(Raʹa·mah).

A son of Ham’s firstborn, Cush, and brother of Nimrod. Raamah and his two sons Sheba and Dedan founded three of the 70 post-Flood families. (Ge 10:6-8; 1Ch 1:9) Many centuries later the tribal descendants of Raamah, Dedan, and Sheba all carried on trade with Tyre. (Eze 27:20, 22) Just where the tribe springing from Raamah resided is uncertain, but the city of Raamah near Maʽin in SW Arabia is likely.

(Ra·a·miʹah) [Jehovah Has Thundered; Uproar of Jehovah].

One who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel. The name is an alternate form of Reelaiah.​—Ne 7:7; Ezr 2:2.

(Ra·amʹses), Rameses (Ramʹe·ses) [from Egyptian, meaning “Ra [the sun-god] Has Begotten Him”].

When Jacob’s family moved into Egypt they were assigned to live in “the land of Rameses.” (Ge 47:11) Since elsewhere they are spoken of as residing in the land of Goshen, it appears that Rameses was either a district within Goshen or was another name for Goshen. (Ge 47:6) Later, the Israelites were enslaved and put to building cities “as storage places for Pharaoh, namely, Pithom and Raamses [the vowel pointing here differs slightly from that of “Rameses”].” (Ex 1:11) Many scholars suggest that Raamses was so named for the district of Rameses in which they assume it was located.

When the Exodus from Egypt began, Rameses is given as the starting point. Most scholars assume that the city is here meant, perhaps being the rendezvous site where the Israelites gathered from various parts of Goshen. But Rameses may here refer to a district, and it may be that the Israelites pulled away from all parts of the district, converging on Succoth as the place of rendezvous.​—Ex 12:37; Nu 33:3-5.

The exact location of this starting point, if a city rather than a district is meant, is very uncertain. Modern scholars identify Rameses with the city called Per-Ramses (House of Ramses) in Egyptian records, placed by some at San el-Hagar in the NE corner of the Delta, and by others at Qantir, about 20 km (12 mi) to the south. But this identification rests on the theory that Ramses II was the Pharaoh of the Exodus. This theory, in turn, is based on inscriptions of Ramses II giving his claim to having built the city bearing his name (Per-Ramses), using slave labor. There is little reason, however, to believe that Ramses II was the ruler at the time of the Exodus, since his rule is not likely to have been much earlier than the 13th century B.C.E., or between 200 and 300 years after the Exodus (1513 B.C.E.). The Biblical Raamses began to be built before Moses’ birth, hence over 80 years before the Exodus. (Ex 1:11, 15, 16, 22; 2:1-3) Furthermore, it is held that Per-Ramses was the capital city in the time of Ramses II, whereas the Biblical Raamses was only a ‘storage place.’ It is generally accepted that Ramses II was guilty of taking credit for certain achievements of his predecessors, and this raises the possibility that, at best, he only rebuilt or enlarged Per-Ramses. Finally, the name Rameses was clearly in use as far back as the time of Joseph (in the 18th century B.C.E.); so there is no reason to assume that its application (in the form Raamses) as the name of a city was exclusive with the time of Ramses II. (Ge 47:11) Its very meaning, too, makes it likely that it was popular among the Egyptians from early times. By the reign of Ramses II there were a number of towns that bore that name. D. B. Redford says: “Biblical Raamses and the capital Pr Rʽ-mś-św [Per-Ramses], apart from the personal name, seem to have nothing in common. In the complete lack of corroborative evidence it is absolutely essential to exercise caution in equating the two.”​—Vetus Testamentum, Leiden, 1963, p. 410.

Because of the lack of reliable information, it can only be said that Rameses was likely not far from the Egyptian capital of the time of the Exodus. This would allow for Moses to have been at Pharaoh’s palace on the night of the tenth plague and, before the next day’s end, to begin leading the people of Israel on their march out of Egypt. (Ex 12:31-42; Nu 33:1-5) If the capital was then at Memphis, a city holding that position for many centuries, this would explain the Jewish tradition that the Exodus march (with Rameses as its starting point) began from the neighborhood of Memphis.​—Compare Jewish Antiquities, II, 315 (xv, 1), which refers to Letopolis, a location near Memphis.

(Rabʹbah) [Many; Abundant].

1. A city in the W extremity of the ancient kingdom of Ammon after its loss of territory to the Amorites. Rabbah is the only city of the Ammonite kingdom that is named in the Biblical record, so it is assumed to have been the capital. It lay about 37 km (23 mi) E of the Jordan. The city was on a tributary of the upper Jabbok and was thus in position to benefit from the rich fertility of that region. Also, it was an important link in the trade route between Damascus and Arabia.

“Rabbah of the sons of Ammon” (Rab·bathʹ benehʹ ʽAm·mohnʹ) is first mentioned in the Bible as being the location of the iron bier of Og, king of Bashan. (De 3:11) When the Israelites came to the Promised Land, the tribe of Gad received Amorite land (formerly, it seems, held by Ammon) “as far as Aroer, which is in front of [perhaps to the NE of] Rabbah.”​—Jos 13:25.

Captured by David. The city is mentioned again in connection with war resulting from the abuse of David’s messengers by King Hanun of Ammon. (2Sa 10:1-19; 1Ch 19:1-19) Joab and his troops fought Syrians hired by the Ammonites, while the Israelites under Abishai went up against the Ammonites “at the entrance of the city,” evidently Rabbah. (1Ch 19:9) When the Syrians were defeated, the Ammonites retreated into the city. The next spring Joab and his army besieged Rabbah. It was during this campaign that David in Jerusalem sinned with Bath-sheba. The king sent her husband Uriah the Hittite back to battle, and according to David’s instructions, Uriah was put in the front lines. When some Ammonites sallied forth from Rabbah, the battle brought Uriah close enough to be killed by an archer on the wall.​—2Sa 11:1-25; 1Ch 20:1.

In time Joab succeeded in his fight against Rabbah to the point of capturing “the city of waters.” (2Sa 12:27) Since Joab then informed David of the situation so that the king would come and complete the conquest and thus get credit for capturing Rabbah, it seems that Joab captured only a portion of the city. The expression “city of waters” may refer to a part on the riverbank, as distinguished from some other part of the city, or it may mean that he secured control of the city’s principal water supply.​—2Sa 12:26-28.

David came and completed the capture of Rabbah, and “the spoil of the city that he brought out was very much.” (2Sa 12:29-31; 1Ch 20:2, 3) Eventually the Ammonites became independent again. In the ninth century B.C.E., Amos foretold judgment against the Ammonites and he specifically mentioned that Rabbah would be burned. (Am 1:13, 14) Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel also delivered messages against Rabbah. As shown under AMMONITES, these prophecies were evidently fulfilled in Nebuchadnezzar’s time.​—Jer 49:2, 3; Eze 21:19-23; 25:5.

In the third century B.C.E., Ptolemy Philadelphus rebuilt Rabbah and renamed the city Philadelphia. It was later included among the cities of the Decapolis and apparently was quite prosperous and strong. The modern city of ʽAmman is located here, and there are considerable ancient ruins, including a huge amphitheater, but these date mainly from Roman times.

2. One of the cities given to the tribe of Judah in its territorial allotment. Its exact location is unknown. In Joshua 15:60 it is listed with Kiriath-jearim, which was in the hill country of Judah 13 km (8 mi) WNW of Jerusalem.

The designation “Rabbi” was used in a de facto sense as “teacher.” (Joh 1:38) But among the Jews, shortly before the birth of Jesus, it came to be used also as a form of address and as a title of respect and honor meaning “my great one; my excellent one.” The title was demanded by some of the learned men, scribes, teachers of the Law. They delighted to be called “Rabbi” as an honorary title. Jesus Christ condemned such title-seeking and forbade his followers to be called “Rabbi,” as he was their teacher.​—Mt 23:6-8.

In the Bible the term “Rabbi” is used only in the Christian Greek Scriptures. It is employed 12 times in connection with Jesus, in the de facto sense of “Teacher”: twice by Peter (Mr 9:5; 11:21), once by two disciples of John (Joh 1:38), once by Nathanael (Joh 1:49), once by Nicodemus (Joh 3:2), three times by disciples of Jesus whose names are not specified (Joh 4:31; 9:2; 11:8), once by the crowds (Joh 6:25), and two times by Judas (one instance is repeated) (Mt 26:25, 49; Mr 14:45). Jesus is addressed by Mary Magdalene as “Rabboni” (My Teacher), also by a blind man whom he healed. The personal pronoun “my” is a suffix here, but because of usage it seems to have lost its significance, as in Monsieur, originally meaning “my lord.” (Joh 20:16; Mr 10:51) John the Baptizer is once addressed as Rabbi.​—Joh 3:26.

(Rabʹbith) [Multitude; Abundance].

According to the Masoretic text, a site on Issachar’s boundary. (Jos 19:17, 18, 20) It is thought to be the same as Daberath, identified with Khirbet Dabura (Horvat Devora). (Jos 19:12) Supporting this view is the fact that Vatican Manuscript No. 1209, of the fourth century C.E., has Da·bi·ron in place of “Rabbith.”​—See DABERATH.

(Rab·boʹni).

A Semitic word meaning “My Teacher.” (Mr 10:51) It may be that “Rabboni” was a more respectful form than “Rabbi,” which title of address means “Teacher,” or that it conveyed more personal warmth. (Joh 1:38) However, when John wrote, perhaps the first person suffix (i) on this word had lost its special significance in the title, since John translates it as meaning merely “Teacher.”​—Joh 20:16.

(Rabʹmag).

The title of a major official of the Babylonian Empire at the time that Jerusalem was destroyed in 607 B.C.E. The title has been identified on excavated inscriptions. Nergal-sharezer the Rabmag was one of the men in the special tribunal of high Babylonian princes who sat in judgment in Jerusalem’s Middle Gate after the city fell to Nebuchadnezzar and who is mentioned in connection with Jeremiah’s being released to go to Gedaliah.​—Jer 39:3, 13, 14.

(Rabʹsa·ris) [Chief Court Official].

The title of the chief court official in the Assyrian and Babylonian governments. The Rabsaris was one of the committee of three high Assyrian dignitaries that was sent by the king of Assyria to demand the surrender of Jerusalem in King Hezekiah’s time.​—2Ki 18:17.

The Rabsaris was one of the Babylonian officials taking control of Jerusalem for Nebuchadnezzar when the city fell in 607 B.C.E., and Nebushazban is named as the Rabsaris in connection with Jeremiah’s being directed to dwell with Gedaliah. (Jer 39:3, 13, 14; 40:1-5) Excavations have unearthed inscriptions bearing the title.​—Bulletin of the Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem, 1967, Vol. XXXI, p. 77; Le palais royal d’Ugarit, III, Paris, 1955, No. 16:162, p. 126.

(Rabʹsha·keh) [from Akkadian, probably meaning “Chief Cupbearer”].

The title of a major Assyrian official. (2Ki 18:17) A building inscription of the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III says: “I sent an officer of mine, the rabsaq, to Tyre.” Also, from a tablet in the British Museum an inscription of King Ashurbanipal reads: “I ordered to add to my former (battle-) forces (in Egypt) the rabsaq -officer.”​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 282, 296.

While Sennacherib, the king of Assyria, was laying siege to the Judean fortress of Lachish, he sent a heavy military force to Jerusalem under the Tartan, the commander-in-chief, along with two other high officials, the Rabsaris and the Rabshakeh. (2Ki 18:17; the entire account appears also at Isa chaps 36, 37.) Of these three superior Assyrian officials, Rabshakeh was the chief spokesman in an effort to force King Hezekiah to capitulate in surrender. (2Ki 18:19-25) The three stood by the conduit of the upper pool. This Rabshakeh, whose personal name is not revealed, was a fluent speaker in Hebrew as well as Syrian. He called out in Hebrew to King Hezekiah, but three of Hezekiah’s officials came out to meet him. King Hezekiah’s officers asked Rabshakeh to speak to them in the Syrian language rather than in the Jews’ language because the common people on the wall were listening. (2Ki 18:26, 27) But the situation suited Rabshakeh’s purpose as a propagandist. He wanted the people to hear, with a view to demoralizing their ranks. By words calculated to induce terror, by false promises and lies, by reproach, and by ridicule of Jehovah, Rabshakeh spoke even more loudly in Hebrew, submitting arguments to the people to turn traitor to King Hezekiah by surrendering to the Assyrian army. (2Ki 18:28-35) Nevertheless, the people of Jerusalem remained loyal to Hezekiah.​—2Ki 18:36.

The taunting words of Rabshakeh were taken by Hezekiah to Jehovah in prayer, and a delegation was sent to the prophet Isaiah to receive Jehovah’s reply. (2Ki 18:37; 19:1-7) In the meantime Rabshakeh was quickly called away when he heard that the king of Assyria had pulled away from Lachish and was fighting against Libnah. Keeping up his propaganda campaign against Hezekiah from a distance, Sennacherib sent messengers to Jerusalem with letters of continued taunt and strong threat to bring Hezekiah to surrender. (2Ki 19:8-13) King Hezekiah took the letters to the temple of Jerusalem and spread them before Jehovah along with his urgent prayer for help. (2Ki 19:14-19) Jehovah gave his answer through the prophet Isaiah that the king of Assyria “will not come into this city nor will he shoot an arrow there nor confront it with a shield nor cast up a siege rampart against it. By the way by which he proceeded to come, he will return, and into this city he will not come, is the utterance of Jehovah.” (2Ki 19:32, 33) That night the angel of Jehovah struck down in death 185,000 soldiers of the Assyrians. This unexpected mighty blow caused Sennacherib, the king of Assyria, to withdraw immediately and return to Nineveh, Assyria’s capital, where Sennacherib was assassinated sometime later. (2Ki 19:35-37) As a blasphemous taunter of the living God Jehovah, Rabshakeh’s efforts came to nothing.

(Raʹcal).

One of the places to which David sent spoils from his war with the Amalekites. (1Sa 30:18, 26, 29) The Greek Septuagint has “Carmel” instead of Racal, and some scholars believe this represents the original reading.

See BIBLE (Races and Languages); GAMES; MAN.

(Raʹchel) [Ewe; Female Sheep].

A daughter of Laban, younger sister of Leah, and Jacob’s first cousin and preferred wife. (Ge 29:10, 16, 30) Jacob fled from his murderous brother Esau in 1781 B.C.E., traveling to Haran in Paddan-aram, in “the land of the Orientals.” (Ge 28:5; 29:1) Rachel, a girl “beautiful in form and beautiful of countenance,” served as a shepherdess for her father; she met Jacob at a well near Haran. Jacob was received into his uncle’s household and one month later agreed to serve Laban seven years in order to marry Rachel, with whom he was now in love. His love did not weaken during the seven years, and so these “proved to be like some few days” to him. On the wedding night, however, his uncle substituted the older daughter Leah, who evidently cooperated in carrying out the deceit. The following morning when Jacob accused him of trickery, Laban appealed to local custom as an excuse for his conduct. Jacob agreed to carry out a full marriage week with Leah before receiving Rachel and thereafter to work another seven years for Laban.​—Ge 29:4-28.

Rachel did not disappoint Jacob as his wife, and Jacob showed her more love than Leah. Jehovah now favored Leah in her disadvantaged position, blessing her with four sons, while Rachel remained barren. (Ge 29:29-35) Rachel displayed jealousy of her sister as well as despair over her own infertility, a condition then viewed as a great reproach among women. Her fretful impatience angered even her loving husband. To compensate for her own barrenness, she gave Jacob her maidservant for procreation purposes (as Sarah had done earlier with her slave Hagar), and the two children born as a result were considered Rachel’s. Leah’s maid and Leah herself produced a total of four more sons before Rachel’s hope was finally realized and she brought forth her own first son, Joseph.​—Ge 30:1-24.

Jacob was now ready to depart from Haran, but his father-in-law prevailed upon him to remain longer, and it was six years later that, at God’s direction, Jacob pulled away. Because of Laban’s double-dealing methods, Jacob did not advise him of his departure, and both Leah and Rachel were in agreement with their husband in this. Before leaving, Rachel stole her father’s “teraphim,” evidently some type of idol images. When Laban later caught up with the group and made known the theft (apparently his major concern), Jacob, unaware of Rachel’s guilt, showed his disapproval of the act itself, decreeing death for the offender if that one was found in his entourage. Laban’s search led into Rachel’s tent, but she avoided exposure, claiming to be indisposed because of her menstrual period, while remaining seated on the saddle basket containing the teraphim.​—Ge 30:25-30; 31:4-35, 38.

At his meeting with his brother Esau, Jacob showed his continued preference for Rachel by putting her and her only son last in the order of travel, doubtless viewing this as the safest position in the event of attack by Esau. (Ge 33:1-3, 7) After dwelling for a time in Succoth, then in Shechem, and finally in Bethel, Jacob headed farther south. Somewhere between Bethel and Bethlehem, Rachel gave birth to her second child, Benjamin, but died in childbearing and was buried there, Jacob erecting a pillar to mark the grave.​—Ge 33:17, 18; 35:1, 16-20.

The few details recorded can give only an incomplete picture of Rachel’s personality. She was a worshiper of Jehovah (Ge 30:22-24), but she showed human failings, her theft of the teraphim and her shrewdness in avoiding detection perhaps being at least partly attributable to her family background. Whatever her weaknesses, she was dearly loved by Jacob, who, even in old age, viewed her as having been his true wife and prized her children over all his others. (Ge 44:20, 27-29) His words to Joseph shortly before dying, though simple, nevertheless convey the depth of Jacob’s affection for her. (Ge 48:1-7) She and Leah are spoken of as having “built the house of Israel [Jacob].”​—Ru 4:11.

Archaeological discoveries may shed some light on Rachel’s appropriation of her father’s “teraphim.” (Ge 31:19) Cuneiform tablets found at Nuzi in N Mesopotamia, believed to date from about the middle of the second millennium B.C.E., reveal that some ancient peoples viewed the possession of household gods as representing legal title to inheritance of family property. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 219, 220) Some suggest that Rachel may have felt that Jacob had the right to a share in the inheritance in Laban’s property as an adopted son and that she may have taken the teraphim to ensure this or even to gain advantage over Laban’s sons. Or she may have viewed the possession of these as a means of blocking any legal attempt by her father to claim some of the wealth Jacob had gained while in his service. (Compare Ge 30:43; 31:1, 2, 14-16.) These possibilities, of course, depend upon the existence of such a custom among Laban’s people and upon the teraphim’s actually being such household gods.

Rachel’s grave site “in the territory of Benjamin at Zelzah” was still known in Samuel’s time, some six centuries later. (1Sa 10:2) The traditional location of the grave lies about 1.5 km (1 mi) N of Bethlehem. This, however, would place it in the territory of Judah, not Benjamin. Therefore others suggest a location farther N, but any attempt at being precise is useless today.

Centuries after Rachel’s death, why did the Bible tell of her weeping over her sons in the future?

At Jeremiah 31:15 Rachel is depicted as weeping over her sons who have been carried into the land of the enemy, her lamentation being heard in Ramah (N of Jerusalem in the territory of Benjamin). (See RAMAH No. 1.) Since Ephraim, whose tribal descendants are often used collectively to stand for the northern kingdom of Israel, is mentioned several times in the context (Jer 31:6, 9, 18, 20), some scholars believe this prophecy relates to the exiling of the people of the northern kingdom by the Assyrians. (2Ki 17:1-6; 18:9-11) On the other hand, it might relate to the eventual exiling of both those of Israel and of Judah (the latter by Babylon). In the first case, the figure of Rachel would be very appropriate since she was the maternal ancestor of Ephraim (through Joseph), the most prominent tribe of the northern kingdom. In the second case, Rachel’s being the mother not only of Joseph but also of Benjamin, whose tribe formed part of the southern kingdom of Judah, would make her a fitting symbol of the mothers of all Israel, their bringing forth sons now seeming to have been in vain. Jehovah’s comforting promise, however, was that the exiles would “certainly return from the land of the enemy.”​—Jer 31:16.

This text was quoted by Matthew in connection with the slaughter of infants in Bethlehem at Herod’s order. (Mt 2:16-18) Since Rachel’s grave was at least relatively near Bethlehem (though apparently not at the traditional site), this figure of Rachel weeping was appropriate to express the grief of the mothers of the slain children. But even more so was this quotation of Jeremiah’s prophecy appropriate in view of the similarity of the situation. The Israelites were subject to a foreign power. Their sons had again been taken away. This time, however, “the land of the enemy” into which they had gone was obviously not a political region as in the earlier case. It was the grave, the region ruled over by ‘King Death’ (compare Ps 49:14; Re 6:8), death being called “the last enemy” to be destroyed. (Ro 5:14, 21; 1Co 15:26) Any return from such “exile” would, of course, be by means of a resurrection from the dead.

(Radʹdai).

Jesse’s fifth-named son; an older brother of David in the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 2:13-15.

(Raʹhab).

1. [Heb., Ra·chavʹ, possibly, Wide; Spacious]. A prostitute of Jericho who became a worshiper of Jehovah. In the spring of 1473 B.C.E., two Israelite spies came into Jericho and took up lodging at Rahab’s home. (Jos 2:1) The duration of their stay there is not stated, but Jericho was not so big that it would take a long time to spy it out.

