon was both a wise king and a master organizer. He built a magnificent temple to Jehovah, various government buildings, and a royal palace, as depicted below. He established administrative districts that, on a rotational basis, provided the royal household with a variety of food, regardless of the season.

Solomon’s rule was a time of genuine peace and security. This well foreshadows the peaceful reign of the Messiah, who “will have subjects from sea to sea and from the River [Euphrates] to the ends of the earth.”​—Ps 72:8.

Solomon built a temple for Jehovah after Israel had settled in the Promised Land and had come into possession of the city upon which Jehovah later put his name. The architect was Jehovah himself. Solomon’s father, David, had received “the architectural plan of everything . . . by inspiration.” (1Ch 28:11, 12) More than 180,000 men worked for seven and a half years to construct the temple, completing it in 1027 B.C.E. (1Ki 5:13-16; 6:1, 38) The temple, like the tabernacle before it, represented the “true tent,” the spiritual temple of Jehovah.​—Heb 8:1-5; 9:2-10, 23.

ANCIENT Jerusalem was the place where Jehovah chose to put his name. (2Ch 6:6) It served as both the center of pure worship and the seat of government for Israel. Kings ruling from Jerusalem were said to sit ‘on Jehovah’s throne.’​—1Ch 29:23.

King David wrested the stronghold of Mount Zion from the Jebusites and made it his capital. Solomon enlarged the city and built it up to the peak of its grandeur, constructing a magnificent temple as well as an impressive complex of governmental buildings on Mount Moriah and its slopes. Jerusalem was a city closely associated with Jehovah’s name.

This helps us to appreciate why Jerusalem is given such prominence in Bible prophecy. It serves as a fitting symbol of the heavenly part of Jehovah’s organization and his Messianic Kingdom in the hands of Jesus Christ.

DWELLING in its God-given land, the nation of Israel found itself surrounded by nations that worshiped false gods. The Israelites had come out of Egypt, where animals were deified. To the east and southeast of them now lay Ammon, Moab, and Edom​—distant relatives of the Israelites but idol worshipers. The polytheistic Philistines occupied the coastal plain to the west. North of Israel along the coast were the Phoenicians, whose religious practices included sodomy, bestiality, and child sacrifice. And the religion of the Syrians featured nude representations of goddesses whose gestures emphasized their sexuality. To continue to be acceptable to Jehovah, Israel had to keep separate from the nations around them.

As a safeguard to Israel, Jehovah gave them the Mosaic Law, which constituted a ‘wall of separation’ to keep them apart from the surrounding nations. (Eph 2:14) They were not to form alliances with such nations, to intermarry with them, or to imitate their religious practices. (2Ch 16:7; 2Ki 17:13-15) To the extent that Israel obeyed these laws, they remained a holy people.

Yet, individuals from surrounding nations were not barred from worshiping the true God. They could abandon their idolatrous ways and become worshipers of Jehovah. “God is not partial.” (Ac 10:34) While he was keeping Israel separate, Jehovah was working out his purpose for the eventual blessing of people of all nations.​—Ge 22:18.

JUST 120 years after Saul became the first king of Israel, the nation was torn in two. Why? Because of the apostasy of King Solomon. Desiring to please his foreign wives, Solomon allowed rank idolatry to infiltrate the nation, building ‘high places’ to false gods. This interfaith was abhorrent to Jehovah. Yet, loyal to his covenant with David, God did not cut short the Davidic dynasty. Rather, he decreed the ripping away of part of the nation.​—1Ki 11:7-13.

This occurred in 997 B.C.E. when the actions of Solomon’s headstrong son Rehoboam incited ten tribes to rebel and form a kingdom largely in the northern part of the land but also including Simeonite enclave cities scattered throughout Judah. Only the tribes of Benjamin and Levi remained loyal to the southern kingdom in Judah.

Jeroboam, the first king of the northern kingdom, feared he would lose the allegiance of his people if they continued worshiping at Jerusalem, so he instituted a religion of his own. He placed golden calves at Dan far to the north and at Bethel just 17 km (11 mi) north of Jerusalem. He also installed his own priesthood and arranged for his own ‘holy days.’​—1Ki 12:26-33.