That Rahab really was a harlot, or prostitute, in the common sense of the word has been denied in some circles, especially among Jewish traditionalists, but this does not seem to have support in fact. The Hebrew word zoh·nahʹ always has to do with an illicit relationship, either sexual or as a figure of spiritual unfaithfulness, and in each instance where it denotes a prostitute, it is so translated. It is not rendered “hostess,” “innkeeper,” or the like. Besides, among the Canaanites harlotry was not a business of ill repute.

Rahab’s two guests were recognized as Israelites by others, who reported the matter to the king. However, Rahab quickly hid the men among flax stalks that were drying on the roof so that when the authorities got there to pick the men up she was able to direct them elsewhere without arousing their suspicions. In all of this, Rahab demonstrated greater devotion to the God of Israel than to her own condemned community.​—Jos 2:2-7.

At what point Rahab had become aware of the spies’ purpose there and Israel’s intentions concerning Jericho is uncertain. But she now confessed to them the great fear and dread existing in the city because of reports about Jehovah’s saving acts for Israel over the past 40 years or more. She asked the spies to swear to her for the preservation of herself and her whole family​—father, mother, and all the rest. To this they agreed, provided she gather all the family into her house, hang a scarlet cord from the window, and remain silent concerning their visit, all of which she promised to do. Further protecting the spies, she enabled them to escape through a window (the house being on the city wall) and told them how they could avoid the search party that had headed for the Jordan at the fords.​—Jos 2:8-22.

The spies reported back to Joshua all that had happened. (Jos 2:23, 24) Then when Jericho’s wall fell down, Rahab’s house, “on a side of the wall,” was not destroyed. (Jos 2:15; 6:22) On Joshua’s orders that Rahab’s household be spared, the same two spies brought her out to safety. After a period of separation from Israel’s camp, Rahab and her family were permitted to dwell among the Israelites. (Jos 6:17, 23, 25) This former prostitute then became the wife of Salmon and the mother of Boaz in the royal ancestry of the Davidic kings; she is one of the four women named in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus. (Ru 4:20-22; Mt 1:5, 6) She is also an outstanding example of one who, though not an Israelite, by works proved her complete faith in Jehovah. “By faith,” Paul tells us, “Rahab the harlot did not perish with those who acted disobediently, because she received the spies in a peaceable way.” “Was not also Rahab the harlot declared righteous by works, after she had received the messengers hospitably and sent them out by another way?” asks James.​—Heb 11:30, 31; Jas 2:25.

2. [Heb., Raʹhav, from a root meaning “storm with importunities”]. A symbolic expression first used in Job (9:13; 26:12), where it is translated “stormer.” (NW) In the second of these passages, the context and parallel construction connect it with a great sea monster. Similarly, Isaiah 51:9 links Rahab with a sea monster: “Are you not the one that broke Rahab to pieces, that pierced the sea monster?”

Rahab, a “sea monster,” came to symbolize Egypt and her Pharaoh who opposed Moses and Israel. Isaiah 51:9, 10 alludes to Jehovah’s delivering Israel from Egypt: “Are you not the one that dried up the sea, the waters of the vast deep? The one that made the depths of the sea a way for the repurchased ones to go across?” At Isaiah 30:7 “Rahab” is again connected with Egypt. Psalm 87:4 mentions “Rahab” where Egypt appropriately fits, as the first in a list of Israel’s enemies, along with Babylon, Philistia, Tyre, and Cush. The Targums use “the Egyptians” in this verse, and at Psalm 89:10 they paraphrase “Rahab” in such a way as to link the term with Egypt’s arrogant Pharaoh whom Jehovah humiliated.

(Raʹham) [Vulture].

A son of Shema in the Calebite branch of Judah’s genealogy.​—1Ch 2:4, 5, 9, 42-44.

A vital part of the cycle by which water that rises into the atmosphere as vapor from land and water surfaces of the globe later condenses and falls to the ground, thus providing moisture necessary for plant and animal life. The Bible mentions rain in connection with this wisely arranged and dependable cycle.​—Job 36:27, 28; Ec 1:7; Isa 55:10.

In addition to the general words for rain, a number of Hebrew and Greek terms referring to rain have the various meanings “downpour; pouring rain” (1Ki 18:41; Eze 1:28), “steady rain” (Pr 27:15), “autumn or early rain” and “spring or late rain” (De 11:14; Jas 5:7), “gentle rain” (De 32:2), “rainstorm” (Isa 4:6), and “copious showers” (Ps 65:10).

At an early point in the history of the preparation of the earth, “God had not made it rain upon the earth,” but “a mist would go up from the earth and it watered the entire surface of the ground.” The time referred to is evidently early on the third creative “day,” before vegetation appeared. (Ge 1:9-13; 2:5, 6; see MIST.) The first instance in the Biblical record when rain is specifically mentioned as falling is in the account of the Flood. Then “the floodgates of the heavens were opened,” and “the downpour upon the earth went on for forty days and forty nights.”​—Ge 7:11, 12; 8:2.

Formation. Among the questions that Jehovah put to Job, emphasizing man’s limited understanding of the forces and laws of creation and the earth, was: “Does there exist a father for the rain?” (Job 38:28) Though meteorologists have studied extensively the formation of rain, what have emerged are, as The World Book Encyclopedia says, “theories.” (1987, Vol. 16, pp. 123, 124) As warm air containing water vapor rises and cools, moisture condenses into tiny water droplets. One theory holds that as the larger droplets fall through a cloud, they collide with smaller droplets and combine with them, until they become too heavy for the air to support. Another theory proposes that ice crystals form in cloud tops where the temperature is below the freezing point and change to rain as they fall through warmer air.

Jehovah as a Source. Jehovah was no mere “rain god” for Israel. He was not like Baal, whom the Canaanites thought brought the rainy season with his awakening to life. Faithful Israelites recognized that Jehovah, not Baal, could withhold the precious rain. This was clearly illustrated when Jehovah brought a drought in Israel when Baal worship there was at its peak, in the time of the prophet Elijah.​—1Ki 17:1, 7; Jas 5:17, 18.

It is Jehovah who prepared rain for the earth. (Ps 147:8; Isa 30:23) He “has divided a channel for the flood,” perhaps referring to the way in which God causes clouds to channel rain down over certain parts of the globe. (Job 38:25-27; compare Ps 135:7; Jer 10:13.) His ability to control rain in harmony with his purpose is one of the things that distinguished Jehovah from the lifeless idol gods worshiped by the nations surrounding Israel. (Jer 14:22) In the Promised Land the Israelites had even more reason to appreciate that than when they were in Egypt, where rain was very infrequent.​—De 11:10, 11.

In preaching to the Greeks in Lystra, Paul and Barnabas explained that the rains served as a witness about “the living God” and a demonstration of his goodness. (Ac 14:14-17) The benefits of rain are felt not just by the good and righteous but by all people; so, Jesus pointed out, God’s love in this regard should serve as a pattern for humans.​—Mt 5:43-48.

Rainfall in the Promised Land. A distinct feature of the climate of the Promised Land is its variety as to rainfall. Two chief factors determining the amount of rain are proximity to the sea and the land’s elevation. The plains along the Mediterranean receive considerable rain during the rainy season, with the amount decreasing as one goes from N to S. The rainfall tends to be greater in the hills and mountains because the moisture carried eastward from the sea condenses more heavily there. The Jordan Valley lies in a “rain shadow,” for the air traveling over the mountains has by then given up much of its moisture, and the air is warmed as it moves into the valley. Yet, when this air meets the elevated plateau E of the Jordan, clouds again form, resulting in some rainfall. This makes a strip of land E of the Jordan suitable for grazing or limited agriculture. Farther E is the desert, where the rain is too light and irregular to be useful for raising crops or for grazing herds.

Seasons. The two primary seasons in the Promised Land, summer and winter, can rather accurately be viewed as the dry season and the rainy season. (Compare Ps 32:4; Ca 2:11, ftn.) From about mid-April to mid-October very little rain falls. Rain is rare in this period during which the harvest takes place. Proverbs 26:1 shows that rain at harvesttime was considered quite out of place. (Compare 1Sa 12:17-19.) During the rainy season the rain is not constant; it alternates with clear days. Since this is also the cold period, exposure to the rain is very chilling. (Ezr 10:9, 13) Therefore, a comfortable shelter is most appreciated.​—Isa 4:6; 25:4; 32:2; Job 24:8.

Autumn and spring rain. The Bible mentions “the autumn [early or former] rain and the spring [latter] rain,” which were promised by God as a blessing upon the faithful Israelites. (De 11:14, ftn; Jer 5:24; Joe 2:23, 24) The farmer patiently awaited the rains of these periods between the summer and winter. (Jas 5:7; compare Job 29:23.) The early, or autumn, rain (beginning about mid-October) was anxiously anticipated to relieve the heat and dryness of summer. It was necessary before planting could begin, for the rain softened the ground and allowed the farmer to plow his land. Similarly, the late, or spring, rain (about mid-April) was required to water the growing crops so that they would mature, and particularly so that the grain would ripen.​—Zec 10:1; Am 4:7; Ca 2:11-13.

Figurative Use. When God blessed Israel with rains in their appointed time, an abundance resulted. Hence, Hosea could promise that Jehovah would “come in like a pouring rain,” “like a spring rain that saturates the earth,” for those who sought to know him. (Ho 6:3) God’s instructions were to “drip as the rain” and his sayings as “gentle rains upon grass and as copious showers upon vegetation.” (De 32:2) They would be able to sink in slowly but be sufficient to provide full refreshment, as showers on vegetation. Similarly, a source of refreshment and plenty was depicted in likening the regathered remnant of Jacob to “copious showers upon vegetation.”​—Mic 5:7.

The reign of God’s king described in Psalm 72 would be marked by prosperity and blessing. Consequently, he was represented as descending “like the rain upon the mown grass, like copious showers that wet the earth” and produce fresh vegetation. (Ps 72:1, 6; compare 2Sa 23:3, 4.) The goodwill of a king was likened to “the cloud of spring rain,” for it gave evidence of pleasant conditions to come, just as rain-bearing clouds assured the water necessary for the crops to come to fruition.​—Pr 16:15.

However, the falling rain does not always result in vegetation that is a blessing to the human cultivator; the watered earth may produce thorns and thistles. Paul used this as an example, comparing the rain-watered ground to Christians who have “tasted the heavenly free gift, and who have become partakers of holy spirit.” If they do not produce the fruits of the spirit but fall away from the truth, they are due to be burned, like a field producing only thorns.​—Heb 6:4-8.

In John’s vision in Revelation he saw “two witnesses” with “the authority to shut up heaven that no rain should fall during the days of their prophesying.” (Re 11:3-6) These “witnesses” representing God as ‘prophets,’ or spokesmen, would not pronounce God’s favor or blessing on the plans and works of wicked men on earth. Like Elijah, who announced a three-and-a-half-year drought on Israel because of their practice of Baal worship promoted by King Ahab and his wife Jezebel, so these “two witnesses” figuratively “shut up heaven” so that no refreshing “rain” from God would come to bring prosperity to such efforts of men.​—1Ki 17:1–18:45; Lu 4:25, 26; Jas 5:17, 18.

A semicircular bow, or arc, exhibiting a spectrum of colors; a visible sign of Jehovah’s covenant promise that ‘no more would all flesh be cut off by waters of a deluge, and no more would there occur a deluge to bring the earth to ruin.’ (Ge 9:11-16) There is no separate Hebrew word for rainbow, so the normal word for “bow” (with which to shoot arrows) is used in the Bible.​—Eze 1:28.

Complicated theories and formulas are used to explain the formation of a rainbow. Basically, it seems that as white light enters a raindrop it is refracted and dispersed into different colors, the drop acting like a tiny prism. Each color strikes the inner surface of the drop and is reflected back at a different and specific angle. Thus an observer sees a bow with all seven colors of the spectrum (from the inside of the arc outward: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red), though these may blend so that only four or five are clear. Sometimes a larger and less distinct “secondary” bow is formed with the colors reversed. Scientists are still studying the rainbow. Carl B. Boyer observes: “Within a raindrop the interaction of light energy with matter is so intimate that one is led directly to quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity. . . . Although much is known about the production of the rainbow, little has been learned about its perception.”​—The Rainbow, From Myth to Mathematics, 1959, pp. 320, 321.

The first Biblical reference to a rainbow is in the account of the covenant God made with Noah and his offspring after the Flood survivors came out of the ark. (Ge 9:8-17; Isa 54:9, 10) This splendid sight of itself would have been reassuring and an indication of peace to Noah and his family.

Many opinions have been offered as to whether this was the first time humans saw a rainbow. Some commentators have held that rainbows had been seen before and that God’s ‘giving’ the rainbow at this time was really a ‘giving’ of special meaning or significance to a previously existing phenomenon. Many of those holding this view believe that the Flood was only local or did not substantially change the atmosphere.

Nevertheless, this is the first mention of a rainbow, and if a rainbow had been seen earlier, there would have been no real force in God’s making it an outstanding sign of his covenant. It would have been commonplace, and not a significant marker of a change, of something new.

The Bible does not describe the degree of clarity of the atmosphere just prior to the Flood. But apparently atmospheric conditions were such that, until a change came about when “the floodgates of the heavens were opened” (Ge 7:11), no others before Noah and his family had seen a rainbow. Even today, atmospheric conditions affect whether a rainbow can be seen or not.

The glory, beauty, and peacefulness of a rainbow that appears after a storm are drawn upon in Biblical descriptions of God and his throne. In Ezekiel’s vision of God, the prophet saw “something like the appearance of the bow that occurs in a cloud mass on the day of a pouring rain.” This emphasized “the glory of Jehovah.” (Eze 1:28) Similarly, John saw Jehovah’s throne of splendor, and ‘round about it there was a rainbow like an emerald in appearance.’ The restful emerald-green color of the rainbow would have suggested composure and serenity to John, and appropriately so since Jehovah is the master of every situation, a glorious Ruler. (Re 4:3) John also saw an angel with ‘a rainbow upon his head’ (Re 10:1), which may suggest that he was a special representative of “the God of peace.”​—Php 4:9.

(Rakʹkath).

A fortified city of Naphtali. (Jos 19:32, 35) It is identified with Khirbet el-Quneitireh (Tel Raqqat), located on the Sea of Galilee a short distance N of Tiberias.

(Rakʹkon).

A city listed when describing the border of Dan. (Jos 19:40, 41, 46) It is tentatively identified by some with Tell er-Reqqeit, a short distance N of Tel Aviv-Yafo, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.

[High].

1. A descendant of Judah through Perez and Hezron; he lived while Israel was in Egypt. Though Ram was apparently not the first son of Hezron, Ram’s genealogy, leading to the Davidic line, is listed first among the three sons of Hezron. (1Ch 2:4, 5, 9-17, 25) Having Nahshon, Boaz, and David among his descendants, Ram was an ancestor of Jesus. (Nu 1:7; Ru 4:18-22; Mt 1:3, 4) His name is spelled Arni (Aram in some manuscripts) in Luke’s ancestry of Jesus.​—Lu 3:33.

2. The firstborn son of Jerahmeel and nephew of No. 1. He fathered three sons.​—1Ch 2:9, 25, 27.

3. Founder of Elihu’s family.​—Job 32:2.

(Raʹmah) [Height].

The Hebrew word signifies a height or a high place. (Eze 16:24) It was used as a proper name for a number of locations in Israel.

1. A city in the territory of Benjamin. In Joshua 18:25 it is listed between Gibeon and Beeroth. Apparently it was near Bethel, which city was in the S of Ephraim’s territory. (Jg 4:5) A Levite traveling N past Jerusalem came to Gibeah, with Ramah evidently just beyond. (Jg 19:11-15; Ho 5:8) And it was in the neighborhood of Geba. (Isa 10:29) These references combine with testimony of Eusebius in identifying Ramah in Benjamin with the locality of modern er-Ram, which is about 8 km (5 mi) N of Jerusalem, 3 km (2 mi) N of Gibeah, 5 km (3 mi) E of Gibeon, and 3 km (2 mi) W of Geba. The city is on an elevation, as the name implies.

During the divided kingdom, Ramah came in for considerable attention, located, as it was, near the border between Israel and Judah and the N-S road of the hill country. King Baasha of Israel began to expand or fortify Ramah in Benjamin while warring against Asa. (1Ki 15:16, 17; 2Ch 16:1) But when the king of Syria attacked Israel from the N, Baasha’s attention was diverted and Asa took Ramah as well as the building materials Baasha had been using there, using these to build up neighboring Geba and Mizpah. (1Ki 15:20-22; 2Ch 16:4-6) It appears that, when Jerusalem was destroyed in 607 B.C.E., the Jews taken captive were assembled in Ramah before being moved to Babylon. (Jer 40:1) After the exile Ramah was repopulated.​—Ezr 2:1, 26; Ne 7:30; 11:33.

Some scholars have concluded that such an assembling of Jews at Ramah before taking them into exile (perhaps accompanied by the slaughtering of some there) was referred to with the words: “In Ramah a voice is being heard, lamentation and bitter weeping; Rachel weeping over her sons. She has refused to be comforted over her sons, because they are no more.” (Jer 31:15) Jacob’s wife Rachel had so desired children as to consider herself “dead” without them. (Ge 30:1) So now Rachel might be spoken of figuratively as weeping over the loss of the Jews in death or captivity. Or, since Rachel was the mother of Benjamin, Jeremiah’s words may represent her as weeping particularly over the Benjamite inhabitants of Ramah. Jeremiah went on to explain that hope existed, for the exiles would return. (Jer 31:16) At Matthew 2:18, the prophetic words in Jeremiah 31:15 are quoted as applying also to the time when Herod had young children of Bethlehem slaughtered.​—See RACHEL.

2. An enclave city of the tribe of Simeon in the Negeb. (Jos 19:1, 8) It was the same as Baalath-beer and was known as “Ramah of the south.” It is tentatively identified with Khirbet Ghazzah (Horvat ʽUza), about 30 km (19 mi) E of Beer-sheba.​—See BAALATH-BEER.

3. An unidentified city in the territory of Asher listed only in Joshua 19:24, 29. It is difficult from the text to determine exactly where in Asher’s inheritance the city was located, though it seems to have been N toward Tyre.

4. A fortified city in Naphtali’s territory. (Jos 19:32, 36) It is tentatively identified with Khirbet Zeitun er-Rameh (also known as Khirbet Jul) just E of er-Rameh (Rama) and about 30 km (19 mi) E of the seaport city of ʽAkko (Acco). But the single reference to it in Joshua does not allow for positive identification of its location.

5. The hometown of the prophet Samuel and his parents. In 1 Samuel 1:1, Samuel’s father Elkanah is described as a “man of Ramathaim-zophim of the mountainous region of Ephraim.” Throughout the rest of the account the shortened form “Ramah” is used. (1Sa 1:19) Perhaps the longer name is first used to distinguish this Ramah from other places of the same name, such as Ramah in Benjamin. An American Translation reads: “man of Ramah, a Zuphite.” This rendering of the Masoretic text would indicate that Elkanah was either a descendant of Zuph (Zophai) or from the district of Zuph.​—1Ch 6:27, 28, 34, 35; 1Sa 9:5.

An ancient tradition presented by Eusebius identifies Ramah with the location of modern Rentis (Rantis), in the hills of Ephraim about 35 km (22 mi) NW of Jerusalem. This would be the same place as the Arimathea (Gr. form of Heb. Ra·mahʹ) mentioned in the Christian Greek Scriptures.​—Lu 23:50-53.

Elkanah made his home in Ramah, where Samuel evidently was born, but each year he traveled to Shiloh to sacrifice. (1Sa 1:3, 19; 2:11) Though Samuel lived with Eli the priest at Shiloh for some time, eventually he took up residence at Ramah and used it as a base from which he traveled in a circuit judging Israel. (1Sa 3:19-21; 7:15-17; 8:4; 15:24-35; 16:4, 13; 19:18-24) When Samuel died he was buried at his house in Ramah, “his own city.”​—1Sa 25:1; 28:3.

6. A shortened form for Ramoth-gilead.​—2Ki 8:28, 29; 2Ch 22:5, 6; see RAMOTH-GILEAD.

(Ra·math·aʹim-zoʹphim).

The home of Elkanah, father of Samuel, in the mountainous region of Ephraim.​—1Sa 1:1; see RAMAH No. 5.

(Raʹmath·ite) [Of (Belonging to) Ramah].

A designation for Shimei, the vineyard keeper of King David. (1Ch 27:27) It indicates that he was from one of the several towns named Ramah, but there is no way of determining which one.

(Raʹmath-leʹhi) [Lofty Place of the Jawbone].

The name Samson gave the site in Judah where he struck down a thousand Philistines with the moist jawbone of an ass.​—Jg 15:16-18; see LEHI.

(Raʹmath-mizʹpeh) [Lofty Place of the Watchtower].

One of the cities E of the Jordan given to the tribe of Gad. (Jos 13:24, 26) Evidently Ramath-mizpeh was near Betonim.

See RAAMSES, RAMESES.

(Ra·miʹah) [possibly, Jah Is High (Exalted)].

An Israelite, one of “the sons of Parosh” who sent away their foreign wives and sons at the encouragement of Ezra.​—Ezr 10:10, 11, 25, 44.

(Raʹmoth) [probably, Lofty Places; from a root meaning “rise”].

1. A Levite city in the territory of Issachar. (1Ch 6:71-73) It is apparently the same as Remeth and Jarmuth (No. 2). (Jos 19:17, 21; 21:27-29) Ramoth is tentatively identified with Kokab el-Hawa (Kokhav ha-Yarden), on a tableland about 10 km (6 mi) N of Beth-shean.

2. “Ramoth of the south” at 1 Samuel 30:27 apparently refers to the “Baalath-beer, Ramah of the south” mentioned at Joshua 19:8. Its location was evidently in the Negeb.​—See RAMAH No. 2.

3. A city in Gilead, east of the Jordan River. (Jos 20:8) In time it came to be called Ramoth-gilead.​—See RAMOTH-GILEAD.

(Raʹmoth-gilʹe·ad) [probably, Lofty Places of Gilead].

A strategic city in the territory of Gad, E of the Jordan. The city was also called by the shortened form Ramah. (2Ki 8:28, 29; 2Ch 22:5, 6) It was one of the Levite cities on that side of the river (1Ch 6:80), and it was selected as one of the cities of refuge. (De 4:43; Jos 20:8; 21:38) Solomon appointed a deputy in Ramoth-gilead to care for providing food for the king from cities in Gilead and Bashan.​—1Ki 4:7, 13.

When, after the division of the kingdom, Syria made attacks on Israel, Ramoth-gilead played an important part in Israelite history, evidently being sort of a key to the territory E of the Jordan. At some point the Syrians took the city. Despite the promise of Ben-hadad II to return the Israelite cities that had been taken earlier, apparently Ramoth-gilead was not returned. (1Ki 20:34) Hence, Ahab of Israel attempted to recover it, with the aid of King Jehoshaphat of Judah. This effort, which Micaiah counseled against, resulted in Ahab’s death.​—1Ki 22:13-38.

Ahab’s son Jehoram, along with Ahaziah of Judah, also fought the Syrians at Ramoth-gilead. Second Kings 9:14 says: “Jehoram himself had happened to be keeping guard at Ramoth-gilead . . . because of Hazael the king of Syria.” So it may be that Jehoram had taken the city earlier and was defending it (not attacking it) when Ahaziah joined him in the fight against Hazael. In the fighting, Jehoram was wounded and he retired to Jezreel to recover.​—2Ki 8:25–29; 9:14, 15; 2Ch 22:5-8.

At Ramoth-gilead, Elisha’s attendant anointed Jehu, the military chief, to be the next king.​—2Ki 9:1-14.

The exact location of Ramoth-gilead is uncertain. One of many suggested locations is Tell Ramith, about 45 km (28 mi) SE of the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee. The name of this tell could have been derived from the name Ramoth-gilead. It is on a hill overlooking a plain, which agrees with the probable meaning of Ramoth (Lofty Places; from a root meaning “rise”). The location would have been appropriate for a deputy responsible for Gilead and Bashan.​—1Ki 4:13.

A mound of earth or stones, or even a wall, raised as a fortification around a place.

The siege rampart (Heb., so·lelahʹ) was a mound of earth (and sometimes stones) cast up by an army to form an inclined plane for bringing battering rams and other siege equipment against a fortified city. (2Sa 20:15) The Assyrian king Sennacherib cast up a siege rampart against Lachish. Excavations at Lachish show that this rampart consisted mainly of stones bound together by a large quantity of mortar. However, Sennacherib was not able to cast up a siege rampart against Jerusalem.​—2Ki 19:32.

Siege ramparts were to be thrown up by Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon against Jerusalem and against Tyre. (Jer 6:6; Eze 21:22; 26:7, 8) The siege against Jerusalem was illustrated prophetically when Ezekiel was directed to engrave a model of Jerusalem on a brick and build a siege rampart against it.​—Eze 4:1, 2.

The rampart (Heb., ma·tsohrʹ) mentioned at Zechariah 9:3, 4 apparently has reference to the strong fortifications of Tyre, which consisted of high walls constructed of large blocks of stone. The city of Babylon was unusually strong, having an inner rampart and an outer rampart, both of them made of bricks.​—See BABYLON No. 1.

In some instances the rampart (Heb., chehl) that a city had as a part of its fortifications was built from the earth dug up when a moat was excavated around the city. The rampart rising from the moat at Hazor was about 15 m (50 ft) high. This made the top of the rampart nearly 30 m (100 ft) from the bottom of the moat. The city of Jerusalem had its own fortifications, including a rampart.​—Ps 122:7; 48:13; see FORTIFICATIONS.

Divine help or “salvation” may serve as a sure protection, comparable to walls and a rampart. Thus, with apparent reference to Jerusalem, Isaiah 26:1 says what Jehovah God would do for the city: “He sets salvation itself for walls and rampart.”

A price paid to buy back or to bring about release from some obligation or undesirable circumstance. The basic idea of “ransom” is a price that covers (as in payment for damages or to satisfy justice), while “redemption” emphasizes the releasing accomplished as a result of the ransom paid. The most significant ransom price is the shed blood of Jesus Christ, which made deliverance from sin and death possible for the offspring of Adam.

In the various Hebrew and Greek terms translated “ransom” and “redeem,” the inherent similarity lies in the idea of a price, or thing of value, given to effect the ransom, or redemption. The thought of exchange, as well as that of correspondency, equivalence, or substitution, is common in all. That is, one thing is given for another, satisfying the demands of justice and resulting in a balancing of matters.​—See RECONCILIATION.

A Price That Covers. The Hebrew noun koʹpher comes from the verb ka·pharʹ, meaning, basically, “cover,” as in Noah’s covering the ark with tar. (Ge 6:14) Ka·pharʹ, however, is used almost entirely to describe the satisfying of justice through the covering of or atoning for sins. The noun koʹpher refers to the thing given to accomplish this, the ransom price. (Ps 65:3; 78:38; 79:8, 9) A covering corresponds to the thing it covers, either in its form (as in a material lid, such as the “cover [kap·poʹreth]” of the ark of the covenant; Ex 25:17-22), or in its value (as in a payment to cover the damages caused by an injury).

As a means for balancing justice and setting matters straight with his people Israel, Jehovah, in the Law covenant, designated various sacrifices and offerings to atone for, or cover, sins, including those of the priests and the Levites (Ex 29:33-37; Le 16:6, 11), of other individuals, or of the nation as a whole (Le 1:4; 4:20, 26, 31, 35), as well as to purify the altar and tabernacle, making atonement because of the sins of the people surrounding these. (Le 16:16-20) In effect, the life of the animal sacrificed went in place of the life of the sinner, its blood making atonement on God’s altar, that is, to the extent that it could. (Le 17:11; compare Heb 9:13, 14; 10:1-4.) The “day of atonement [yohm hak·kip·pu·rimʹ]” could just as properly be referred to as the “day of the ransoms.” (Le 23:26-28) These sacrifices were required if the nation and its worship were to have and maintain the acceptance and approval of the righteous God.

Well illustrating the sense of a redeeming exchange is the law regarding a bull known to gore. If the owner allowed the bull to go loose so that it killed someone, the owner was to be put to death, paying for the life of the slain person with his own life. However, since he did not deliberately or directly kill another, if the judges viewed it proper to impose upon him a “ransom [koʹpher]” instead, then he must pay that redemption price. The sum assessed and paid was viewed as taking the place of his own life and compensating for the life lost. (Ex 21:28-32; compare De 19:21.) On the other hand, no ransom could be accepted for the deliberate murderer; only his own life could cover the death of the victim. (Nu 35:31-33) Evidently because a census involved lives, at the time such was taken each male over 20 had to have a ransom (koʹpher) of half a shekel ($1.10) given for his soul to Jehovah, the same price applying whether the individual was rich or poor.​—Ex 30:11-16.

Since any imbalance of justice is displeasing to God, as well as among humans, the ransom, or covering, could have the additional effect of averting or quelling anger. (Compare Jer 18:23; also Ge 32:20, where “appease” translates ka·pharʹ.) The husband enraged at the man committing adultery with his wife, however, refuses any “ransom [koʹpher].” (Pr 6:35) The term may also be used with regard to those who should execute justice but who instead accept a bribe or gift as “hush money [koʹpher]” to cover over the wrongdoing in their sight.​—1Sa 12:3; Am 5:12.

The Redemption, or Releasing. The Hebrew verb pa·dhahʹ means “redeem,” and the related noun pidh·yohnʹ means “redemption price.” (Ex 21:30) These terms evidently emphasize the releasing accomplished by the redemption price, while ka·pharʹ places stress on the quality or content of the price and its efficacy in balancing the scales of justice. The releasing, or redeeming (pa·dhahʹ), may be from slavery (Le 19:20; De 7:8), from other distressing or oppressive conditions (2Sa 4:9; Job 6:23; Ps 55:18), or from death and the grave. (Job 33:28; Ps 49:15) Frequent reference is made to Jehovah’s redeeming the nation of Israel from Egypt to be his “private property” (De 9:26; Ps 78:42) and to his redeeming them from Assyrian and Babylonian exile many centuries later. (Isa 35:10; 51:11; Jer 31:11, 12; Zec 10:8-10) Here, too, the redemption involved a price, an exchange. In redeeming Israel from Egypt, Jehovah evidently caused the price to be paid by Egypt. Israel was, in effect, God’s “firstborn,” and Jehovah warned Pharaoh that his stubborn refusal to release Israel would cause the life of Pharaoh’s firstborn and the firstborn of all Egypt, human and animals, to be exacted. (Ex 4:21-23; 11:4-8) Similarly, in return for Cyrus’ overthrow of Babylon and his liberation of the Jews from their exiled state, Jehovah gave “Egypt as a ransom [form of koʹpher] for [his people], Ethiopia and Seba” in their place. The Persian Empire thus later conquered those regions, and so ‘national groups were given in place of the Israelites’ souls.’ (Isa 43:1-4) These exchanges are in harmony with the inspired declaration that the “wicked is [or serves as] a ransom [koʹpher] for the righteous one; and the one dealing treacherously takes the place of the upright ones.”​—Pr 21:18.

Another Hebrew term associated with redemption is ga·ʼalʹ, and this conveys primarily the thought of reclaiming, recovering, or repurchasing. (Jer 32:7, 8) Its similarity to pa·dhahʹ is seen by its parallel use with that term at Hosea 13:14: “From the hand of Sheol I shall redeem [form of pa·dhahʹ] them; from death I shall recover [form of ga·ʼalʹ] them.” (Compare Ps 69:18.) Ga·ʼalʹ gives emphasis to the right of reclaiming or repurchasing, either by a near kinsman of a person whose property or whose very person needed to be repurchased or reclaimed, or by the original owner or seller himself. A near kinsman, called a go·ʼelʹ, was thus “a repurchaser” (Ru 2:20; 3:9, 13) or, in cases where a murder was involved, a “blood avenger.”​—Nu 35:12.

The Law provided that in the case of a poor Israelite whose circumstances forced him to sell his hereditary lands, his city house, or even to sell himself into servitude, “a repurchaser closely related to him,” or go·ʼelʹ, had the right to “buy back [ga·ʼalʹ] what his brother sold,” or the seller could do so himself if funds became available to him. (Le 25:23-27, 29-34, 47-49; compare Ru 4:1-15.) If a man should make a vow offering to God of a house or a field and then desire to buy it back, he had to pay the valuation placed on the property plus a fifth in addition to that estimated value. (Le 27:14-19) However, no exchange could be made for anything “devoted to destruction.”​—Le 27:28, 29.

In the case of murder, the murderer was not allowed sanctuary in the appointed cities of refuge but, after the judicial hearing, was turned over by the judges to the “avenger [go·ʼelʹ] of blood,” a near kinsman of the victim, who then put the murderer to death. Since no “ransom [koʹpher]” was allowed for the murderer and since the near kinsman with right of repurchase could not reclaim or recover the life of his dead relative, he rightfully claimed the life of the one who had taken his relative’s life by murder.​—Nu 35:9-32; De 19:1-13.

Not Always a Tangible Price. As has been shown, Jehovah “redeemed” (pa·dhahʹ) or ‘reclaimed’ (ga·ʼalʹ) Israel from Egypt. (Ex 6:6; Isa 51:10, 11) Later, because the Israelites kept “selling themselves to do what was bad” (2Ki 17:16, 17), Jehovah on several occasions ‘sold them into the hands of their enemies.’ (De 32:30; Jg 2:14; 3:8; 10:7; 1Sa 12:9) Their repentance caused him to buy them back, or reclaim them, out of distress or exile (Ps 107:2, 3; Isa 35:9, 10; Mic 4:10), thereby performing the work of a Go·ʼelʹ, a Repurchaser related to them inasmuch as he had espoused the nation to himself. (Isa 43:1, 14; 48:20; 49:26; 50:1, 2; 54:5-7) In ‘selling’ them, Jehovah was not paid some material compensation by the pagan nations. His payment was the satisfaction of his justice and the fulfillment of his purpose to have them corrected and disciplined for their rebellion and disrespect.​—Compare Isa 48:17, 18.

God’s ‘repurchasing’ likewise need not involve the payment of something tangible. When Jehovah repurchased the Israelites exiled in Babylon, Cyrus willingly liberated them, without tangible compensation in his lifetime. However, when redeeming his people from oppressor nations that had acted with malice against Israel, Jehovah exacted the price from the oppressors themselves, making them pay with their own lives. (Compare Ps 106:10, 11; Isa 41:11-14; 49:26.) When the people of the kingdom of Judah were “sold,” or delivered over, to the Babylonians, Jehovah received no personal compensation. And the deported Jews did not pay money either to the Babylonians or to Jehovah to buy back their freedom. It was “for nothing” that they were sold and “without money” that they were repurchased. Jehovah therefore needed to make no payment to their captors to balance matters out. Instead, he effected the repurchase through the power of “his holy arm.”​—Isa 52:3-10; Ps 77:14, 15.

Jehovah’s role of Go·ʼelʹ thus embraced the avenging of wrongs done to his servants and resulted in the clearing of his own name of the charges raised by those who used Israel’s distress as an excuse to reproach him. (Ps 78:35; Isa 59:15-20; 63:3-6, 9) As the Great Kinsman and Redeemer of both the nation and its individuals, he conducted their “legal case” to effect justice.​—Ps 119:153, 154; Jer 50:33, 34; La 3:58-60; compare Pr 23:10, 11.

Though living before and outside the nation of Israel, the disease-stricken Job said: “I myself well know that my redeemer is alive, and that, coming after me, he will rise up over the dust.” (Job 19:25; compare Ps 69:18; 103:4.) Following God’s own example, Israel’s king was to act as a redeemer in behalf of the lowly and poor ones of the nation.​—Ps 72:1, 2, 14.

Christ Jesus’ Role as Ransomer. The foregoing information lays the basis for understanding the ransom provided for humankind through God’s Son, Christ Jesus. Mankind’s need for a ransom came about through the rebellion in Eden. Adam sold himself to do evil for the selfish pleasure of keeping continued company with his wife, now a sinful transgressor, so he shared the same condemned standing with her before God. He thereby sold himself and his descendants into slavery to sin and to death, the price that God’s justice required. (Ro 5:12-19; compare Ro 7:14-25.) Having possessed human perfection, Adam lost this valuable possession for himself and all his offspring.

The Law, which had “a shadow of the good things to come,” provided for animal sacrifices as a covering for sin. This, however, was only a symbolic or token covering, since such animals were inferior to man; hence, it was “not possible for the blood of bulls and of goats [actually] to take sins away,” as the apostle points out. (Heb 10:1-4) Those pictorial animal sacrifices had to be without blemish, perfect specimens. (Le 22:21) The real ransom sacrifice, a human actually capable of removing sins, must therefore also be perfect, free from blemish. He would have to correspond to the perfect Adam and possess human perfection, if he were to pay the price of redemption that would release Adam’s offspring from the debt, disability, and enslavement into which their first father Adam had sold them. (Compare Ro 7:14; Ps 51:5.) Only thereby could he satisfy God’s perfect justice that requires like for like, a ‘soul for a soul.’​—Ex 21:23-25; De 19:21.

The strictness of God’s justice made it impossible for mankind itself to provide its own redeemer. (Ps 49:6-9) However, this results in the magnifying of God’s own love and mercy in that he met his own requirements at tremendous cost to himself, giving the life of his own Son to provide the redemption price. (Ro 5:6-8) This required his Son’s becoming human to correspond to the perfect Adam. God accomplished this by transferring his Son’s life from heaven to the womb of the Jewish virgin Mary. (Lu 1:26-37; Joh 1:14) Since Jesus did not owe his life to any human father descended from the sinner Adam, and since God’s holy spirit ‘overshadowed’ Mary, evidently from the time she conceived until the time of Jesus’ birth, Jesus was born free from any inheritance of sin or imperfection, being, as it were, “an unblemished and spotless lamb,” whose blood could prove to be an acceptable sacrifice. (Lu 1:35; Joh 1:29; 1Pe 1:18, 19) He maintained that sinless state throughout his life and thus did not disqualify himself. (Heb 4:15; 7:26; 1Pe 2:22) As a ‘sharer of blood and flesh,’ he was a near kinsman of mankind and he had the thing of value, his own perfect life maintained pure through tests of integrity, with which to repurchase mankind, emancipate them.​—Heb 2:14, 15.

The Christian Greek Scriptures make clear that the release from sin and death is indeed by the paying of a price. Christians are said to be “bought with a price” (1Co 6:20; 7:23), having an “owner that bought them” (2Pe 2:1), and Jesus is presented as the Lamb who ‘was slaughtered and with his blood bought persons for God out of every tribe, tongue, and nation.’ (Re 5:9) In these texts the verb a·go·raʹzo is used, meaning simply “buy at the market [a·go·raʹ].” The related e·xa·go·raʹzo (release by purchase) is used by Paul in showing that Christ released “by purchase those under law” through his death on the stake. (Ga 4:5; 3:13) But the thought of redemption or ransoming is more frequently and more fully expressed by the Greek lyʹtron and related terms.

Lyʹtron (from the verb lyʹo, meaning “loose”) was especially used by Greek writers to refer to a price paid to ransom prisoners of war or to release those in slavery. (Compare Heb 11:35.) In its two Scriptural occurrences it describes Christ’s giving “his soul a ransom in exchange for many.” (Mt 20:28; Mr 10:45) The related word an·tiʹly·tron appears at 1 Timothy 2:6. Parkhurst’s Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament says it means: “a ransom, price of redemption, or rather a correspondent ransom.” He quotes Hyperius as saying: “It properly signifies a price by which captives are redeemed from the enemy; and that kind of exchange in which the life of one is redeemed by the life of another.” He concludes by saying: “So Aristotle uses the verb [an·ti·ly·troʹo] for redeeming life by life.” (London, 1845, p. 47) Thus Christ “gave himself a corresponding ransom for all.” (1Ti 2:5, 6) Other related words are ly·troʹo·mai, “loose by ransom” (Tit 2:14; 1Pe 1:18, 19), and a·po·lyʹtro·sis, “a releasing by ransom.” (Eph 1:7, 14; Col 1:14) The similarity of the usage of these words with that of the Hebrew terms considered is evident. They describe, not an ordinary purchase or releasing, but a redeeming or ransoming, a deliverance effected by payment of a corresponding price.

Though available to all, Christ’s ransom sacrifice is not accepted by all, and “the wrath of God remains” upon those not accepting it, as it also comes upon those who first accept and then turn away from that provision. (Joh 3:36; Heb 10:26-29; contrast Ro 5:9, 10.) They gain no deliverance from the enslavement to Kings Sin and Death. (Ro 5:21) Under the Law the deliberate murderer could not be ransomed. Adam, by his willful course, brought death on all mankind, hence was a murderer. (Ro 5:12) Thus, the sacrificed life of Jesus is not acceptable to God as a ransom for the sinner Adam.

But God is pleased to approve the application of the ransom to redeem those of Adam’s offspring who avail themselves of such a release. As Paul states, “as through the disobedience of the one man many were constituted sinners, likewise also through the obedience of the one person many will be constituted righteous.” (Ro 5:18, 19) At the time of Adam’s sin and his being sentenced to death, his offspring or race were all unborn in his loins and so all died with him. (Compare Heb 7:4-10.) Jesus as a perfect man, “the last Adam” (1Co 15:45), was the only human capable of providing the redemption price for Adam’s unborn offspring. He willingly offered himself to die innocently as a perfect human sacrifice, in harmony with Jehovah’s will. (Heb 10:5) Jesus will make use of the authority granted by Jehovah on the basis of his ransom to give life to all those who accept this provision.​—1Co 15:45; compare Ro 5:15-17.

Thus, Jesus was indeed “a corresponding ransom,” not for the redemption of the one sinner, Adam, but for the redemption of all mankind descended from Adam. He repurchased them so that they could become his family, doing this by presenting the full value of his ransom sacrifice to the God of absolute justice in heaven. (Heb 9:24) He thereby gains a Bride, a heavenly congregation formed of his followers. (Compare Eph 5:23-27; Re 1:5, 6; 5:9, 10; 14:3, 4.) Messianic prophecies also show he will have “offspring” as an “Eternal Father.” (Isa 53:10-12; 9:6, 7) To be such, his ransom must embrace more than those of his “Bride.” In addition to those “bought from among mankind as firstfruits” to form that heavenly congregation, therefore, others are to benefit from his ransom sacrifice and gain everlasting life through the removal of their sins and accompanying imperfection. (Re 14:4; 1Jo 2:1, 2) Since those of the heavenly congregation serve with Christ as priests and “kings over the earth,” such other recipients of the ransom benefits must be earthly subjects of Christ’s Kingdom, and as children of an “Eternal Father” they attain everlasting life. (Re 5:10; 20:6; 21:2-4, 9, 10; 22:17; compare Ps 103:2-5.) The entire arrangement manifests Jehovah’s wisdom and his righteousness in perfectly balancing the scales of justice while showing undeserved kindness and forgiving sins.​—Ro 3:21-26.