Israel thus became a land divided both politically and religiously, a land vulnerable to foreign aggression and wracked by civil war. Cut off from Jehovah’s pure worship, the ten-tribe kingdom sank deep into moral and spiritual corruption. Yet, Jehovah continued to send his prophets to urge them to repent.

ELIJAH was a prophet who called for a test of godship at Mount Carmel. The northern kingdom was being corrupted by Baal worship. But Elijah courageously challenged 450 prophets of Baal to prove that Baal was the true God. Frantic hours of prayer on their part yielded nothing. Then Elijah laid out his sacrifice, drenched it repeatedly with water, and prayed to Jehovah. When fire promptly fell from heaven, devoured the sacrifice, and licked up the water, the people exclaimed: “Jehovah is the true God!” At that, Elijah ordered that the prophets of Baal be slaughtered.​—1Ki 18:18-40.

Nevertheless, Elijah grew fearful when he learned that Queen Jezebel was plotting to kill him. He fled some 150 km (95 mi) to Beer-sheba and then traveled another 300 km (190 mi) to Mount Sinai. Jehovah did not reject Elijah for his temporary lapse of courage but assured him that there was further prophetic work for him to do.​—1Ki 19:1-18.

Elisha was Elijah’s successor. When Elisha was surrounded by Syrian war chariots, he had faith to realize that it was really the Syrian armies that were surrounded​—by a host of angelic chariots!​—2Ki 6:15-17.

AROUND Israel were enemy nations that were intent on seizing its inheritance. Would Israel be swallowed up? As long as Israel remained faithful, it had the decisive edge. “Jehovah himself was fighting for Israel.”​—Jos 10:14.

This was graphically demonstrated during the rule of King Jehoshaphat (936-c. 911 B.C.E.). The combined forces of Ammon, Moab, and Mount Seir came against Judah. Jehoshaphat appealed to Jehovah: “Here they are . . . coming in to drive us out from your possession that you caused us to possess. O our God, will you not execute judgment upon them?” Indeed He would! Judah was assured: “The battle is not yours, but God’s.” Jehovah confused the enemy, causing them to slaughter one another.​—2Ch 20:1-23.

Finally, after centuries of fighting for Israel, Jehovah allowed enemy nations to conquer it. In 740 B.C.E. the Assyrians brought the ten-tribe kingdom to an end “because the sons of Israel had sinned against Jehovah.” (2Ki 17:7-18) Then in 607 B.C.E., for its disobedience the two-tribe kingdom was destroyed by the Babylonians. (2Ki 21:10-15; 22:16, 17) This period of Israel’s history emphasizes the importance of obeying Jehovah.

STRATEGICALLY located and dominating major trade and military routes, Megiddo was a focus of international interest in Bible times. The valley plain at its feet became the site of many decisive battles. Therefore, the book of Revelation fittingly names the coming “war of the great day of God the Almighty” Har–Magedon (from Heb., meaning “Mountain of Megiddo”). However, it is not at literal Megiddo that this war will be fought. It will involve “the kings of the entire inhabited earth.” (Re 16:14, 16) This time no human ruler will be victor. It will be the Kingdom of God that will prove triumphant over all of them, vindicating Jehovah God, the Almighty, as Universal Sovereign.

ASSYRIA was an empire whose record was dominated by military conquest, frequently coupled with sadistic treatment of captives. One of the foremost influences in Assyrian life was religious, and war was viewed as a true expression of their religion. Historian W. B. Wright reports: “Fighting was the business of the nation, and the priests were incessant fomenters of war. They were supported largely from the spoils of conquest, of which a fixed percentage was invariably assigned them before others shared, for this race of plunderers was excessively religious.”​—Ancient Cities, 1886, p. 25.

Both the Bible and secular history report repeated contacts between Israel and Assyria. In time Israel was forced to pay tribute to the king of Assyria. Then in 740 B.C.E., Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom, was conquered, and thereafter thousands were sent into exile. The fact that Jehovah allowed this to occur reflects the low level to which apostate Israel had sunk. But when Sennacherib attempted to add Jerusalem to his list of conquests, an angel of Jehovah annihilated 185,000 of Assyria’s troops in one night. (Isa 36:1–37:38) As Jehovah’s prophets foretold, Assyria in time became a desolate ruin, and Babylon succeeded it on the world scene.​—Isa 23:13; Zep 2:13.