Rape is defined as unlawful sexual intercourse without the woman’s consent, effected by force, duress, intimidation, or deception as to the nature of the act.

Jehovah warned of the consequences that would come upon Israel if the people disobeyed his law. He foretold that, besides suffering sicknesses and calamities, they would fall into the hands of their enemies, and he said: “You will become engaged to a woman, but another man will rape [form of sha·ghalʹ] her.” (De 28:30) This took place when, because of their disobedience, Jehovah removed his protection from the nation, and the pagan enemies overran their cities. (Compare Zec 14:2.) Babylon was also foretold to suffer such treatment, which occurred when it fell to the Medes and Persians. (Isa 13:1, 16) According to the Law, such would not happen to nations subjugated by Israel, for the soldiers were forbidden to have sexual relations during a military campaign.​—1Sa 21:5; 2Sa 11:6-11.

A case of multiple rape in the city of Gibeah of Benjamin in the days of the Judges set off a chain of events in retribution, which resulted in nearly wiping out the tribe of Benjamin. Good-for-nothing men in the city, perverted in sex desires, demanded to have sex relations with a Levite visitor. Instead of submitting, he gave them his concubine who had previously committed fornication against him. The men abused her all night until she died. The Hebrew term ʽa·nahʹ, rendered “rape” in this account, also has the meanings “afflict,” “humiliate,” and “oppress.”​—Jg chaps 19, 20.

King David’s son Amnon forcibly violated his half sister Tamar, for which Tamar’s brother Absalom brought about his death. (2Sa 13:1-18) When the scheming Haman the Agagite was exposed before the Persian king Ahasuerus for his treachery against the Jews, and especially against Ahasuerus’ queen, Esther, the king was enraged. Knowing that he could expect no mercy from the king, Haman in desperation fell down upon the couch where Esther was lying, pleading with her. When the king reentered the room, he saw Haman there and cried out: “Is there also to be a raping of the queen, with me in the house?” Immediately he sentenced Haman to death. The sentence was carried out, and evidently afterward Haman was hanged on the stake that had been erected by Haman for the hanging of Esther’s cousin Mordecai. (Es 7:1-10) In the record of the king’s statement (Es 7:8) the Hebrew word ka·vashʹ is used; it means “subdue, subject” (Ge 1:28; Jer 34:16) but can also mean “rape.”

Under the Law, if an engaged girl committed fornication with another man, both she and the man were to be put to death. But if the girl screamed for help, this was taken as proof of her innocence. The man was put to death for his sin in which he forced her, and the girl was exonerated.​—De 22:23-27.

(Raʹpha) [from a root meaning “heal”].

A son of Benjamin, called his fifth at 1 Chronicles 8:1, 2. His name is absent from the list of those who went into Egypt (Ge 46:21) and from the listing of Benjamin’s tribal families. (Nu 26:38-40) This may indicate that, regardless of where Rapha was born, he died soon with no descendants, or else they were absorbed into a different family.

(Raʹphah) [shortened form of Rephaiah, meaning “Jah Has Healed”].

A descendant of Benjamin through Saul; also called Rephaiah.​—1Ch 8:33-37; 9:43.

(Raʹphu) [from a root meaning “heal”].

A Benjamite whose son Palti was one of the 12 to spy out the land of Canaan in 1512 B.C.E.​—Nu 13:9, 16.

[Heb., ʽo·revʹ; Gr., koʹrax].

The first bird specifically named in the Bible. (Ge 8:7) The largest of the crowlike birds, the raven measures about 0.6 m (2 ft) in length and may have a wingspan of more than 1 m (3 ft). Its glossy plumage is notable for its jet-black color (Ca 5:11) with iridescent steel-blue and purple hues, the underparts at times having a touch of green. It has an extremely wide range of diet, eating anything from nuts, berries, and grains to rodents, reptiles, fish, and young birds. Though it will attack the young and weak among small animals, it is primarily a scavenger. When eating carrion it has the habit of eating the eyes and other soft parts of the victim before tearing at the abdomen with its sturdy beak. (Pr 30:17) It is a powerful flier, flapping its wings in strong, steady beats, or soaring effortlessly in wide circles while it scans the area below for food. Its continuous search for food takes it over an unusually large area.

By naturalists, the crafty raven is considered to be one of the most adaptable and resourceful of all birds. In view of this as well as its flying strength and ability to survive on a wide variety of food, including carrion, the raven was an apt candidate for being the first creature to be sent outside the ark by Noah at the time the waters of the Flood had begun to recede. The text indicates that the raven thereafter remained outside the ark, using it only as a resting-place.​—Ge 8:5-7.

The raven was declared unclean in the Law covenant (Le 11:13, 15; De 14:12, 14), and the phrase “according to its kind” is understood to embrace the crow and other apparently related crowlike birds such as the rook, the jackdaw, and the chough, all of which are to be found in Palestine.

The raven, unlike the crow, is usually a bird of the wilderness, often inhabiting mountainous regions and even deserts. It was among the creatures envisioned by Isaiah as inhabiting the emptiness and wasteness of ruined Edom. (Isa 34:11) The raven also has the practice of storing surplus food in rock crevices or burying it beneath leaves. These birds were thus an apt selection when God used them miraculously to carry in bread and meat twice daily to Elijah while the prophet was concealed in the torrent valley of Cherith.​—1Ki 17:2-6.

Ravens nest on cliffs or rocky headlands, as well as in tall trees; they mate for life and are devoted parents. Jehovah God, the true Provider for all His creatures, directed Job’s attention to Himself by the question: “Who prepares for the raven its food when its own young ones cry to God for help, when they keep wandering about because there is nothing to eat?” (Job 38:41) The psalmist also showed that the food brought by the wide-ranging parent birds to satisfy the raucous cries of their hungry young is due to the Creator’s kindly provisions (Ps 147:7-9), while Jesus referred to the ravens in a similar way to assure his followers that the One caring for such birds of the air would surely provide for the needs of His human servants.​—Lu 12:24; compare Ps 104:27, 28; Mt 6:26.

Evidently because of its impressive size, its somber colors, and its mournful croak, pagan peoples anciently viewed the raven as a bird of ill omen and a portent of death. Among the Greeks, the bold, often impudent raven was viewed as a prophetic bird, perhaps because of its reputation for cunning and sagacity. It was held to be sacred to the god Apollo and to an oracular order of priests, some of whom dressed in black.

A prince of Midian in Judge Gideon’s day bore the name Oreb, meaning “Raven.”​—Jg 7:25.

A sharp instrument used to remove hair. The two Hebrew words for razor come from a root meaning “lay bare.” (Isa 3:17) Specimens of this instrument found in Egypt are of bronze. These finds harmonize with the Bible record that razors were used there from very early times.​—Ge 41:14.

Although the men of Israel wore beards and moderately long hair, a razor was apparently used for trimming; mention is made also of having the hair “shorn” (KJ), or “clipped short” (NW), at Acts 18:18. (See also 2Sa 19:24; Eze 44:20.) The Levites shaved all their flesh with a razor in connection with their installation into service at the tent of meeting in the wilderness. (Nu 8:7) A person under a Nazirite vow was not to use a razor on his head until the completion of the period of his vow. (Nu 6:5, 18; Jg 13:5; 16:17; Ac 21:23, 24) Samuel, a Levite, was devoted by his mother before his birth to the service of the tent of meeting. A razor was never to be used on the hair of his head.​—1Sa 1:11.

Jehovah forewarned Judah that the Assyrian would be used as a “razor” by Jehovah to “shave the head and the hair of the feet” and to “sweep away even the beard itself,” evidently picturing the devastation of much of the land of Judah and the carrying away of the captured population.​—Isa 7:20.

That swords could be made razor sharp is shown by God’s command to Ezekiel to use a sword as a barber’s razor to cut off his hair and beard, and then to strike one third of the hair with the sword, pictorial of the destruction by the sword to come on a portion of Jerusalem’s populace. (Eze 5:1, 2, 12) This also reveals that barbering was an early profession.

Because of the cutting damage a tongue used deceitfully can do, it is likened to a razor.​—Ps 52:2.

Learning from what a person sees in writing; uttering aloud what is written.

From early times men were interested in reading. King Ashurbanipal of Assyria, who established a library of 22,000 clay tablets and texts, claimed: “I had my joy in the reading of inscriptions on stone from the time before the flood.” (Light From the Ancient Past, by J. Finegan, 1959, pp. 216, 217) This may refer to some traditional accounts regarding the global Flood or else to Assyrian records predating some local flood. The only writings regarding a flood found in the ruins of Ashurbanipal’s palace were those of the Babylonian flood account, containing much mythology. Whether any genuine accounts or writings actually from before the global Flood were possessed by the pagan Assyrians cannot be determined now.

The origin of reading would, of course, be associated with the origin of writing. As to available evidence concerning this, see WRITING.

It is noteworthy that, in the Bible record of events of the 16th century B.C.E. in the days of Moses, there is specific reference to reading and writing. (Ex 17:14) The nation of Israel was encouraged to read and write. (De 6:6-9) Joshua, Moses’ successor, as leader of Israel, was under command to engage in the reading of the Scriptures “day and night,” regularly, in order to be successful in the assignment that God had given him. To impress Joshua with the importance of God’s Word, and doubtless as a memory aid, he was to read “in an undertone.”​—Jos 1:8.

The kings of Israel were under divine command to write for themselves copies of God’s law and to read it daily. (De 17:18, 19; see MEDITATION.) Their failure to heed this command contributed to the neglect of true worship in the land, resulting in the demoralization of the people, which led to the destruction of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E.

Jesus had access to all the inspired scrolls of the Hebrew Scriptures in the synagogues, where, in one recorded instance, he read publicly and applied the text to himself. (Lu 4:16-21) Also, when tested three times by Satan, Jesus’ reply was in all three occurrences, “It is written.” (Mt 4:4, 7, 10) Obviously, he was well acquainted with the Scriptures.

The apostles, who were secondary foundation stones of a holy temple, the Christian congregation, found that reading the Scriptures was essential for their ministry. They quoted from and referred to the Hebrew Scriptures hundreds of times in their writings and advocated the reading of them by others. (Ac 17:11) The Jewish rulers perceived that Peter and John were unlettered and ordinary. (Ac 4:13) But this did not mean that they could not read and write, as the letters written by these apostles testify that they could. They were, however, not educated in the higher learning of the Hebrew schools, at the feet of the scribes. For similar reasons the Jews were astonished that Jesus had knowledge, although, as they said, “he has not studied at the schools.” (Joh 7:15) That reading was widespread in that time is indicated by the account concerning the Ethiopian eunuch, a proselyte, who was reading the prophet Isaiah, and who by reason of this was approached by Philip. The eunuch was rewarded for his concern for God’s Word by receiving the privilege of becoming a follower of Christ.​—Ac 8:27-38.

The languages of the part of the Bible written before the first century were Hebrew and Aramaic. In the third century B.C.E., the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek, which had become the international language. The Christian Scriptures were all originally written in Greek, with the exception of Matthew’s Gospel. This made the reading of the Bible possible for most of the literate people in the Roman Empire, and particularly was it available to both Jews in Palestine and those of the Dispersion.

The popular demand for the Bible has reflected its readability and value, since it has far outstripped all other books in publication and circulation and is at this writing translated, either entirely or in part, in more than 3,000 languages and dialects, in billions of copies. It is reportedly available to about 90 percent of earth’s population in their own tongue.

The Bible enumerates many benefits derived from reading the Scriptures, among them being humility (De 17:19, 20), happiness (Re 1:3), and a discerning of the fulfilling of Bible prophecy (Hab 2:2, 3). It warns its readers to be selective as to reading material: Not all books upbuild and refresh the mind.​—Ec 12:12.

The help of God’s spirit is necessary for real discernment and understanding of God’s Word. (1Co 2:9-16) To get understanding and other benefits, a person must approach the reading of God’s Word with an open mind, throwing aside all prejudice and preconceived opinions; otherwise his understanding will be veiled, as was the case with the Jews who rejected the good news preached by Jesus. (2Co 3:14-16) Superficial reading is not enough. The reader must put his heart into it, be absorbed in study of the material, meditate deeply upon it, and seek to benefit from it personally.​—Pr 15:28; 1Ti 4:13-16; Mt 24:15; see PUBLIC READING.

(Re·aʹiah) [Jah Has Seen].

1. A son of Shobal and descendant of Judah. (1Ch 4:1, 2) It may be that Haroeh at 1 Chronicles 2:52 is the same person. The spelling in Hebrew is quite similar.

2. A Reubenite, presumably an ancestor of persons taken into exile by Tiglath-pileser III.​—1Ch 5:5, 6.

3. Forefather of some of the Nethinim who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 2:1, 43, 47; Ne 7:6, 46, 50.

Harvesting of grain in ancient times was accomplished by cutting the grain with a sickle (De 16:9; Mr 4:29), or sometimes by uprooting it from the earth. In the latter case, the complete stalk was reaped by pulling the roots from the soil, which was important in arid lands where straw was scarce and grain did not grow very tall.

The ancient sickle was fashioned from wood or bone and had flint inserts that served as a cutting edge. Later, the more familiar curved metal blade was used. The reaper would grasp the stalks with one hand and cut them with the other.

The Israelites were commanded not to reap the edges of their fields. Instead, they were to leave a little grain standing “for the afflicted one and the alien resident.” (Le 19:9, 10) After the grain was reaped, it was gathered, bound in sheaves, and piled in heaps, perhaps on the threshing floor.​—Ge 37:6, 7; Ru 3:6, 7.

Figurative Use. Reaping is often used figuratively in the Scriptures to illustrate the end result of one’s works, whether good or bad. The divine principle is that “whatever a man is sowing, this he will also reap.” Paul showed that, whereas the one sowing with a view to the flesh reaps corruption therefrom, “he who is sowing with a view to the spirit will reap everlasting life from the spirit,” and he assured Galatian Christians that they would reap if they did not tire out. (Ga 6:7-9; Pr 22:8; Ho 8:1, 7) In encouraging Christian generosity toward needy fellow believers in Judea, the apostle told the Corinthians: “He that sows sparingly will also reap sparingly; and he that sows bountifully will also reap bountifully.”​—2Co 9:5-7.

Jesus Christ dispatched his disciples to “reap,” implying that they were to gather responsive ones as his disciples. (Joh 4:35-38) According to Jesus’ illustration of the symbolic “wheat” and “weeds,” at “the conclusion of the system of things,” the Son of man sends out his angelic reapers to “collect out from his kingdom all things that cause stumbling and persons who are doing lawlessness.” These “weeds” (“the sons of the wicked one”) are pitched into a figurative fiery furnace, whereas “the wheat” (“the sons of the kingdom”) are preserved and “will shine as brightly as the sun in the kingdom of their Father.”​—Mt 13:24-30, 36-43.

That the glorified and enthroned Jesus Christ directs this reaping and separating work is shown by John’s vision in Revelation, where Christ is pictured as someone “like a son of man, with a golden crown on his head and a sharp sickle in his hand.” In response to the angelic cry, “Put your sickle in and reap, because the hour has come to reap, for the harvest of the earth is thoroughly ripe,” John beheld that he “thrust in his sickle on the earth, and the earth was reaped.” The apostle observed that thereafter “the vine of the earth” was gathered and hurled into “the great winepress of the anger of God.”​—Re 14:14-20; compare Re 19:11-16.

The Greek word e·pi·ei·kesʹ, which is translated “reasonableness,” has been defined as meaning “seemly, fitting; hence, equitable, fair, moderate, forbearing, not insisting on the letter of the law; it expresses that considerateness that looks ‘humanely and reasonably at the facts of a case.’”​—Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words, 1981, Vol. 2, pp. 144, 145.

Reasonableness is a distinctive feature of heavenly wisdom. (Jas 3:17) It is a quality that a man who is appointed as an overseer in a Christian congregation must have. (1Ti 3:2, 3) He would have to be reasonable with himself, in dealing with others, and in his view of problems. Also, Christians generally are encouraged to be reasonable. The apostle Paul counseled the Philippians: “Let your reasonableness [“yieldingness,” Int] become known to all men.” (Php 4:5) And Titus was instructed to remind the Christians of Crete “to be reasonable [literally, yielding].” (Tit 3:1, 2, ftn) This was especially fitting, since the inhabitants of Crete as a whole had the reputation of being liars, injurious wild beasts, and unemployed gluttons.​—Tit 1:12.

At 1 Peter 2:18 house servants are admonished to “be in subjection to their owners with all due fear, not only to the good and reasonable, but also to those hard to please.”

(Reʹba) [possibly, Fourth [Part]].

One of the five kings of Midian slain in the avenging of Midian’s immoral seduction of Israel. (Nu 31:2, 8) At the time, the five were presumably vassals of the Amorites and hence are also called “the dukes of Sihon.”​—Jos 13:21.

(Re·bekʹah) [possibly, Cow].

Daughter of Bethuel the son of Nahor, and therefore grandniece of Abraham. Her brother’s name was Laban.​—Ge 22:20-23.

In 1878 B.C.E., when Abraham sent his household manager, likely Eliezer, in search of a suitable wife for his son Isaac (now 40 years old), he came to “the city of Nahor” in the upper Mesopotamian valley. There at a well, this servant prayed that Jehovah’s choice would be the damsel who not only would give him a drink when asked but also would volunteer to water his ten camels. (Ge 24:1-14) While he was praying, Rebekah came to the well with a water jar. When he asked her for a sip of water, she graciously gave him a drink and then “quickly emptied her jar into the drinking trough and ran yet again and again to the well to draw water, and kept drawing for all his camels. All the while the man was gazing at her in wonder, keeping silent to know whether Jehovah had made his trip successful or not.” Rebekah proved to be kind, hospitable, modest in her manner, and industrious; besides this, “the young woman was very attractive in appearance.”​—Ge 24:14-21.

Abraham’s servant, recognizing that his prayer had been answered, bestowed upon Rebekah a gold nose ring and two beautiful gold bracelets (worth c. $1,350 in modern-day values). These she showed to her family​—her mother and her brother Laban—​who, in turn, extended the hospitality of their home to the visitor and the attendants with him. (Ge 24:22-32) But before he would eat, the man stated his business. Laban and his father Bethuel gave their consent for Rebekah to marry Isaac; gifts, consisting of precious articles of gold and silver and exquisite garments, were given to Rebekah and her family, and then they all ate together. (Ge 24:33-54) This transaction constituted an honorable marriage contract, not between Rebekah and Isaac, but between their parents, according to the custom of the time. Rebekah was in this way betrothed to Isaac and was from then on, in effect, his wife.

With Rebekah’s consent, the caravan took off the next morning for the long journey to the Negeb near Beer-lahai-roi, where Isaac was living at the time. Before she left, Rebekah’s family blessed her, saying: “May you become thousands times ten thousand, and let your seed take possession of the gate of those who hate it.” Her nurse Deborah and other lady attendants accompanied Rebekah, none of whom, it appears, ever returned to their homeland.​—Ge 24:55-62; 35:8.

Upon reaching their destination, Rebekah put on a headcloth at the approach of her bridegroom Isaac, and after Abraham’s servant had recounted all the events of his mission, relating how Jehovah had directed the choice, Isaac brought Rebekah into his mother’s tent to become his wife. Isaac dearly loved Rebekah, and in her he “found comfort after the loss of his mother” Sarah, who had died three years earlier.​—Ge 24:63-67.

Like Sarah, Rebekah for a long time remained barren. After some 19 years, during which time Isaac persistently appealed to Jehovah, she conceived and then bore the twins Esau and Jacob. So distressing was her pregnancy, as the two struggled with each other in her womb, that Rebekah wondered, “Just why am I alive?” In response, Jehovah assured her that she would become the mother of two great nations and that “the older will serve the younger.” (Ge 25:20-26) This, Paul says, was to demonstrate that the choice of the ‘seed of promise’ depended entirely on God.​—Ro 9:6-13.

Also like Sarah, Rebekah disguised her identity on one occasion, passing herself off as her husband’s sister. This was when a famine in the land forced her family to take up residence for a time in Philistine territory ruled over by King Abimelech. Rebekah must have been well along in years, yet because of her great beauty Isaac, the designated heir of the Abrahamic covenant, was presumed to be in danger of being killed if it was known he was her husband.​—Ge 26:1-11.

When Isaac had grown old and was preparing to bless Esau his firstborn, Rebekah took immediate steps to secure the desired blessing for Jacob. (Ge 25:28-34; 27:1-5) Whether Rebekah knew of Jacob’s legal right to the birthright through purchase is not stated, but she was well aware of what Jehovah had told her, namely, that the older would serve the younger. So she took action to see that Jacob would secure his father’s blessing. The outcome was in harmony with Jehovah’s purpose.​—Ge 27:6-29; see JACOB No 1.

Later, when Rebekah learned of Esau’s plans to kill Jacob, she influenced Isaac to send Jacob to her homeland in search of a wife for himself. It had grieved both her and Isaac very much that Esau had taken two wives from among the hated Canaanites.​—Ge 26:34, 35; 27:41-46; 28:1-5; 29:10-12.

Just when Rebekah died is not stated, but it may have been before Jacob returned home from Mesopotamia. (Ge 35:27) She was buried in the family cave of Machpelah along with Abraham and Sarah, where later Isaac, Leah, and Jacob were interred.​—Ge 49:29-31; 50:13.

Disobedience or resistance to and defiance of a superior authority. Pride, selfishness, outside pressures, disagreement with the judgment of a superior, and a desire to get out from under subjection or oppression, either real or imagined, have been among the leading causes for rebellion.

Early History. Rebellion against God had its start in the invisible realm. By means of a serpent, a spirit creature, who later became known as Satan the Devil, endeavored to get the first woman Eve to rebel against her Creator. He made rebellion attractive, presenting it as a course that would lead to enlightenment. Eve gave in to the selfish ambition to “be like God,” in the sense of determining for herself what was good and what was bad instead of abiding by God’s judgment on this matter. (See TREES [Figurative Use].) Imagining herself to be deprived of something that she had now come to view as rightfully belonging to her, Eve chose to transgress God’s command. Later her husband Adam yielded to her pressure and joined in this rebellion. He did so, not because he was deceived into thinking that the serpent was speaking the truth, but evidently because he selfishly chose the companionship of his sinful wife in preference to the approval of God.​—Ge 3:1-6; 1Ti 2:14.

For centuries afterward it appears that the majority of mankind did not want to submit themselves to God. From the time of Abel’s death until the birth of Noah, a period of more than 926 years, only Enoch is specifically mentioned as one who walked with God. (Ge 5:22) Rebelliousness also continued to spread in the heavenly realm. In Noah’s day, angels, desiring sensual pleasure, disobediently forsook their heavenly posts, materialized human bodies, married women, and fathered offspring.​—Ge 6:4; 1Pe 3:19, 20; 2Pe 2:4, 5; Jude 6.

By Noah’s time the spirit of rebelliousness had so saturated mankind that Jehovah God saw fit to destroy the human race by means of a flood. Only Noah and his immediate family, eight persons all together, were found worthy of preservation.​—Ge 6:5-8; 7:13, 23.

In Israel. Years later Jehovah God began to deal exclusively with the nation of Israel. Yet throughout Israel’s history there were numerous cases of rebellion against Jehovah and against his representatives, on a national, group, or individual level. In certain cases those who rebelled were not constantly rebellious persons. For example, Moses and Aaron faithfully served Jehovah God for many years. However, when subjected to the pressure of quarreling Israelites on one occasion, they lost self-control and rebelliously failed to give glory to God for a miraculous provision of water. (Nu 20:12, 24; 27:13, 14) But the nation as a whole was so persistent in its rebellious course that Ezekiel 44:6 applies the name “Rebelliousness” to the house of Israel, as if the nation of Israel came to personify rebelliousness.

Jehovah God did not leave such rebelliousness unpunished. (1Sa 12:15; 15:23; 1Ki 13:21, 22, 26; Ps 5:10; Isa 1:20; 63:10; Jer 4:16-18; Eze 20:21; Ho 13:16) His law demanded the death penalty for those persisting in rebellion against parents. (De 21:18-21) Divine execution came upon proud and ambitious Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and those associated with them in the rebellion against Moses and Aaron, God’s appointed representatives. When the Israelites disputed the rightness of this execution and manifested a rebellious spirit toward Moses and Aaron, 14,700 more perished by a scourge from Jehovah. (Nu 16:1-3, 25-50) Often Jehovah let other nations serve as instruments to inflict punishment upon the Israelites when they yielded to the pressure to be like the surrounding nations and rebelliously abandoned true worship.​—Jg 2:3, 11-16; 3:4, 5; Ne 9:26, 27.

King Zedekiah’s covenant-breaking rebellion. At the time King Nebuchadnezzar made Judean King Zedekiah a vassal king, he had Zedekiah make a covenant in Jehovah’s name. Therefore, when Zedekiah rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar, wanting to be free from subjection to a foreign power, he also rebelled against Jehovah, in whose name he had obligated himself to be a loyal vassal king. Because of this rebellion, Jehovah decreed that Zedekiah would die as a captive in Babylon.​—2Ki 24:17-20; 2Ch 36:11-21; Eze 17:12-18.

Among Christians. Christians have also had to contend with rebellious persons. The apostle Paul foretold an apostasy, or rebellion, among professed Christians (2Th 2:3), and already in his time, apostates existed. (1Ti 1:19, 20; 2Ti 2:16-19) The disciple Jude wrote about those who spoke abusively of “glorious ones” in the Christian congregation. As the destruction of such rebellious ones was certain, Jude referred to that destruction as if it had already taken place, saying: “[They] have perished in the rebellious talk of Korah!”​—Jude 8, 11; see APOSTASY.

Subjection to governmental authority proper. Instead of rebelling, those desiring to gain God’s approval as Christ’s followers are called upon to be obedient to those taking the lead inside the congregation (Heb 13:17) and to governmental authorities outside the congregation. (Tit 3:1, 2) Rebellion against secular governmental authority constitutes a rebellion against God, for these authorities exist by God’s permission and it is his will that Christians be subject to them as long as what they require does not conflict with his law.​—Ro 13:1-7; Ac 5:29.

The idea of sharply expressing disapproval or of checking by words or actions is commonly conveyed by the Hebrew verb ga·ʽarʹ. (Ge 37:10) Another Hebrew verb rendered “rebuke” literally means “humiliate” (Job 11:3); one Hebrew noun rendered “rebuke” literally means “a reproving.” (2Ki 19:3) In Greek, the sense of “rebuke” is conveyed by e·pi·ti·maʹo, which may also mean “strictly charge,” “sternly tell,” “reprimand.”​—Mt 12:16; Lu 18:39; 2Ti 4:2.

One sense of rebuke not limited to persons is “to check,” “to put a stop to something.” Jehovah’s rebuking sown seed denotes his preventing a good harvest. (Mal 2:3) His rebuking devouring insects means his putting an end to their causing serious harm to crops. (Mal 3:11) The psalmist, speaking of the enemies of God’s people under the figure of animals, appealed to the Most High to check their power to do injury: “Rebuke the wild beast of the reeds, the assembly of bulls.” (Ps 68:30) Jesus Christ rebuked the wind and a fever.​—Mr 4:39; Lu 4:39.

At times “rebuke” conveys the thought of “threat.” Thus, the words “rebuke of your face” may indicate that the countenance has taken on a threatening demeanor.​—Ps 80:16.

The effect of a rebuke may call attention to Jehovah’s great power. A notable example was the parting of the Red Sea.​—Ps 106:9.

Valid or Unjustified. A rebuke may be either valid or unjustified. Because a dream related by Joseph contained thoughts that seemed to violate the natural sense of fitness as regards the parent-child relationship, his father Jacob rebuked him. (Ge 37:10) When Jesus Christ told his disciples that suffering and an executional death awaited him, Peter rebuked him with the words: “Be kind to yourself, Lord; you will not have this destiny at all.” (Mt 16:22) Since Peter was wrong, Jesus rightly rebuked him in very strong terms: “Get behind me, Satan, because you think, not God’s thoughts, but those of men.”​—Mr 8:33.

Beneficial. Though a rebuke from a wise person may hurt, the inspired counsel is: “Better is it to hear the rebuke of someone wise than to be the man hearing the song of the stupid ones.” (Ec 7:5) The rebuke from a wise man, when accepted in the right spirit and acted on, can bring about improvement in a person’s conduct. The sensible person is more deeply affected by a simple rebuke than is a senseless person who receives 100 strokes for a misdeed. (Pr 17:10) Congregational rebuke in the form of disfellowshipping may bring a wrongdoer to his senses, as it appears to have done in the case of an incestuous man at Corinth.​—2Co 2:6, 7; 1Co 5:1-5.

(Reʹcah).

Apparently the name of a Judean site. It is mentioned along with genealogical information for the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 4:12.

(Reʹchab) [Charioteer].

1. A Benjamite son of Rimmon the Beerothite. Rechab and his brother Baanah, both captains of marauding bands, murdered Ish-bosheth, the son and successor of Saul, and presented his head to David, expecting to win favor, but David had them both executed for their wicked deed against a righteous man.​—2Sa 4:2, 5-12.

2. A Kenite father or ancestor of Jehu’s companion Jehonadab and forefather of the Rechabites.​—1Ch 2:55; 2Ki 10:15, 23; Jer 35:6, 8, 14, 16, 18, 19; see RECHABITES.

3. Father or ancestor of the Malchijah who helped Nehemiah repair a gate of Jerusalem’s wall. (Ne 3:14) If he is the same Rechab as No. 2, Malchijah’s presence confirms the fulfillment of Jehovah’s promise to the Rechabites as found at Jeremiah 35:19.

(Reʹcha·bites) [Of (Belonging to) Rechab].

Descendants of Rechab the Kenite through Jehonadab.​—Jer 35:6; 1Ch 2:55.

During Jehonadab’s time it seems that at least some of the Rechabites lived in the northern kingdom, for it was there that Jehonadab joined Jehu (king, c. 904-877 B.C.E.) in opposing Baal worship and “all who were left over of Ahab’s in Samaria.” (2Ki 10:15-17) Jehonadab laid a command on his family (whether before or after the experience with Jehu is not stated) to live in tents, not sowing seed, not planting vineyards, and not drinking wine, because they were alien residents in the land.​—Jer 35:6-10.

In the final part of Jehoiakim’s reign (628-618 B.C.E.) a number of Rechabites dwelt in Judah. When Nebuchadnezzar came against the land, the Rechabites entered Jerusalem for protection from the Chaldeans and Syrians. At Jehovah’s order, Jeremiah brought Jaazaniah their leader and all the Rechabites to a dining room in the temple. (Jer 35:1-4) That they could all fit in one of the temple’s dining rooms suggests that they were not very numerous. Jeremiah, as God had directed, put cups of wine before them and said: “Drink wine.” Out of respect for the command of their ancestor they refused to do so, and they explained that they had recently left their usual habitat to move into the city only because of the invading armies.​—Jer 35:5-11.

Jehovah was pleased with the respectful obedience they showed. Their unswerving obedience to an earthly father stood in contrast to the disobedience of the Judeans to their Creator. (Jer 35:12-16) God gave the Rechabites the rewarding promise: “There will not be cut off from Jonadab the son of Rechab a man to stand before me always.”​—Jer 35:19.

During Nehemiah’s governorship after the exile, “Malchijah the son of Rechab” repaired the Gate of the Ash-heaps. If this Rechab is the same one who was the father or ancestor of Jehonadab, it shows that Rechabites survived the exile and returned to the land. (Ne 3:14) At 1 Chronicles 2:55 Hammath is listed as “the father of the house of Rechab.”

To reconcile means to bring back into harmony or cause to be friendly again; also to adjust or settle, as in reconciling differences. In Greek, the words related to reconciliation are derived from the verb al·lasʹso, which, basically, means “change, alter.”​—Ac 6:14; Ga 4:20, Int.

Thus, the compound form ka·tal·lasʹso, while meaning, basically, “exchange,” came to have the meaning “reconcile.” (Ro 5:10) Paul used this verb when speaking of a woman’s ‘making up again’ with her husband, from whom she had separated. (1Co 7:11) The related di·al·lasʹso·mai appears at Matthew 5:24 in Jesus’ instructions that a person should first ‘make his peace’ with his brother before presenting an offering on the altar.

Reconciliation to God. In Paul’s letter to the Romans and in several other letters, he uses ka·tal·lasʹso and a·po·ka·tal·lasʹso (an intensified form) in dealing with man’s being reconciled to God by means of the sacrifice of Christ Jesus.

Such reconciliation to God is necessary because an alienation has existed, a separation, a lack of harmony and of friendly relations, more than that, a state of enmity. This came through the first man Adam’s sin and the resultant sinfulness and imperfection inherited by all his descendants. (Ro 5:12; compare Isa 43:27.) The apostle could therefore say that “the minding of the flesh means enmity with God, for it is not under subjection to the law of God, nor, in fact, can it be [due to its inherited imperfect, sinful nature]. So those who are in harmony with the flesh cannot please God.” (Ro 8:7, 8) Enmity exists because God’s perfect standards do not allow for his approving or condoning wrongdoing. (Ps 5:4; 89:14) Of his Son, who reflected his Father’s perfect qualities, it is written: “You loved righteousness, and you hated lawlessness.” (Heb 1:9) Hence, even though “God is love” and even though “God loved the world [of mankind] so much that he gave his only-begotten Son” on mankind’s behalf, the fact remains that mankind as a whole has been in a state of enmity toward God and that God’s love toward the world of mankind was love toward enemies, a love guided by principle (Gr., a·gaʹpe) rather than affection or friendship (Gr., phi·liʹa).​—1Jo 4:16; Joh 3:16; compare Jas 4:4.

Since God’s standard is one of perfect righteousness, he cannot countenance, or view with favor, sin, which is the violation of his express will. He is “gracious and merciful” and “rich in mercy” (Ps 145:8, 9; Eph 2:4); but he does not disregard justice in order to display mercy. As correctly observed in M’Clintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia (1894, Vol. VIII, p. 958), the relation between God and sinful man is thus “a legal one, as that of a sovereign, in his judicial capacity, and a criminal who has violated his laws and risen up against his authority, and who is therefore treated as an enemy.” This is the situation into which mankind was brought because of the inheritance of sin from their first father, Adam.

The basis for reconciliation. It is only by and through the ransom sacrifice of Christ Jesus that full reconciliation to God is possible; he is “the way,” and no one comes to the Father except through him. (Joh 14:6) His death served as “a propitiatory sacrifice [Gr., hi·la·smonʹ] for our sins.” (1Jo 2:2; 4:10) The word hi·la·smosʹ signifies a “means of appeasing,” an “atonement.” Clearly, the sacrifice of Jesus Christ was not a “means of appeasing” in the sense of soothing hurt feelings on the part of God, mollifying him, for the death of his beloved Son certainly would produce no such effect. Rather, that sacrifice appeased, or satisfied, the demands of God’s perfect justice by providing the just and righteous basis for pardoning sin, so that God “might be righteous even when declaring righteous the man [the hereditarily sinful man] that has faith in Jesus.” (Ro 3:24-26) By supplying the means for expiating (making complete satisfaction for) man’s sins and unlawful acts, Christ’s sacrifice made it propitious (favorable) for man’s seeking and receiving a restoration to right relations with the Sovereign God.​—Eph 1:7; Heb 2:17; see RANSOM.

Thus, through Christ, God made it possible to “reconcile again to himself all other things by making peace through the blood he [Jesus] shed on the torture stake,” and thereby persons once “alienated and enemies” because of having their minds on wicked works could now be “reconciled by means of that one’s fleshly body through his death, in order to present [them] holy and unblemished and open to no accusation before him.” (Col 1:19-22) Jehovah God could now ‘declare righteous’ those whom he selected to become his spirit-begotten sons; they would not be subject to any accusation, since they were now persons fully reconciled to, and at peace with, God.​—Compare Ac 13:38, 39; Ro 5:9, 10; 8:33.

What, then, can we say of men who served God in times before Christ’s death? This would include men such as Abel, who “had witness borne to him that he was righteous, God bearing witness respecting his gifts”; Enoch, who “had the witness that he had pleased God well”; Abraham, who “came to be called ‘Jehovah’s friend’”; Moses, Joshua, Samuel, David, Daniel, John the Baptizer, and Christ’s disciples (to whom Jesus said prior to his death, “the Father himself has affection for you”). (Heb 11:4, 5; Jas 2:23; Da 9:23; Joh 16:27) Jehovah dealt with all of these and blessed them. How, then, would such ones need any reconciling by means of Christ’s death?

These persons obviously enjoyed a measure of reconciliation to God. Nevertheless, they, even as the rest of the world of mankind, were still sinners by inheritance and had acknowledged themselves as such by the animal sacrifices they offered. (Ro 3:9, 22, 23; Heb 10:1, 2) True, some men have been more overt or gross in their sinning than others, even being openly rebellious; but sin is sin, whatever the degree or extent. Since all are sinners, all men descended from Adam have, without exception, needed the reconciliation with God that his Son’s sacrifice made possible.

God’s relative friendship toward men such as those considered earlier was on the basis of the faith they showed, faith that embraced the belief that God would in his due time provide the means for relieving them completely of their sinful state. (Compare Heb 11:1, 2, 39, 40; Joh 1:29; 8:56; Ac 2:29-31.) Hence, the measure of reconciliation they enjoyed was contingent upon God’s future provision of the ransom. As shown under the heading DECLARE RIGHTEOUS, God “counted,” “reckoned” or credited, their faith as righteousness, and on that basis, with the absolute certainty of his own provision of a ransom in view, Jehovah could provisionally have friendly relations with them without violating his standards of perfect justice. (Ro 4:3, 9, 10, NW and KJ; also compare 3:25, 26; 4:17.) Nevertheless, the proper demands of his justice must eventually be satisfied, so that the “crediting” would be covered by actual payment of the required ransom price. All of this exalts the importance of Christ’s position in God’s arrangement and demonstrates that, apart from Christ Jesus, men have no righteousness that could qualify them for a standing before God.​—Compare Isa 64:6; Ro 7:18, 21-25; 1Co 1:30, 31; 1Jo 1:8-10.

Steps necessary for attaining reconciliation. Since God is the offended party whose law has been and is being violated, it is man who must become reconciled to God, not God to man. (Ps 51:1-4) Man does not meet God on equal terms, nor is God’s stand as to what is right subject to change, emendation, or modification. (Isa 55:6-11; Mal 3:6; compare Jas 1:17.) His conditions for reconciliation are therefore nonnegotiable, not subject to question or compromise. (Compare Job 40:1, 2, 6-8; Isa 40:13, 14.) While many translations render Isaiah 1:18 to read, “Come now, and let us reason together, says the LORD” (KJ; AT; JP; RS), a more appropriate and consistent translation is: “‘Come, now, you people, and let us set matters straight [“let us settle the dispute,” Ro] between us,’ says Jehovah.” The fault producing the disharmony lies entirely with man, not with God.​—Compare Eze 18:25, 29-32.

This does not prevent God from mercifully taking the initiative in opening the way for reconciliation. He did so through his Son. The apostle writes: “For, indeed, Christ, while we were yet weak, died for ungodly men at the appointed time. For hardly will anyone die for a righteous man; indeed, for the good man, perhaps, someone even dares to die. But God recommends his own love [a·gaʹpen] to us in that, while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. Much more, therefore, since we have been declared righteous now by his blood, shall we be saved through him from wrath. For if, when we were enemies, we became reconciled to God through the death of his Son, much more, now that we have become reconciled, we shall be saved by his life. And not only that, but we are also exulting in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have now received the reconciliation.” (Ro 5:6-11) Jesus, who “did not know sin,” was made to “be sin for us,” dying as a human sin offering, to relieve persons of the charge and penalty of sin. Relieved of the charge of sin, such ones could thus appear righteous in God’s eyes, hence “become God’s righteousness by means of him [Jesus].”​—2Co 5:18, 21.

God additionally displays his mercy and love by sending out ambassadors to sinful mankind. In ancient times ambassadors were sent out primarily in times of hostility (compare Lu 19:14), not peace, their mission frequently being to see if war could be averted or to arrange terms for peace where a state of war prevailed. (Isa 33:7; Lu 14:31, 32; see AMBASSADOR.) God sends his Christian ambassadors to men to enable them to learn his terms for reconciliation and to avail themselves of such. As the apostle writes: “We are therefore ambassadors substituting for Christ, as though God were making entreaty through us. As substitutes for Christ we beg: ‘Become reconciled to God.’” (2Co 5:20) Such entreaty does not signify any weakening of God’s position nor of his opposition to wrongdoing; it is, instead, a merciful urging to the offenders to seek peace and escape the inevitable consequence of God’s righteous anger toward all who persist in going contrary to his holy will, destruction being the certain end of such. (Compare Eze 33:11.) Even Christians must be careful “not to accept the undeserved kindness of God and miss its purpose” by failing to seek continually God’s favor and goodwill during the “acceptable time” and the “day of salvation” God mercifully provides, as Paul’s following words show.​—2Co 6:1, 2.

Recognizing the need for reconciliation and accepting God’s provision for reconciliation, namely, the sacrifice of God’s Son, the individual must then repent of his sinful course and convert, or turn around, from following the way of the sinful world of mankind. By appealing to God on the basis of Christ’s ransom, forgiveness of sins and reconciliation can be obtained, bringing “seasons of refreshing . . . from the person of Jehovah” (Ac 3:18, 19) as well as peace of mind and heart. (Php 4:6, 7) No longer an enemy under the wrath of God, one has, in effect, “passed over from death to life.” (Joh 3:16; 5:24) Thereafter the individual must retain God’s goodwill by ‘calling upon him in trueness,’ ‘continuing in the faith, and not being shifted away from the hope of the good news.’​—Ps 145:18; Php 4:9; Col 1:22, 23.

In what sense has God ‘reconciled a world to himself’?