ARCHAEOLOGY is of interest to Bible students. Why? Because in many instances the findings of archaeologists have helped to improve our understanding of life in Bible times and of the original languages in which the Scriptures were written.

At times archaeological finds have even silenced those who criticized the accuracy of certain events or statements made in the Bible. For example, was there a Babylonian king named Belshazzar and an Assyrian king named Sargon? Up until the 19th century, these names were known only from the Bible record. (Isa 20:1; Da 5:1) But the discoveries of Sargon’s palace at Khorsabad and the now famous Nabonidus Chronicle upheld the historicity of these rulers.

This does not mean that proof of the Bible’s authenticity depends on the discoveries of archaeology. Israeli archaeologist Yohanan Aharoni noted: “When it comes to historical or historio-geographical interpretation, the archaeologist steps out of the realm of the exact sciences, and he must rely upon value judgements and hypotheses to arrive at a comprehensive historical picture.” Thus, when evaluating their finds, archaeologists have at times disagreed with the Bible.

Should this cast doubt on the Bible’s authenticity? Not at all. A faith that depends only on the interpretation of archaeological finds is a shaky one indeed. Proof that the Bible is divinely inspired is found within the Bible itself, and not in archaeology.

BABYLON was indeed an impressive city​—with towering walls, its Processional Way, the famous Hanging Gardens, and upwards of 50 temples.

Very early in man’s history, Babel (later named Babylon) became a prominent center of worship that defied the true God, Jehovah. (Ge 10:9, 10) Jehovah thwarted the purpose of its builders by confusing the people’s language and scattering them from there throughout the earth. (Ge 11:4-9) Thus it came about that false worship spread from Babylon to other lands.

Babylon’s defiance of Jehovah eventually led to its downfall. In prophecy, Jehovah depicted Babylon as a lion having eagle’s wings; he also foretold its fall and its eventual desolation. On October 5, 539 B.C.E., in one night, Babylon was taken by Cyrus the Great, whom Jehovah had foretold by name. Babylon fell in the very manner foretold. Eventually the city became “piles of stones,” never to be rebuilt.​—Jer 51:37; see Isa 44:27–45:2.

ANCIENT Jerusalem enjoyed a unique distinction: It was the only earthly city upon which Jehovah placed his name. (1Ki 11:36) It was also the center for the pure worship of Jehovah. His temple was built there, and for that reason Jerusalem could especially be called God’s “resting-place.” (Ps 132:13, 14; 135:21) In addition, Jerusalem was the location where the kings of the Davidic line sat on “Jehovah’s throne,” representing him by administering his laws.​—1Ch 29:23.

In contrast, ancient Babylon was the center from which false worship spread to all parts of the earth. It was of special significance, therefore, when Jehovah permitted Babylon to destroy unfaithful Jerusalem. In 620 B.C.E., Jerusalem was made subject to Babylon. (2Ki 24:1) Three years later, in 617 B.C.E., the Babylonians deported many of Jerusalem’s inhabitants​—its nobility, its mighty men, and its craftsmen—​and looted the city’s treasures. (2Ch 36:5-10) Finally, the city, along with the temple, was destroyed and thousands of Jews were taken into exile.​—2Ch 36:17-20.

Jerusalem’s destruction took place in 607 B.C.E., a very significant year from the standpoint of Bible prophecy. Although this date differs from the one used by many Bible commentators, it is used consistently in this publication. Why? Because we give greater weight to the testimony of the Bible than to the conclusions that scholars have drawn from the fragmentary record of history that is available on cuneiform tablets.

THE Medes and the Persians are referred to repeatedly in the Scriptures because they pursued a policy of religious toleration that served to fulfill Bible prophecy.

Jehovah had permitted the Jews to be taken into captivity by Babylon, a nation that did not release captive peoples. Yet, God also had foretold Jewish restoration to their homeland. (Jer 27:22; 30:3) Medo-Persia, referred to in the Bible symbolically as a bear (Da 7:5), served Jehovah’s purpose in this regard.