The apostle Paul speaks of God “by means of Christ reconciling a world to himself, not reckoning to them their trespasses.” (2Co 5:19) This should not be misread as meaning that all persons are automatically reconciled to God by Jesus’ sacrifice, inasmuch as the apostle immediately goes on to describe the ambassadorial work of entreating men to “become reconciled to God.” (2Co 5:20) In reality, the means was provided whereby all those of the world of mankind willing to respond could gain reconciliation. Hence, Jesus came “to give his soul a ransom in exchange for many,” and “he that exercises faith in the Son has everlasting life; he that disobeys the Son will not see life, but the wrath of God remains upon him.”​—Mt 20:28; Joh 3:36; compare Ro 5:18, 19; 2Th 1:7, 8.

Nevertheless, Jehovah God purposed to “gather all things together again in the Christ, the things in the heavens and the things on the earth.” (Eph 1:10) Though a destruction of those who refuse to “set matters straight” (Isa 1:18) with Jehovah God is required, the result will be a universe in total harmony with God, and mankind will again rejoice in God’s friendship and enjoy the full flow of his blessings as at the start in Eden.​—Re 21:1-4.

Jehovah God terminated his covenant relationship with Israel as a nation because of its unfaithfulness and its national rejection of his Son. (Mt 21:42, 43; Heb 8:7-13) Evidently the apostle refers to this when saying that ‘the casting of them away meant reconciliation for the world’ (Ro 11:15), for as the context shows, the way was thereby opened for the world outside the Jewish community or congregation. That is, the non-Jewish nations now had opportunity to be joined with a faithful Jewish remnant in the new covenant as God’s new nation, spiritual Israel.​—Compare Ro 11:5, 7, 11, 12, 15, 25.

As God’s covenant people, his “special property” (Ex 19:5, 6; 1Ki 8:53; Ps 135:4), the Jewish people had enjoyed a measure of reconciliation to God, though still in need of full reconciliation by means of the foretold Redeemer, the Messiah. (Isa 53:5-7, 11, 12; Da 9:24-26) The non-Jewish nations, on the other hand, were “alienated from the state of Israel and strangers to the covenants of the promise, and . . . had no hope and were without God in the world,” for they had no recognized standing with him. (Eph 2:11, 12) In harmony with the sacred secret regarding the Seed, God nevertheless purposed to bring blessings for persons of “all nations of the earth.” (Ge 22:15-18) The means for doing this, Christ Jesus’ sacrifice, therefore opened the way for those of the alienated non-Jewish nations to “come to be near by the blood of the Christ.” (Eph 2:13) Not only this, but that sacrifice also removed the division between Jew and non-Jew, for it fulfilled the Law covenant and took it out of the way, thereby allowing Christ to “fully reconcile both peoples in one body to God through the torture stake, because he had killed off the enmity [the division produced by the Law covenant] by means of himself.” Jew and non-Jew now would have the one approach to God through Christ Jesus, and in course of time, non-Jews were brought into the new covenant as Kingdom heirs with Christ.​—Eph 2:14-22; Ro 8:16, 17; Heb 9:15.

A highly responsible officer in the royal court of Israel. The title is translated from a form of the Hebrew word za·kharʹ (remember) and literally means “remembrancer.” (2Sa 8:16, ftn) His duties are not described in the Bible, but it appears that he was the official chronicler of the kingdom, furnishing the king with information on developments in the realm and also reminding him of important matters for his attention, supplying advice on them.

On occasion the recorder represented the king on important national matters. Joah the son of Asaph was one of the officials of King Hezekiah who went out to speak to the Assyrian Rabshakeh when that one threatened Jerusalem. (2Ki 18:18, 37) Another recorder, Joah the son of Joahaz, officiated in connection with the repairing of the temple. (2Ch 34:8) A recorder is named also in the courts of David and Solomon.​—2Sa 8:16; 20:24; 1Ki 4:3; see CITY RECORDER.

See CREATION; TRIBE.

See COLORS.

See RANSOM.

The body of water that separates northeastern Africa from the Arabian Peninsula; it includes the two arms known as the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of ʽAqaba. The Red Sea, as the term is now used, measures some 2,250 km (1,400 mi) in length, has a maximum width of about 354 km (220 mi) and an average depth of approximately 610 m (2,000 ft). It is part of the great geologic fault known as the Rift Valley. Because of a fast rate of evaporation, the waters of this sea are quite salty. Strong winds, rapid changes in wind direction, and the presence of large reefs make it hazardous for boats to navigate the Red Sea. Along the eastern coast there are high mountain ranges, whereas rocky tablelands and low hills occupy the western coast.

There is good reason for understanding that the original-language expressions rendered “Red Sea” apply to the Red Sea in general or to either one of its northern arms. (Ex 10:19; 13:18; Nu 33:10, 11; Jg 11:16; Ac 7:36) It was the waters of the Red Sea that Jehovah miraculously divided to let the Israelites pass through on dry land, but he drowned Pharaoh and his military forces who came in pursuit. (Ex 14:21–15:22; De 11:4; Jos 2:10; 4:23; 24:6; Ne 9:9; Ps 106:7, 9, 22; 136:13, 15) The Biblical passages relating this incident use the Hebrew expression yam (sea) or yam-suphʹ (sea of reeds or rushes). On the basis of the literal meaning of yam-suphʹ, certain scholars have argued that the Israelites crossed a mere swampy place, such as the Bitter Lakes region, and not the Red Sea (principally the western arm, the Gulf of Suez, where others believe the crossing likely occurred). However, it should be noted that the waters were sufficient to cover Pharaoh’s military forces. (Ex 14:28, 29) This would have been impossible in a mere swamp. Also, Acts 7:36 and Hebrews 11:29 rule out a mere swampy place, for these texts mention the same incident and use the Greek expression e·ry·thraʹ thaʹlas·sa, meaning “Red Sea.” (See EXODUS.) The historian Herodotus (fifth century B.C.E.) used the same Greek expression to refer, not to a swamp or an insignificant body of water, but to “the Indian Ocean, in which the Red Sea” is located.​—A Greek-English Lexicon, by H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, revised by H. Jones, Oxford, 1968, p. 693; see PIHAHIROTH.

In a pronouncement of doom for Edom, the outcry resulting from Edom’s calamity is described as being heard at the Red Sea. (Jer 49:21) This is understandable, since Edomite territory in its southern extremity bordered on the Red Sea (1Ki 9:26), that is, the sea’s northeastern arm, the Gulf of ʽAqaba. Israel’s boundary also extended to this point.​—Ex 23:31.

[Heb., qa·nehʹ; Gr., kaʹla·mos].

These terms evidently embrace numerous reedlike plants commonly growing in wet places. (Job 40:21; Ps 68:30; Isa 19:6; 35:7; see CALAMUS, CANE.) Some scholars believe that in many cases the “reed” intended is Arundo donax. This plant is common in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. Its stem, terminating in a large plume of white flowers, has a diameter of 5 to 8 cm (2 to 3 in.) at the base and grows to a height of 2.5 to 5.5 m (8 to 18 ft). The leaves measure from 30 to 90 cm (1 to 3 ft) in length. The common reed (Phragmites australis) is also found in swamps and on the banks of rivers in Israel. It is a leafy grass 1.5 to 5 m (5 to 16 ft) high and has fluffy flower clusters atop its stiff, smooth stems.

In mockery, Roman soldiers placed a reed, representative of a royal scepter, in Jesus’ right hand and later hit him with it. Also, a reed was used to convey a sponge soaked with sour wine to the impaled Jesus.​—Mt 27:29, 30, 48; Joh 19:29; see HYSSOP.

The reed was also used for measuring. The book of Ezekiel (40:5) indicates that a measuring reed was 6 cubits long. So a reed based on the common cubit measured 2.67 m (8.75 ft), and one based on the long cubit measured 3.11 m (10.2 ft).​—Re 11:1; 21:15, 16; see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Figurative Use. “Reed” is used in the Bible to represent instability and frailty. (1Ki 14:15; Eze 29:6, 7) Egypt was compared to a crushed reed, the sharp, pointed slivers of which would penetrate the palm of anyone leaning upon it. (2Ki 18:21; Isa 36:6) Concerning John the Baptizer, Jesus said: “What did you go out into the wilderness to behold? A reed being tossed by a wind?” (Mt 11:7) These words may have been intended to show that John the Baptizer was not a person who was wavering or vacillating but one who was firm, stable, and upright. At Matthew 12:20 (Isa 42:3), the “bruised reed” seems to represent oppressed people like the man with the withered hand whom Jesus healed on the Sabbath.​—Mt 12:10-14; see Mt 23:4; Mr 6:34.

(Re·el·aiʹah).

One whose name occurs with those of such prominent men as Zerubbabel and Jeshua at the beginning of the list of those returning from Babylon to Jerusalem in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 2:1, 2) The name is spelled Raamiah (meaning, “Jehovah Has Thundered; Uproar of Jehovah”) at Nehemiah 7:7.

To separate and purify metals, and the craftsman who does it. By repeated melting in clay refining pots called crucibles, the slag and impurities were removed from the desired metal. (Ps 12:6; Pr 17:3; 27:21) Remnants of slag dumps have been found in the region around ancient Succoth, where some of Solomon’s mining and smelting operations were located. Sometimes impurities were burned off; at other times refiner’s lye (see LAUNDRYMAN) was used to consolidate the scummy dross so it could be skimmed off the surface. (Isa 1:25; Mal 3:2) The refiner sat in front of his furnace and supplied the charcoal fire with a forced draft by means of bellows.​—Jer 6:29; Mal 3:3.

Gold frequently has silver with it in varying amounts. How these were separated in Bible times is not known, but a distinction in the methods of treating the two seems to be noted in Proverbs 17:3 and 27:21: “The refining pot is for silver and the furnace for gold.” Nitric acid was evidently not discovered until the ninth century C.E.; so, previously gold was purified by other means. For example, if lead was present with the gold, the impurities could be fluxed off as a slag while the gold would be held by the lead. Then by slowly boiling off the lead (an operation known as cupelling) pure gold would remain behind. This process requires considerable skill, for if the temperature is too high or the boiling off too rapid, the gold is carried away with the lead. The operator learns to judge and control the refining by the color of the molten metal. (Compare Ps 12:6; Jer 6:28-30; Eze 22:18-22.) The use of lye in the refining of silver is alluded to in the Scriptures.​—Mal 3:2, 3.

If the copper-bearing ore was an oxide or a carbonate, mixing the crushed ore with charcoal and burning it freed the copper in the metallic state. However, if the copper ore was a sulfide, preliminary roasting was necessary first to burn off the sulfur as sulfur dioxide and at the same time convert the copper sulfide to copper oxide. Then it could be reduced with charcoal to obtain the free metal.

Extraction of iron was more difficult, because of the tremendous heat required. Iron melts at 1,535° C. (2,795° F.) The ancients, however, built smelting furnaces equipped with bellows to give a forced draft similar to present-day blast furnaces. (De 4:20; Jer 6:29; Eze 22:20-22) There are no details as to Hebrew iron furnaces, but they may have been similar to those known to have existed in ancient India. Made of clay, pear-shaped, about 1.2 m (4 ft) in diameter at the bottom, narrowing to 0.3 m (1 ft) at the top, they had goatskin bellows equipped with nozzles attached to clay tubes that supplied air to the bottom of the furnace. Charged with charcoal, the fire was started and the ore was added. Another layer of charcoal was then added on top, and the forced heat was continued for three or four hours. With the run completed, the front of the furnace was broken down to remove the bloom of metal.

It is a simple matter to win lead from its common ore, galena, that is, lead sulfide. First the ore is roasted with an injection of air to convert the lead sulfide to lead oxide; the sulfur combines with oxygen and forms the gas sulfur dioxide. The lead oxide is then mixed with charcoal and charged into a blast furnace; then the carbon dioxide is driven off, leaving the liquid lead behind in the crucible.

Figurative Use. Jehovah himself is referred to as a refiner. His Word is highly refined. (2Sa 22:31; Ps 18:30; 119:140; Pr 30:5) This tried and tested Word is one means by which God purifies his people in removing all sinful dross of uncleanness. (Ps 17:3; 26:2; 105:19; Da 12:9, 10; Mal 3:3) Fiery trials also refine the faithful. (Isa 48:10; Da 11:35; Zec 13:9; compare 1Pe 1:6, 7.) The wicked, on the other hand, are judged as nothing more than scummy dross, fit only for the worthless slag heap.​—Ps 119:119; Pr 25:4, 5; Eze 22:18-20.

See CITIES OF REFUGE.

(Reʹgem).

First-named son of Jahdai in the Calebite branch of Judah’s genealogy.​—1Ch 2:3, 42, 47.

(Reʹgem-melʹech).

One of two leading men sent by the people of postexilic Bethel to “soften the face of Jehovah” and to inquire about continuing the customary fasting. This was more than two years before the rebuilt temple was completed.​—Zec 7:1-3; Ezr 6:15.

An enrollment, usually by name and lineage according to tribe and household. It involved more than a simple census or count of heads. The national registrations referred to in the Bible served various purposes, such as taxation, assignments of military service, or (for those Levites included) appointments to duties at the sanctuary.

At Sinai. At Jehovah’s command the first registration took place during the encampment at Sinai in the second month of the second year following the Exodus from Egypt. To assist Moses in this undertaking, a chieftain was selected out of each tribe to take the responsibility and oversight of the registration in his tribe. Not only were all males listed who were 20 years old and upward​—eligible for service in the army—​but the Law also placed on the registered ones a head tax of half a shekel ($1.10) for the service of the tabernacle. (Ex 30:11-16; Nu 1:1-16, 18, 19) The total number listed amounted to 603,550, excluding the Levites, who would have no inheritance in the land. These paid no tabernacle tax and were not required to serve in the army.​—Nu 1:44-47; 2:32, 33; 18:20, 24.

The record in the book of Numbers shows that a count was also made of the number of firstborn males from the 12 tribes, and of all the Levite males, from a month old and upward. (Nu 3:14, 15) This was because Jehovah had bought the firstborn ones as his when he saved them from the destruction of the firstborn in Egypt. Now he desired to use the Levites as his specially sanctified ones for sanctuary service. The Levites were therefore to be given to Jehovah by Israel to redeem the firstborn of the other tribes. The count showed that there were 22,000 male Levites and 22,273 non-Levite firstborn. (Nu 3:11-13, 39-43) To redeem the 273 firstborn in excess of the Levites, a five-shekel ($11) payment to the sanctuary was required for each.​—Nu 3:44-51.

Also the Kohathites, Gershonites, and Merarites between 30 and 50 years of age were numbered. These were given special assignments of service at the sanctuary.​—Nu 4:34-49.

On the Plains of Moab. A second recorded registration is the one taken on the Plains of Moab, after the scourge because of Israel’s sin in connection with Baal of Peor. It was found then that the number of men 20 years old and upward was 601,730, a decrease of 1,820 from the census taken nearly 39 years earlier. (Nu 26:1, 2, 51) The count of Levites from a month old and upward was 23,000, or 1,000 more than the first census.​—Nu 26:57, 62.

David’s Calamitous Registration. A registration taken toward the end of King David’s reign is also recorded, one that brought calamity. The account at 2 Samuel 24:1 reads: “And again the anger of Jehovah came to be hot against Israel, when one incited David against them, saying: ‘Go, take a count of Israel and Judah.’” The “one” who did the inciting is not there identified. Was it some human counselor? Was it Satan? Or even God? First Chronicles 21:1 helps to answer the question, saying: “Satan proceeded to stand up against Israel and to incite David to number Israel.” That rendering in the New World Translation agrees with the Hebrew text and with translations into Greek, Syriac, and Latin. It is also consistent with the renderings in other translations.​—AT, NE, RS, JB, Mo.

However, as the footnote at 1 Chronicles 21:1 points out, the Hebrew word sa·tanʹ can also be rendered “a resister.” Byington translates it “a Satan”; Young’s translation reads, “an adversary.” So it is possible that the “one” moving David to decide on the calamitous course was a bad human counselor.

Interestingly, a footnote at 2 Samuel 24:1 shows that this text could be rendered: “And again the anger of Jehovah came to be hot against Israel, when he incited David against them.” The translation in The Bible in Basic English reads: “Again the wrath of the Lord was burning against Israel, and moving David against them, he said, Go, take the number of Israel and Judah.” Hence, some commentators consider that the “one” or “he” who incited David to take the census was Jehovah. His ‘anger against Israel,’ according to this view, predated the census and was due to their recent rebellions against Jehovah and his appointed king, David, when they followed first ambitious Absalom and then the good-for-nothing Sheba, the son of Bichri, in opposition to David. (2Sa 15:10-12; 20:1, 2) Such a viewpoint could be harmonized with the view that Satan or some bad human counselor incited David if the incitement is viewed as something that Jehovah purposely allowed, as by removing his protection or restraining hand.​—Compare 1Ki 22:21-23; 1Sa 16:14; see FOREKNOWLEDGE, FOREORDINATION (Concerning individuals).

On David’s part, there may have been wrong motive due to pride and trust in the numbers of his army, hence a failing to manifest full reliance on Jehovah. In any case, it is clear that on this occasion David’s chief concern was not that of glorifying God.

Objected to by Joab. When ordered to take the registration, David’s general Joab objected, saying, “May Jehovah your God even add to the people a hundred times as many as they are while the very eyes of my lord the king are seeing it. But as for my lord the king, why has he found delight in this thing?” (2Sa 24:3) Joab’s words imply that the national strength did not depend on numbers but on Jehovah, who could supply numbers if that was his will. Joab, at David’s insistence, took the census, but unwillingly, the report stating: “Levi and Benjamin he did not register in among them, because the king’s word had been detestable to Joab” (Levi not being counted, in accord with the law at Numbers 1:47-49). Joab either stopped before registering Benjamin or delayed the progress of the registration, and David came to his senses and called a halt to it before Joab had completed it. (1Ch 21:6) Joab may have avoided Benjamin because he did not want to stir up this tribe that was the tribe of Saul, which had fought David’s army under Joab before uniting with the other tribes under David. (2Sa 2:12-17) No doubt because the making of the count was wrong, it was not entered into “the account of the affairs of the days of King David.”​—1Ch 27:24.

The count revealed that Israel had 1,100,000 men and Judah had 470,000, according to the record at 1 Chronicles 21:5. The report at 2 Samuel 24:9 says 800,000 men of Israel and 500,000 men of Judah. Some believe that a scribal error exists. But it is unwise to ascribe error to the record when the circumstances, methods of counting, and so forth, are not fully understood. The two accounts may have reckoned the number from different viewpoints. For example, it is possible that members of the standing army and/​or their officers were counted or omitted. And different methods of reckoning may have caused a variation in the listing of certain men, as to whether they were under Judah or Israel. We find what may be such an instance at 1 Chronicles 27. Here 12 divisions in the king’s service are listed, naming all the tribes except Gad and Asher, and naming Levi and the two half tribes of Manasseh. This may have been because the men of Gad and Asher were combined under other heads at the time, or for other reasons not stated.

Jehovah’s judgment. Jehovah’s prophet Gad was sent to David, giving David, the authorizer of the census, a choice of one of three forms of punishment: a famine for three years, the sword of Israel’s enemies overtaking Israel for three months, or a pestilence for three days. David, leaning on God’s mercy rather than man’s, chose “to fall into the hand of Jehovah”; in the pestilence that followed, 70,000 persons died.​—1Ch 21:10-14.

Here another variation is found between the Samuel and Chronicles accounts. Whereas 2 Samuel 24:13 says seven years of famine, 1 Chronicles 21:12 says three. (The Greek Septuagint reads “three” in the Samuel account.) One proffered explanation is that the seven years referred to at Second Samuel would, in part, be an extension of the three years of famine that came because of the sin of Saul and his house against the Gibeonites. (2Sa 21:1, 2) The current year (the registration took 9 months and 20 days [2Sa 24:8]) would be the fourth, and three years to come would make seven. Although the difference may have been due to a copyist’s error, it may be said again that a full knowledge of all the facts and circumstances should be had before one reaches such a conclusion.

For the Temple Service. Sometime later David, who was now quite old, had the Levites numbered for future temple service, with Jehovah’s apparent approval. This count revealed that there were 38,000 Levites 30 years of age and upward, all able-bodied men. They were listed as follows: 24,000 supervisors, 6,000 officers and judges, 4,000 gatekeepers, and 4,000 musicians.​—1Ch 23:1-5.

In connection with the building of the temple we read: “Then Solomon took a count of all the men that were alien residents, who were in the land of Israel, after the census that David his father had taken of them; and there came to be found a hundred and fifty-three thousand six hundred. So he made seventy thousand of them burden bearers and eighty thousand cutters in the mountain and three thousand six hundred overseers for keeping the people in service.”​—2Ch 2:17, 18.

Later Registrations. There were other registrations carried out by succeeding kings of Israel and Judah. In the days of King Amaziah the men in Judah and Benjamin from 20 years upward numbered 300,000. (2Ch 25:5) In King Uzziah’s registration the army forces were 307,500 men, with 2,600 of the heads of the paternal houses over them.​—2Ch 26:11-13.

The returning exiles under Zerubbabel, in 537 B.C.E., were also enumerated. They included 42,360 Israelites, also 7,337 slaves and 200 singers (the Masoretic text of Nehemiah says 245 singers).​—Ezr 2:64, 65; Ne 7:66, 67; see NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF.