Shortly after Babylon’s fall, Persian King Cyrus decreed that the formerly captive Jews could return to their homeland and rebuild Jehovah’s temple. (Ezr 1:2-4) Darius I later honored this decree. (Ezr 6:1-11) King Ahasuerus (evidently Xerxes I), when properly informed, signed a decree that thwarted a scheme to exterminate the Jews. (Es 7:3–8:14) In 455 B.C.E., King Artaxerxes Longimanus granted permission for Nehemiah to rebuild Jerusalem’s walls, thus beginning the prophetic countdown to the appearance of the Messiah.​—Ne 2:3-8; Da 9:25.

IN 607 B.C.E. the once-prosperous land of Judah was made “a desolate waste, without an inhabitant,” as Jewish captives were led away to exile in Babylon and a remnant fled to Egypt. (Jer 9:11) The God of loving-kindness, though, would not leave his people in exile forever. He foretold that they would “have to serve the king of Babylon seventy years,” after which he would deliver a faithful remnant. (Jer 25:11, 12; 29:10-14) And not even the seemingly impregnable world power of Babylon could thwart God’s stated purpose. The return of the Jewish exiles demonstrates the unerring accuracy with which Jehovah’s prophecies are fulfilled.

Even before the end of the 70 years of exile, Babylon fell, in 539 B.C.E., to the invading armies of Persian King Cyrus. Then, during his first year as ruler of Babylon, Cyrus issued a decree opening the way for the Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem. (Ezr 1:1-4) A remnant that numbered 42,360 (including men, women, and children) made the journey, arriving in Judah in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 1:5–3:1; 4:1) Thus the 70 years’ desolation ended exactly on time!

Not all the exiles returned at that time, however. In 468 B.C.E., another group of returnees accompanied the priest Ezra, who brought to Jerusalem gifts for the temple. (Ezr 7:1–8:32) Then in 455 B.C.E., Nehemiah traveled from Shushan to rebuild Jerusalem’s walls. (Ne 2:5, 6, 11) As to the exact route followed by the returnees, the Scriptures are silent. Some reasonable possibilities are shown on the map.

AMAZING events in Greek history have fulfilled Bible prophecy. Greece seemed an unlikely candidate for world power, as its people were divided into independent tribes and city-states.

But Bible prophecy recorded in the sixth century B.C.E. pointed to a dramatic change. Symbolizing Greece first as a leopard with wings and then as a he-goat with a conspicuous horn, it foretold in an unmistakable way that Greece would trample down the Medo-Persian World Power. It also disclosed that the power of a “conspicuous horn” would be broken and that four others would come up instead of it.​—Da 7:6; 8:5-8, 20-22; 11:3, 4.

Alexander the Great proved to be that “conspicuous horn.” Beginning in 334 B.C.E., he led a small but well-disciplined Greek army to one victory after another. With lightning speed he conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the entire Medo-Persian Empire as far as India. But in just a few years Alexander was dead, and in a relatively short time his empire was split four ways, among four of his generals.

The Grecian Empire was short-lived, but its effects were long-lasting. Before his death, Alexander had introduced Greek culture and the Greek language into all parts of his domain. Common Greek became the lingua franca of many nationalities, and this later contributed to the rapid spread of Christianity throughout the Mediterranean area.

JEHOVAH’S law given to Israel prohibited the making of images for worship. The true God is a Spirit, and the making of any image to represent Him is grossly inappropriate. In contrast, many images of the gods of other ancient nations have been unearthed. They were nothing more than “the product of the hands of man, wood and stone.” (De 4:28) They were “valueless gods,” as the Bible says, having neither eyes to see nor ears to hear those who worshiped them. (1Ch 16:26; Ps 115:4-8) Today they are merely museum relics. Nevertheless, they reveal much about the roots of religious beliefs that are widespread today.

THE history of Tyre provides a striking example of the fulfillment of Bible prophecy. First the mainland city fell; then the island city was destroyed. Both events were foretold.

In the days of David and of Solomon, friendly relations had existed between Israel and Tyre. (1Ch 14:1; 1Ki 9:10, 11) But the Tyrians were worshipers of Melkart and Astarte. Tyre was devoted to commerce. As she prospered, she became proud. She became defiant toward Jehovah, and Jehovah’s prophets foretold calamity for Tyre.

Nebuchadnezzar II besieged the city. From a military standpoint, after many years it might have seemed futile to continue. But he persevered until Tyre fell at the end of 13 years, thus fulfilling the Bible prophecy that had named him as its conqueror.​—Eze 26:7-12.