At the Time of Jesus’ Birth. Two registrations are mentioned in the Christian Greek Scriptures as taking place after Judea came under subjection to Rome. Such were not merely to ascertain population figures but, rather, were mainly for purposes of taxation and conscription of men for military service. Concerning the first of these we read: “Now in those days [c. 2 B.C.E.] a decree went forth from Caesar Augustus for all the inhabited earth to be registered; (this first registration took place when Quirinius was governor of Syria;) and all people went traveling to be registered, each one to his own city.” (Lu 2:1-3) This edict of the emperor proved providential, for it compelled Joseph and Mary to journey from the city of Nazareth to Bethlehem in spite of the fact that Mary was then heavy with child; thus Jesus was born in the city of David in fulfillment of prophecy.​—Lu 2:4-7; Mic 5:2.

Two registrations under Quirinius. Bible critics have said that the only census taken while Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was governor of Syria was about 6 C.E., which event sparked a rebellion by Judas the Galilean and the Zealots. (Ac 5:37) This was really the second registration under Quirinius, for inscriptions discovered at and near Antioch revealed that some years earlier Quirinius had served as the emperor’s legate in Syria. (The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament, by W. Ramsay, 1979, pp. 285, 291) Concerning this, the Dictionnaire du Nouveau Testament in Crampon’s French Bible (1939 ed., p. 360) says: “The scholarly researches of Zumpt (Commentat. epigraph., II, 86-104; De Syria romana provincia, 97-98) and of Mommsen (Res gestae divi Augusti) place beyond doubt that Quirinius was twice governor of Syria.” Many scholars locate the time of Quirinius’ first governorship as somewhere between the years 4 and 1 B.C.E., probably from 3 to 2 B.C.E. Their method of arriving at these dates, however, is not solid, and the actual period of this governorship remains indefinite. (See QUIRINIUS.) His second governorship, however, included 6 C.E., according to details reported by Josephus.​—Jewish Antiquities, XVIII, 26 (ii, 1).

So historian and Bible writer Luke was correct when he said concerning the registration at the time of Jesus’ birth: “This first registration took place when Quirinius was governor of Syria,” distinguishing it from the second, which occurred later under the same Quirinius and to which Gamaliel makes reference as reported by Luke at Acts 5:37.

See REPENTANCE.

(Re·ha·biʹah) [Jehovah Has Widened (Made Spacious)].

Grandson of Moses, only son of Eliezer, and founder of a family of Levites that still existed when David was king.​—1Ch 23:15, 17; 24:21; 26:25.

(Reʹhob) [Public Square; Broad Place].

1. Father of Hadadezer the king of Zobah against whom David warred victoriously.​—2Sa 8:3-12.

2. One of the Levites or the forefather of one attesting by seal a covenant in the time of Nehemiah and Ezra.​—Ne 10:1, 9, 11.

3. A place or city mentioned in the exploration of Canaan by the 12 Hebrew spies sent out by Moses. (Nu 13:21) It is probably the same place as “Rehob” and “Beth-rehob” mentioned at 2 Samuel 10:6, 8.​—See BETH-REHOB.

4. The name of at least one and perhaps two cities in the territory of Asher. (Jos 19:24, 28, 30) While some scholars consider both references to denote the same city, other related texts appear to indicate separate sites. Thus, Judges 1:31, 32 says that “Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of . . . Rehob,” so that the Asherites were obliged to dwell among the Canaanites of the land, whereas Joshua 21:27, 31 and 1 Chronicles 6:71, 75 state that Rehob was given to the sons of Gershom (Gershon) as a Levite city. Those favoring but one site consider these texts to mean that the task of evicting the Canaanites from Rehob was hindered originally but was accomplished at a later time, thus allowing for its occupation by the Levites. Those favoring two sites suggest one town as remaining in Canaanite hands, the other as among those initially captured by Asher and given to the Levites. For the two sites, some suggest an identification with Khirbet el-ʽAmri, about 4 km (2.5 mi) NE of Achzib, for the Rehob of Joshua 19:28; and for that of the other texts, they suggest Tell el-Bir el-Gharbi (Tel Bira), about 10 km (6 mi) ESE of Acco. This latter site is the one preferred by those who consider the name to refer to but one town.

(Re·ho·boʹam) [Widen (Make Spacious) the People].

Son of Solomon by his Ammonite wife Naamah. He succeeded his father to the throne in 997 B.C.E. at the age of 41 and reigned for 17 years. (1Ki 14:21; 1Ch 3:10; 2Ch 9:31) Rehoboam had the distinction of being, at least briefly, the last king of the united monarchy and then the first ruler of the southern two-tribe kingdom of Judah and Benjamin, for shortly after he was crowned king at Shechem by all Israel, the united kingdom of David and Solomon was divided. Ten tribes withdrew their support from Rehoboam and made Jeroboam their king, even as Jehovah by the prophet Ahijah had foretold.​—1Ki 11:29-31; 12:1; 2Ch 10:1.

This separation took place after a delegation of the people, with Jeroboam as their spokesman, pleaded with Rehoboam to remove some of the oppressive measures laid upon them by Solomon. Rehoboam took the matter under advisement. First he consulted the older men, who counseled him to heed the cry of the people and reduce their burdens, thereby he would prove himself a wise king, one who would be loved by his people. But Rehoboam spurned this mature advice and sought the counsel of young men with whom he had grown up. They told the king he should in effect make his little finger thicker than his father’s hips, increasing their yoke burden and chastising them with scourges instead of whips.​—1Ki 12:2-15; 2Ch 10:3-15; 13:6, 7.

This arrogant, high-handed attitude adopted by Rehoboam completely alienated the majority of the people. The only tribes continuing to support the house of David were Judah and Benjamin, while the priests and Levites of both kingdoms, as well as isolated individuals of the ten tribes, also gave support.​—1Ki 12:16, 17; 2Ch 10:16, 17; 11:13, 14, 16.

Subsequently, when King Rehoboam and Adoram (Hadoram), who was over the conscripted forced laborers, entered the territory of the secessionists, Adoram was stoned to death but the king managed to escape with his life. (1Ki 12:18; 2Ch 10:18) Rehoboam then mustered an army of 180,000 from among Judah and Benjamin, determined that the ten tribes would be forcibly brought under his subjection. But Jehovah through the prophet Shemaiah forbade them to fight against their brothers, since God himself had decreed the division of the kingdom. Though open warfare on the battlefield was thus avoided, hostilities between the two factions continued all the days of Rehoboam.​—1Ki 12:19-24; 15:6; 2Ch 10:19; 11:1-4.

For a time Rehoboam walked quite closely to the laws of Jehovah, and early in his reign he built and fortified a number of cities, some of which he stocked with food supplies. (2Ch 11:5-12, 17) However, when his kingship was firmly established he abandoned Jehovah’s worship and led Judah in the practice of detestable sex worship, perhaps because of Ammonite influence on his mother’s side of the family. (1Ki 14:22-24; 2Ch 12:1) This, in turn, provoked Jehovah’s anger, and in expression of it he raised up the king of Egypt, Shishak, who, together with his allies, overran the land and captured a number of cities in Judah in the fifth year of Rehoboam’s reign. Had it not been that Rehoboam and his princes humbled themselves in repentance, not even Jerusalem would have escaped. As it was, the treasures of the temple and the king’s house, including the gold shields that Solomon had made, were taken by Shishak as his booty. Rehoboam then replaced these shields with copper ones.​—1Ki 14:25-28; 2Ch 12:2-12.

During his lifetime Rehoboam married 18 wives, including Mahalath a granddaughter of David, and Maacah the granddaughter of David’s son Absalom. Maacah was his favorite wife and the mother of Abijah (Abijam), one of his 28 sons and the heir apparent to the throne. Other members of Rehoboam’s family included 60 concubines and 60 daughters.​—2Ch 11:18-22.

Before his death at the age of 58, and the ascension of Abijah to the throne in 980 B.C.E., Rehoboam distributed many gifts among his other sons, presumably to prevent any revolt against Abijah after his death. (1Ki 14:31; 2Ch 11:23; 12:16) On the whole, Rehoboam’s life is best summed up in this commentary: “He did what was bad, for he had not firmly established his heart to search for Jehovah.”​—2Ch 12:14.

(Re·hoʹboth) [Broad Places].

1. The name that Isaac gave to a well he dug. (Ge 26:22) Some scholars have tentatively identified Rehoboth with Ruheibeh (Horvat Rehovot [ba-Negev]), about 35 km (22 mi) SW of Beer-sheba. The names bear certain similarities. In naming the well, Isaac said that now God had given ample room. He and his shepherds could be fruitful without interfering with, or getting interference from, others.

2. A city of unknown location from which came Shaul, an early Edomite king. (Ge 36:31, 37; 1Ch 1:43, 48) In both references to it, the place is called “Rehoboth by the River.” Generally in the Bible the designation “the River” means the Euphrates. (Ps 72:8; 2Ch 9:26; compare Ex 23:31 and De 11:24.) Thus some geographers have suggested either of two sites near the junction of the Khabur and Euphrates rivers. This would mean, however, that Shaul was from a city far outside of Edomite territory. Certain modern geographers, however, believe that in these two instances “the River” refers to a river in Edom or near one of its borders, such as the Zered (Wadi el-Hasaʼ) running into the southern end of the Dead Sea. Geographer J. Simons proposes a site about 37 km (23 mi) SE of the tip of the Dead Sea.

(Re·hoʹboth-Ir) [Broad Places (or, Public Squares) of the City].

Possibly a suburb of ancient Nineveh. It was built by Nimrod. The exact location is not now known.​—Ge 10:10, 11.

[ר] (or, as commonly Anglicized, resh).

The 20th letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Because of the similarity in form between rehsh [ר] and daʹleth [ד], the two were sometimes confused by copyists.

In the Hebrew, this letter appears as the initial letter in each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:153-160.

(Reʹhum).

1. One of those listed at the head of the register of exiles who returned from Babylon to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Jeshua. (Ezr 2:1, 2) His name is spelled Nehum at Nehemiah 7:7.

2. A priest listed among those who returned with Zerubbabel. (Ne 12:1, 3) A simple transposition of Hebrew characters would make him the one called Harim in Nehemiah 12:15 and elsewhere.​—See HARIM No. 1.

3. “The chief government official” (of the Persian Empire) who presumably resided in Samaria and who took the lead in writing a letter to King Artaxerxes that falsely accused the Jews concerning their intentions in rebuilding Jerusalem. The imperial reply ordered Rehum and his compatriots to go to Jerusalem and forcibly put a stop to the Jews’ rebuilding work. (Ezr 4:8-24) Haggai and Zechariah, however, not long thereafter stirred up the Jews to resume their rebuilding, which was finally sanctioned by the Persian review of Cyrus’ original decree.​—Ezr 5:1–6:13.

4. A Levite son of Bani who helped repair Jerusalem’s wall.​—Ne 3:17.

5. The head of a postexilic family whose representative, if not he himself, attested to the covenant of faithfulness during Nehemiah’s governorship.​—Ne 10:1, 14, 25.

(Reʹi) [Companion; Friend].

One of David’s mighty men who refused to join Adonijah’s conspiracy.​—1Ki 1:8.

(Reʹkem) [possibly, Weaver].

1. A king of Midian, one of five such who were slain when Midian was punished for having seduced Israel with immorality. The five, presumably vassals of the Amorites, were also called “dukes of Sihon.”​—Nu 31:8; Jos 13:21.

2. A descendant of Manasseh.​—1Ch 7:14, 16.

3. A descendant of Judah through Hezron’s son Caleb.​—1Ch 2:4, 5, 9, 42-44.

4. A city in Benjamin’s territory allotment, the location of which is unknown.​—Jos 18:21, 27, 28.

Material aid for those who, because of old age, famine, or other adversity, do not have sufficient of life’s necessities.

A distinguishing feature of God’s faithful servants has been their willingness to assist needy persons. (Job 29:16; 31:19-22; Jas 1:27) In the first century the Jerusalem congregation arranged for distribution of food to needy Christian widows, and later, seven qualified men were appointed to see to it that no deserving widows were overlooked in the daily distribution. (Ac 6:1-6) Years afterward, in his letter to Timothy, the apostle Paul pointed out that the congregation’s relief to widows should be limited to those not less than 60 years of age. Such widows were to be persons having a record of good works in the advancement of Christianity. (1Ti 5:9, 10) However, it was the primary obligation of children and grandchildren, not of the congregation, to care for aged parents and grandparents. As Paul wrote: “If any widow has children or grandchildren, let these learn first to practice godly devotion in their own household and to keep paying a due compensation to their parents and grandparents, for this is acceptable in God’s sight.”​—1Ti 5:4, 16.

There were times when Christian congregations shared in relief measures in behalf of their brothers in other places. Thus, when the prophet Agabus foretold that a great famine would occur, the disciples in the congregation of Syrian Antioch “determined, each of them according as anyone could afford it, to send a relief ministration to the brothers dwelling in Judea.” (Ac 11:28, 29) Other organized relief measures for needy brothers in Judea were likewise strictly voluntary.​—Ro 15:25-27; 1Co 16:1-3; 2Co 9:5, 7.

(Rem·a·liʹah).

Father of Israelite King Pekah.​—2Ki 15:25; 2Ch 28:6; Isa 7:4, 5.

(Reʹmeth).

A boundary city of Issachar. (Jos 19:17, 18, 21) It appears to be the same as JARMUTH No. 2 and RAMOTH No. 1.

Ones left over of a family, nation, tribe, or kind; the survivors of a slaughter or destruction or of some epoch-making event; those remaining faithful to God out of a nation or body of people who have fallen away.

Noah and his family were a remnant of the world of mankind that preceded the Flood. The verb sha·ʼarʹ, “remain,” is used to describe them as the only ones who kept on surviving. (Ge 7:23) Later, in Egypt, Joseph told his brothers: “Consequently God sent me ahead of you in order to place a remnant [that is, survivors to preserve posterity and family line; compare 2Sa 14:7] for you men in the earth and to keep you alive by a great escape.”​—Ge 45:4, 7, ftn.

A Remnant of Israel Returns From Exile. The most frequent references in the Bible to a remnant are concerning those who were God’s people. Through his prophets God warned Israel of punishment for their disobedience, but he also gave comfort by foretelling that a remnant would be preserved, would return to Jerusalem and rebuild it, and would prosper and bear fruitage.​—Isa 1:9; 11:11, 16; 37:31, 32; Jer 23:3; 31:7-9.

After King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon had carried captives off with King Jehoiachin of Judah in 617 B.C.E., Jehovah gave the prophet Jeremiah a vision. Good figs in the vision represented the exiles of Judah who were taken to Babylon and whom Jehovah would in time restore to their land. Bad figs represented King Zedekiah, his princes, and others like them that were not then taken into exile (actually the larger number of Jerusalem’s and Judah’s inhabitants) as well as those living in Egypt. In 607 B.C.E. nearly all those in Judah were killed or exiled at the final destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. And later the ones in Egypt, including those who fled there after 607 B.C.E., suffered when Nebuchadnezzar made a military excursion into that land.​—Jer 24:1-10; 44:14; 46:13-17; La 1:1-6.

Jehovah promised the faithful remnant, those who repented of their sins for which he let them go into exile, that he would collect them together as a flock in a pen. (Mic 2:12) This he did in 537 B.C.E., with the return of a remnant of the Jews under Zerubbabel. (Ezr 2:1, 2) They were formerly “limping,” but Jehovah gathered them, and (even though they were under Persian domination) because of having Governor Zerubbabel over them and because true worship was reestablished at the temple, God was again their real King. (Mic 4:6, 7) They would become like “dew from Jehovah,” which brings refreshment and prosperity, and they would be courageous and strong like “a lion among the beasts of a forest.” (Mic 5:7-9) This latter prophecy apparently had a fulfillment during the Maccabean period, resulting in the preservation of the Jews in their land and the preservation of the temple, until the Messiah’s coming.

The name of the prophet Isaiah’s son Shear-jashub incorporated the noun sheʼarʹ (verb, sha·ʼarʹ) and meant “A Mere Remnant (Those Remaining Over) Will Return.” The name was a sign that Jerusalem would fall and its inhabitants would go into exile but that God would have mercy and bring back a remnant to the land.​—Isa 7:3.

No Remnant Left to Babylon. Babylon was used by God to punish his people, but she went beyond what was necessary and took delight in oppressing and mistreating them and intended to hold them in exile forever. This was actually because Babylon was the chief exponent of false worship and hated Jehovah and his worship. For these reasons God declared: “I will cut off from Babylon name and remnant and progeny and posterity.” (Isa 14:22) Eventually, Babylon became a complete and permanent desolation, with no remnant to return to rebuild her.

A Remnant of Israel Accepts Christ. When Jesus Christ came to the nation of Israel the majority rejected him. Only a remnant expressed faith and became followers of him. The apostle Paul applies certain prophecies of Isaiah (10:22, 23; 1:9) to this Jewish remnant when he writes: “Moreover, Isaiah cries out concerning Israel: ‘Although the number of the sons of Israel may be as the sand of the sea, it is the remnant that will be saved. For Jehovah will make an accounting on the earth, concluding it and cutting it short.’ Also, just as Isaiah had said aforetime: ‘Unless Jehovah of hosts had left a seed to us, we should have become just like Sodom, and we should have been made just like Gomorrah.’” (Ro 9:27-29) Again Paul uses the example of the 7,000 left in Elijah’s time who had not bowed to Baal, and he says: “In this way, therefore, at the present season also a remnant has turned up according to a choosing due to undeserved kindness.”​—Ro 11:5.

The Spiritual Remnant. In Revelation (12) John recorded his vision of a woman in heaven, and a dragon, and concluded that part of the vision, saying: “And the dragon grew wrathful at the woman, and went off to wage war with the remaining ones [loi·ponʹ] of her seed, who observe the commandments of God and have the work of bearing witness to Jesus.” These “remaining ones” who have “the work of bearing witness to Jesus” are the last ones on earth of the brothers of Jesus Christ, living on earth after the hurling of the Devil down to the earth and the announcement: “Now have come to pass the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the authority of his Christ.” The Devil, the dragon, wars against this remnant of Christ’s spiritual brothers by means of the ‘wild beasts’ and “the image of the wild beast,” described in Revelation chapter 13. But the remnant are victorious, as Revelation chapter 14 discloses.​—See SEED.

The verb “repent” means “change one’s mind with regard to past (or intended) action, or conduct, on account of regret or dissatisfaction,” or “feel regret, contrition, or compunction, for what one has done or omitted to do.” In many texts this is the thought of the Hebrew na·chamʹ. Na·chamʹ can mean “feel regret, keep a period of mourning, repent” (Ex 13:17; Ge 38:12; Job 42:6), as well as “comfort oneself” (2Sa 13:39; Eze 5:13), “relieve oneself (as of one’s enemies).” (Isa 1:24) Whether regret or comfort, it can be seen that a change of mind or feeling is involved.

In Greek, two verbs are used in connection with repentance: me·ta·no·eʹo and me·ta·meʹlo·mai. The first is composed of me·taʹ, meaning “after,” and no·eʹo (related to nous, the mind, disposition, or moral consciousness), meaning “perceive, discern, mentally grasp, or be aware.” Hence, me·ta·no·eʹo literally means afterknowing (in contrast to foreknowing) and signifies a change in one’s mind, attitude, or purpose. Me·ta·meʹlo·mai, on the other hand, comes from meʹlo, meaning “care for or have interest in.” The prefix me·taʹ (after) gives the verb the sense of ‘regretting’ (Mt 21:29; 2Co 7:8), or ‘repenting.’

Thus, me·ta·no·eʹo stresses the changed viewpoint or disposition, a rejecting of the past or intended course or action as undesirable (Re 2:5; 3:3), while me·ta·meʹlo·mai lays emphasis on the feeling of regret experienced by the person. (Mt 21:29) As the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (edited by G. Kittel, Vol. IV, p. 629) comments: “When, therefore, the N[ew] T[estament] separates the meanings of [these terms], it displays a clear awareness of the unchangeable substance of both concepts. In contrast, Hellenistic usage often effaced the boundary between the two words.”​—Translated by G. Bromiley, 1969.

Of course, a changed viewpoint often brings with it a changed feeling, or the feeling of regret may precede and lead to a definite change in viewpoint or will. (1Sa 24:5-7) So the two terms, though having distinct meanings, are closely related.

Human Repentance for Sins. The cause making repentance necessary is sin, failure to meet God’s righteous requirements. (1Jo 5:17) Since all mankind was sold into sin by Adam, all of his descendants have had need of repentance. (Ps 51:5; Ro 3:23; 5:12) As shown in the article RECONCILIATION, repentance (followed by conversion) is a prerequisite for man’s being reconciled to God.

Repentance may be with regard to one’s whole life course, a course that has been contrary to God’s purpose and will and, instead, has been in harmony with the world under the control of God’s Adversary. (1Pe 4:3; 1Jo 2:15-17; 5:19) Or it may be with regard to a particular aspect of one’s life, a wrong practice marring and staining an otherwise acceptable course; it may be for just a single act of wrongdoing or even a wrong tendency, inclination, or attitude. (Ps 141:3, 4; Pr 6:16-19; Jas 2:9; 4:13-17; 1Jo 2:1) The range of faults may therefore be very broad or quite specific.