Later, Zechariah again foretold ruin for Tyre, but this time it was for the island city. To reach it, Alexander the Great scraped up the ruins of the mainland city to construct a causeway; he built huge siege towers. Though Tyre had built its walls 46 m high (150 ft), the prophecy was fulfilled.​—Zec 9:3, 4; Eze 26:4, 12.

ROME was depicted in Bible prophecy as a beast that was “fearsome and terrible and unusually strong,” with teeth of iron. (Da 7:7) It was this empire that Jehovah permitted to bring Jerusalem to ruin in 70 C.E.

Rome tolerated almost any sort of religious practice, as long as those who held to it would also share in worship of the emperor. Such emperor worship was viewed as an important factor in uniting the empire. So any who refused to share in it were considered to be enemies of the state. Christians did not join in such worship. Thus, although they were honest citizens, Christians often became the objects of vicious persecution. Among those who instigated such persecution were Emperors Nero, Domitian, Marcus Aurelius, and Diocletian. Pontius Pilate, a Roman governor of Judea, when pressured by religious leaders of the Jews, even ordered the execution of Jesus Christ, doing so as an act of political expediency.

THE Bible’s record of Jesus’ early life is brief but specific. It is not a fanciful story but is historical fact. It involves places that can be visited even now​—Bethlehem, Egypt, Nazareth, and Jerusalem. The Bible’s dating and explanation of events involves such prominent persons as Caesar Augustus, Governor Quirinius, King Herod the Great, and Archelaus​—all of whom are known from secular history.

THE ministry of Jesus Christ has deeply influenced the lives of people in every part of the world. Jesus did not allow himself to be distracted from his objective. As he said: “I must declare the good news of the kingdom of God, because for this I was sent forth.”​—Lu 4:43.

As shown on the accompanying maps, he covered a large territory​—mainly on foot. In connection with Jewish festivals, he made regular trips to Jerusalem during his ministry. The journeys specifically mentioned in the Gospels are shown on our maps. From Jerusalem he moved out to cover Judean territory. But he spent most of his time in Galilee, giving the whole province an intensive witness. His ministry also took him to people in the regions of Tyre and Sidon, through the Decapolis, and into Perea. He thoroughly bore witness to the truth, leaving a fine example for his followers.​—Joh 18:37; Ac 1:8; Mt 28:19, 20.

THE Jerusalem that exists today has changed greatly from what it was in the first century. Nevertheless, on the basis of archaeological research, it has been possible to reconstruct in a tentative way some of the key parts of the city. This can help students to visualize the events that took place there in connection with the ministry of Jesus and that of his apostles.

When in Jerusalem at festival times, Jesus taught in the temple area where the crowds were. (Joh 7:14, 28; 18:20) Following his death and resurrection, his disciples ‘filled Jerusalem with their teaching.’ (Ac 5:28) From Jerusalem, their witnessing eventually spread to “the most distant part of the earth.”​—Ac 1:8.

The activity of Jesus and his disciples confronted the nation with an important issue: Would they accept the one whom Jehovah sent as Messiah? Would they recognize their need of the Kingdom of God? Though some put faith in Jesus, most were unresponsive. The nation’s faithless actions were climaxed by the impalement of Jesus, which took place with popular support at Jerusalem. As a result, destruction befell the city in 70 C.E., just as Jesus had foretold.​—Lu 19:41-44.

GALILEE, located in northern Palestine, was a prosperous and well populated province in Bible times. To this day its geographic features are inviting​—the deep blue Sea of Galilee, the rugged northern terrain, and the fertile plains. Here in this picturesque region, Jesus spent most of his earthly life, being raised in the Galilean city of Nazareth.​—Mt 2:21-23; Lu 2:51, 52.

Farming, sheepherding, and fishing were common occupations among the Galileans, and this is reflected in many of Jesus’ parables. A hardworking, industrious people, the common Galileans were looked down upon by the Pharisees and chief priests at Jerusalem. Their distinct accent made the Galileans easily recognizable to their fellow Jews.​—Mt 26:73.

Galilee was the scene of some of the outstanding events of Jesus’ ministry. On a mountainside near Capernaum, Jesus gave his famous Sermon on the Mount. (Mt 5:1, 2) Here in Galilee, he miraculously healed many persons.​—Mr 1:32-34; 6:53-56; Joh 4:46-54.

How were Jesus’ preaching and miracles received in Galilee? When he preached in his hometown, Nazareth, the people at first ‘marveled at the winsome words proceeding out of his mouth.’ But after Jesus compared them to the Israelites in the days of Elijah and Elisha, they sought to kill him. (Lu 4:22-30) The Galileans in general, though, were very responsive to Jesus’ ministry. Thus, it was from Galileans that his early disciples were drawn, and all of his apostles (with the possible exception of Judas Iscariot) were Galilean. (Mt 4:18-22; Lu 6:12-16) The crowd of about 120 disciples that received the holy spirit on the day of Pentecost 33 C.E. were Galileans.​—Ac 1:15; 2:1-7.

SURROUNDED by hills in northern Palestine lies the freshwater inland lake called the Sea of Galilee, Sea of Tiberias, or Lake of Gennesaret. Set like a jewel in a deep basin, the lake is located some 210 m (700 ft) below sea level. It is about 21 km (13 mi) long and about 12 km (7.5 mi) wide. Both on and around this lake many outstanding events of Jesus’ ministry took place.

Several times Jesus spoke from a boat to crowds assembled on the shores of the sea. (Mr 4:1, 2) Capernaum, a city on the northern shore, came to be known as Jesus’ “own city,” even though he traveled much of the time. (Mt 9:1; Mr 2:1) Jesus walked on the waters of this sea and appeared near it after his resurrection.​—Joh 6:1, 16-21; 21:1, 4-19.

EVENTS leading up to Jesus’ death took place in and around Jerusalem. Here the Son of God was presented to the nation as its King. As he approached the city, a multitude of the disciples cried out: “Blessed is the One coming as the King in Jehovah’s name!” (Lu 19:37, 38) But the religious leaders of the nation rejected him and falsely charged that he was inciting the people to revolt. When the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, pointedly asked Jesus whether he was a king, Jesus replied: “My kingdom is no part of this world.” When Pilate himself presented Jesus to the Jews, saying: “See! Your king!” the chief priests answered: “We have no king but Caesar.”​—Joh 18:33-38; 19:14, 15.

BEFORE ascending to heaven in 33 C.E., Jesus Christ gave his followers this parting commission: “You will be witnesses of me both in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the most distant part of the earth.” (Ac 1:8) They proved true to their commission.

Ten days later, at Pentecost, holy spirit came upon about 120 disciples waiting in Jerusalem, and they proceeded to speak “about the magnificent things of God.” (Ac 2:1-4, 11) On that same day, about 3,000 were baptized. (Ac 2:37-41) Within a short time, the disciples ‘filled Jerusalem with their teaching.’ (Ac 5:27, 28, 40-42) With what result? “The number of the disciples kept multiplying in Jerusalem very much.”​—Ac 6:7.

From Jerusalem, the witnessing work spread out. As a result of opposition to their witnessing in Jerusalem, the disciples were scattered throughout Judea and Samaria. Again, the result was increase.​—Ac 8:1, 4, 14-17.

In 36 C.E. the apostle Peter brought the good news to Caesarea, where Cornelius and his household, the first uncircumcised Gentile converts, were baptized. (Ac 10) Following that, systematic witnessing among non-Jews apparently began in Syrian Antioch. As a result, “a great number that became believers turned to the Lord.” (Ac 11:20, 21) Since then, the witnessing work has expanded to other nations and has literally reached “to the most distant part of the earth.”

COMMISSIONED by Jesus to be an apostle to the nations, Paul zealously carried out his assignment. (Ro 11:13) His first missionary trip took him through Cyprus and into Asia Minor. He was thrown out of cities by angry mobs, even stoned and left for dead. But he returned to strengthen those who had become disciples.

On his second trip, he reached into Macedonia and Greece. Here he was able to give a witness at the Areopagus in Athens.

On Paul’s third trip, he preached for some three years in Ephesus, a crossroads of the Roman world. Then he went on to Macedonia and Greece to build up the congregations there.

When being held prisoner by the Roman government, Paul used his time well to write inspired letters that are part of the Bible today.