Similarly, the extent to which the person deviates from righteousness may be major or minor, and logically the degree of regret ought to be commensurate with the degree of deviation. The Israelites went “deep in their revolt” against Jehovah and were “rotting away” in their transgressions. (Isa 31:6; 64:5, 6; Eze 33:10) On the other hand, the apostle Paul speaks of the “man [who] takes some false step before he is aware of it,” and counsels that those with spiritual qualifications “try to readjust such a man in a spirit of mildness.” (Ga 6:1) Since Jehovah mercifully considers the fleshly weakness of his servants, they need not be in a constant state of remorse due to their errors resulting from inherent imperfection. (Ps 103:8-14; 130:3) If they are conscientiously walking in God’s ways, they may be joyful.​—Php 4:4-6; 1Jo 3:19-22.

Repentance may be on the part of those who already have enjoyed a favorable relationship with God but who have strayed away and suffered the loss of God’s favor and blessing. (1Pe 2:25) Israel was in a covenant with God​—they were “a holy people” chosen from among all the nations (De 7:6; Ex 19:5, 6); Christians also came into a righteous standing before God through the new covenant mediated by Christ. (1Co 11:25; 1Pe 2:9, 10) In the case of such ones who strayed, repentance led to the restoration of their right relationship with God and the consequent benefits and blessings of that relationship. (Jer 15:19-21; Jas 4:8-10) For those who have not previously enjoyed such a relationship with God, such as the pagan peoples of the non-Israelite nations during the time God’s covenant was in force with Israel (Eph 2:11, 12) and also those persons of whatever race or nationality who are outside the Christian congregation, repentance is a primary and essential step toward being brought into a right standing before God, with life everlasting in view.​—Ac 11:18; 17:30; 20:21.

Repentance may be on a collective basis as well as an individual basis. Thus, Jonah’s preaching caused the entire city of Nineveh, from the king down to “the least one of them,” to repent, for in God’s eyes they were all sharers in the wrong. (Jon 3:5-9; compare Jer 18:7, 8.) The entire congregation of returned Israelites, under Ezra’s prompting, acknowledged community guilt before God, expressing repentance through their princely representatives. (Ezr 10:7-14; compare 2Ch 29:1, 10; 30:1-15; 31:1, 2.) The congregation at Corinth expressed repentance over having tolerated in their midst a practicer of gross wrongdoing. (Compare 2Co 7:8-11; 1Co 5:1-5.) Even the prophets Jeremiah and Daniel did not completely exempt themselves of guilt when confessing the wrongdoing of Judah that led to her overthrow.​—La 3:40-42; Da 9:4, 5.

What true repentance requires. Repentance involves both mind and heart. The wrongness of the course or act must be recognized, and this requires an acknowledgment that God’s standards and will are righteous. Ignorance or forgetfulness of his will and standards is a barrier to repentance. (2Ki 22:10, 11, 18, 19; Jon 1:1, 2; 4:11; Ro 10:2, 3) For this reason Jehovah mercifully has sent prophets and preachers to call persons to repentance. (Jer 7:13; 25:4-6; Mr 1:14, 15; 6:12; Lu 24:27) By means of the publishing of the good news through the Christian congregation, and particularly from the time of the conversion of Cornelius forward, God has been “telling mankind that they should all everywhere repent.” (Ac 17:22, 23, 29-31; 13:38, 39) God’s Word​—whether written or spoken—​is the means for ‘persuading’ them, convincing them of the rightness of God’s way and the wrongness of their own ways. (Compare Lu 16:30, 31; 1Co 14:24, 25; Heb 4:12, 13.) God’s law is “perfect, bringing back the soul.”​—Ps 19:7.

King David speaks of ‘teaching transgressors God’s ways so that they may turn back to him’ (Ps 51:13), these sinners doubtless being fellow Israelites. Timothy was instructed not to fight when dealing with Christians in the congregations he served, but to ‘instruct with mildness those not favorably disposed’ as God might give them “repentance leading to an accurate knowledge of truth, and they may come back to their proper senses out from the snare of the Devil.” (2Ti 2:23-26) Hence, the call to repentance may be given inside the congregation of God’s people, as well as outside of it.

The person must see that he has sinned against God. (Ps 51:3, 4; Jer 3:25) This may be quite evident where open or direct blasphemy, vocal misuse of God’s name, or worship of other gods, as by use of idol images, is involved. (Ex 20:2-7) But even in what one might consider a “private matter” or something between himself and another human, wrongs committed must be recognized as sins against God, a treating of Jehovah with disrespect. (Compare 2Sa 12:7-14; Ps 51:4; Lu 15:21.) Even wrongs committed in ignorance or by mistake are to be recognized as making one guilty before the Sovereign Ruler, Jehovah God.​—Compare Le 5:17-19; Ps 51:5, 6; 119:67; 1Ti 1:13-16.

The work of the prophets was largely one of convincing Israel of its sin (Isa 58:1, 2; Mic 3:8-11), whether this was idolatry (Eze 14:6), injustice, oppression of one’s fellowman (Jer 34:14-16; Isa 1:16, 17), immorality (Jer 5:7-9), or failing to trust in Jehovah God, and, instead, trusting in men and the military might of nations (1Sa 12:19-21; Jer 2:35-37; Ho 12:6; 14:1-3). The message of John the Baptizer and that of Jesus Christ were calls to repentance on the part of the Jews. (Mt 3:1, 2, 7, 8; 4:17) John and Jesus stripped away from the people and their religious leaders the cloak of self-righteousness and of observance of man-made traditions and hypocrisy, exposing the sinful state of the nation.​—Lu 3:7, 8; Mt 15:1-9; 23:1-39; Joh 8:31-47; 9:40, 41.

Getting the sense with the heart. For repentance, then, there must initially be a hearing and seeing with understanding, due to a receptive heart. (Compare Isa 6:9, 10; Mt 13:13-15; Ac 28:26, 27.) Not only does the mind perceive and grasp what the ear hears and the eye sees, but more important, those repenting “get the sense of it [“the thought,” Joh 12:40] with their hearts.” (Mt 13:15; Ac 28:27) There is, therefore, not merely an intellectual recognition of the wrongness of their ways but a heart appreciation of this fact. With those already having knowledge of God, it may be a case of their ‘calling back to their heart’ such knowledge of him and his commandments (De 4:39; compare Pr 24:32; Isa 44:18-20) so that they can “come to their senses.” (1Ki 8:47) With the right heart motivation they can ‘make their mind over, proving to themselves the good, acceptable, and perfect will of God.’​—Ro 12:2.

If there is faith and love for God in the person’s heart, there will be sincere regret, sadness over the wrong course. Appreciation for God’s goodness and greatness will make transgressors feel keen remorse at having brought reproach on his name. (Compare Job 42:1-6.) Love for neighbor will also make them rue the harm they have done to others, the bad example set, perhaps the way in which they have sullied the reputation of God’s people among outsiders. They seek forgiveness because they desire to honor God’s name and to work for the good of their neighbor. (1Ki 8:33, 34; Ps 25:7-11; 51:11-15; Da 9:18, 19) Repentantly they feel “broken at heart,” “crushed and lowly in spirit” (Ps 34:18; 51:17; Isa 57:15), they are “contrite in spirit and trembling at [God’s] word,” which calls for repentance (Isa 66:2), and in effect, they “come quivering to Jehovah and to his goodness.” (Ho 3:5) When David acted foolishly in the matter of a census, his “heart began to beat him.”​—2Sa 24:10.

There must therefore be a definite rejection of the bad course, a heartfelt hating of it, repugnance for it (Ps 97:10; 101:3; 119:104; Ro 12:9; compare Heb 1:9; Jude 23), for “the fear of Jehovah means the hating of bad,” including self-exaltation, pride, the bad way, and the perverse mouth. (Pr 8:13; 4:24) Along with this, there must be a loving of righteousness and the firm determination to adhere to a righteous course from then on. Without both this hatred of bad and love of righteousness, there will be no genuine force to the repentance, no following through with true conversion. Thus, King Rehoboam humbled himself under the expression of Jehovah’s anger, but afterward Rehoboam “did what was bad, for he had not firmly established his heart to search for Jehovah.”​—2Ch 12:12-14; compare Ho 6:4-6.

Sadness in a godly way, not that of the world. The apostle Paul, in his second letter to the Corinthians, refers to the “sadness in a godly way” that they expressed as a result of the reproof given them in his first letter. (2Co 7:8-13) He had ‘regretted’ (me·ta·meʹlo·mai) having to write them so sternly and causing them pain, but he ceased to feel any regret upon seeing that the sadness his rebuke produced was of a godly sort, leading to earnest repentance (me·taʹnoi·a) for their wrong attitude and course. He knew that the pain he had caused them was working to their good and would cause them “no damage.” The sadness leading to repentance was not something they should regret either, for it kept them on the way of salvation; it saved them from backsliding or apostasy and gave them hope of life everlasting. He contrasts this sadness with “the sadness of the world [that] produces death.” Such does not stem from faith and love of God and righteousness. The world’s sadness, born of failure, disappointment, loss, punishment for wrongdoing, and shame (compare Pr 5:3-14, 22, 23; 25:8-10), is often accompanied by or produces bitterness, resentment, envy; and it leads to no lasting benefit, no improvement, no genuine hope. (Compare Pr 1:24-32; 1Th 4:13, 14.) Worldly sadness mourns the unpleasant consequences of sin, but it does not mourn the sin itself and the reproach it brings on God’s name.​—Isa 65:13-15; Jer 6:13-15, 22-26; Re 18:9-11, 15, 17-19; contrast Eze 9:4.

Cain’s case illustrates this, he being the first one called on by God to repent. Cain was divinely warned to “turn to doing good” so that sin should not win out over him. Rather than repent of his murderous hatred, he let it motivate him to kill his brother. Questioned by God, he gave a devious reply, and only when sentence was pronounced on him did he express any regret​—regret over the severity of the punishment, not over the wrong committed. (Ge 4:5-14) He thus showed that he “originated with the wicked one.”​—1Jo 3:12.

Worldly sadness was also displayed by Esau when he learned that his brother Jacob had received the blessing of firstborn (a right Esau had callously sold to Jacob). (Ge 25:29-34) Esau cried out “in an extremely loud and bitter manner,” with tears seeking “repentance” (me·taʹnoi·a)​—not his own, but “a change of mind” on the part of his father. (Ge 27:34; Heb 12:17, Int) He regretted his loss, not the materialistic attitude that caused him to ‘despise the birthright.’​—Ge 25:34.

Judas, after having betrayed Jesus, “felt remorse [form of me·ta·meʹlo·mai],” tried to return the bribe he had bargained for, and thereafter committed suicide by hanging. (Mt 27:3-5) The enormity of his crime and, likely, the awful certainty of divine judgment against him evidently overwhelmed him. (Compare Heb 10:26, 27, 31; Jas 2:19.) He felt the remorse of guilt, despair, even desperation, but there is nothing to show he expressed the godly sadness that leads to repentance (me·taʹnoi·a). He sought out, not God, but the Jewish leaders to confess his sin to them, returning the money evidently with the mistaken idea that he could thereby to some extent undo his crime. (Compare Jas 5:3, 4; Eze 7:19.) To the crime of treason and contributing to the death of an innocent man, he added that of self-murder. His course is in contrast with that of Peter, whose bitter weeping after having denied his Lord was due to heartfelt repentance, which led to his being restored.​—Mt 26:75; compare Lu 22:31, 32.

Regret, remorse, and tears, then, are not a certain measure of genuine repentance; the heart motive is determinative. Hosea voices Jehovah’s denunciation of Israel, for in their distress “they did not call to [him] for aid with their heart, although they kept howling on their beds. On account of their grain and sweet wine they kept loafing about . . . And they proceeded to return, not to anything higher.” Their groaning for relief in time of calamity was selfishly motivated, and if granted relief, they did not use the opportunity to improve their relationship with God by closer adherence to his high standards (compare Isa 55:8-11); they were like “a loose bow” that never hits the mark. (Ho 7:14-16; compare Ps 78:57; Jas 4:3.) Fasting, weeping, and wailing were proper​—but only if the repentant ones ‘ripped apart their hearts’ and not simply their garments.​—Joe 2:12, 13; see FAST; MOURNING.

Confession of wrongdoing. The repentant person, then, humbles himself and seeks God’s face (2Ch 7:13, 14; 33:10-13; Jas 4:6-10), supplicating his forgiveness. (Mt 6:12) He is not like the self-righteous Pharisee of Jesus’ illustration but is like the tax collector whom Jesus portrayed as beating his breast and saying, “O God, be gracious to me a sinner.” (Lu 18:9-14) The apostle John states: “If we make the statement: ‘We have no sin,’ we are misleading ourselves and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins, he is faithful and righteous so as to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.” (1Jo 1:8, 9) “He that is covering over his transgressions will not succeed, but he that is confessing and leaving them will be shown mercy.”​—Pr 28:13; compare Ps 32:3-5; Jos 7:19-26; 1Ti 5:24.

Daniel’s prayer at Daniel 9:15-19 is a model of sincere confession, expressing prime concern for Jehovah’s name and basing its appeal “not according to our righteous acts . . . but according to your many mercies.” Compare, also, the humble expression of the prodigal son. (Lu 15:17-21) Sincerely repentant ones ‘raise their heart along with their palms to God,’ confessing their transgression and seeking forgiveness.​—La 3:40-42.

Confessing sins to one another. The disciple James counsels: “Openly confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may get healed.” (Jas 5:16) Such confession is not because any human serves as “helper [“advocate,” RS]” for man with God, since Christ alone fills that role by virtue of his propitiatory sacrifice. (1Jo 2:1, 2) Humans, of themselves, cannot actually right the wrong toward God, on their own behalf or on behalf of others, being unable to provide the needed atonement. (Ps 49:7, 8) However, Christians can help one another, and their prayers on behalf of their brothers, while not having an effect on God’s application of justice (since Christ’s ransom alone serves to bring remission of sins), do count with God in petitioning his giving needed help and strength to the one who has sinned and is seeking aid.​—See PRAYER (The Answering of Prayers).

Conversion​—A Turning Back. Repentance marks a halt in the person’s wrong course, the rejection of that wrong way, and the determination to take a right course. If genuine, it will therefore be followed by “conversion.” (Ac 15:3) Both in Hebrew and in Greek the verbs relating to conversion (Heb., shuv; Gr., streʹpho; e·pi·streʹpho) mean simply “turn back, turn around, or return.” (Ge 18:10; Pr 15:1; Jer 18:4; Joh 12:40; 21:20; Ac 15:36) Used in a spiritual sense, this can refer to either a turning away from God (hence turning back to a sinful course [Nu 14:43; De 30:17]) or a turning to God from a wrong way.​—1Ki 8:33.

Conversion implies more than a mere attitude or verbal expression; it involves the “works that befit repentance.” (Ac 26:20; Mt 3:8) It is an active ‘seeking,’ ‘searching,’ ‘inquiring’ for Jehovah with all one’s heart and soul. (De 4:29; 1Ki 8:48; Jer 29:12-14) This, of necessity, means seeking God’s favor by ‘listening to his voice’ as expressed in his Word (De 4:30; 30:2, 8), ‘showing insight into his trueness’ through better understanding and appreciation of his ways and will (Da 9:13), observing and ‘doing’ his commandments (Ne 1:9; De 30:10; 2Ki 23:24, 25), “keeping loving-kindness and justice” and ‘hoping in God constantly’ (Ho 12:6), abandoning the use of religious images or the idolizing of creatures so as to “direct [one’s] heart unswervingly to Jehovah and serve him alone” (1Sa 7:3; Ac 14:11-15; 1Th 1:9, 10), and walking in his ways and not in the way of the nations (Le 20:23) or in one’s own way (Isa 55:6-8). Prayers, sacrifices, fastings, and observance of sacred festivals are meaningless and are of no value with God unless they are accompanied by good works, justice, the elimination of oppression and violence, the exercise of mercy.​—Isa 1:10-19; 58:3-7; Jer 18:11.

This calls for “a new heart and a new spirit” (Eze 18:31); one’s changed thinking, motivation, and aim in life produce a new frame of mind, disposition, and moral force. For the one whose life course changes, the result is a “new personality which was created according to God’s will in true righteousness and loyalty” (Eph 4:17-24), free from immorality, covetousness, as well as violent speech and conduct. (Col 3:5-10; contrast Ho 5:4-6.) For such ones God causes the spirit of wisdom to “bubble forth,” making his words known to them.​—Pr 1:23; compare 2Ti 2:25.

Thus genuine repentance has real impact, generates force, moves the person to “turn around.” (Ac 3:19) Hence Jesus could say to those in Laodicea: “Be zealous and repent.” (Re 3:19; compare Re 2:5; 3:2, 3.) There is evidence of ‘great earnestness, clearing of oneself, godly fear, longing, and righting of the wrong.’ (2Co 7:10, 11) Absence of concern for rectifying wrongs committed shows lack of true repentance.​—Compare Eze 33:14, 15; Lu 19:8.

The expression “newly converted man,” “recent convert” (RS), in Greek (ne·oʹphy·tos) literally means “newly planted” or “newly grown.” (1Ti 3:6) Such a man was not to be assigned ministerial duties in a congregation lest he become “puffed up with pride and fall into the judgment passed upon the Devil.”

What are the “dead works” from which Christians must repent?

Hebrews 6:1, 2 shows that “primary doctrine” includes “repentance from dead works, and faith toward God,” followed by the teaching on baptisms, the laying on of hands, the resurrection, and everlasting judgment. The “dead works” (an expression appearing elsewhere only at Heb 9:14) evidently mean not merely sinful works of wrongdoing, works of the fallen flesh that lead one to death (Ro 8:6; Ga 6:8), but all works that in themselves are spiritually dead, vain, fruitless.

This would include works of self-justification, efforts by men to establish their own righteousness apart from Christ Jesus and his ransom sacrifice. Thus, the formal observance of the Law by the Jewish religious leaders and others constituted “dead works” because it lacked the vital ingredient of faith. (Ro 9:30-33; 10:2-4) This caused them to stumble at Christ Jesus, God’s “Chief Agent . . . to give repentance to Israel and forgiveness of sins,” instead of repenting. (Ac 5:31-33; 10:43; 20:21) So, too, would the observance of the Law, as though it were still in force, become “dead works” after Christ Jesus had fulfilled it. (Ga 2:16) Similarly, all works done that might otherwise be of value become “dead works” if the motivation is not that of love, love of God and love of neighbor. (1Co 13:1-3) Love, in turn, must be “in deed and truth,” harmonizing with God’s will and ways communicated to us through his Word. (1Jo 3:18; 5:2, 3; Mt 7:21-23; 15:6-9; Heb 4:12) The one turning in faith to God through Christ Jesus repents from all works rightly classed as “dead works,” and thereafter avoids them, his conscience thereby becoming cleansed.​—Heb 9:14.

Baptism (immersion in water), except in the case of Jesus, was a divinely provided symbol associated with repentance, both on the part of those among the Jewish nation (which had failed to keep God’s covenant while it was in force) and on the part of people of the nations who ‘turned around’ to render sacred service to God.​—Mt 3:11; Ac 2:38; 10:45-48; 13:23, 24; 19:4; see BAPTISM.

Unrepentant. Lack of genuine repentance led to exile for Israel and Judah, two destructions of Jerusalem, and finally, complete rejection of the nation by God. When reproved, they did not really return to God but kept “going back into the popular course, like a horse that is dashing into the battle.” (Jer 8:4-6; 2Ki 17:12-23; 2Ch 36:11-21; Lu 19:41-44; Mt 21:33-43; 23:37, 38) Because in their heart they did not want to repent and ‘turn back,’ what they heard and saw brought no understanding and knowledge; a “veil” lay on their hearts. (Isa 6:9, 10; 2Co 3:12-18; 4:3, 4) Unfaithful religious leaders and prophets, as well as false prophetesses, contributed to this, strengthening the people in their wrongdoing. (Jer 23:14; Eze 13:17, 22, 23; Mt 23:13, 15) Christian prophecies foretold that future divine action reproving men and calling them to repentance would be similarly rejected by many. It foretold that the things they would suffer would only harden and embitter them to the point of blaspheming God, even though it would be their own rejection of his righteous ways that would form the root and generative cause of all their troubles and plagues. (Re 9:20, 21; 16:9, 11) Such ones ‘store up wrath for themselves on the day of revealing God’s judgment.’​—Ro 2:5.

Beyond repentance. Those ‘practicing sin willfully’ after having received the accurate knowledge of the truth have gone beyond the point of repentance, for they have rejected the very purpose for which God’s Son died and so have joined the ranks of those who sentenced him to death, in effect, ‘impaling the Son of God afresh for themselves and exposing him to public shame.’ (Heb 6:4-8; 10:26-29) This, then, is unforgivable sin. (Mr 3:28, 29) It would have been better for such “not to have accurately known the path of righteousness than after knowing it accurately to turn away from the holy commandment delivered to them.”​—2Pe 2:20-22.

Since Adam and Eve were perfect creatures, and since God’s command to them was explicit and understood by both, it is evident that their sinning was willful and was not excusable on the basis of any human weakness or imperfection. Hence, God’s words to them afterward offer no invitation to repentance. (Ge 3:16-24) So, too, with the spirit creature who had induced them into rebellion. His end and the end of other angelic creatures who joined him is everlasting destruction. (Ge 3:14, 15; Mt 25:41) Judas, though imperfect, had lived in intimate association with God’s own Son and yet turned traitor; Jesus himself referred to him as “the son of destruction.” (Joh 17:12) The apostate “man of lawlessness” is also called “the son of destruction.” (2Th 2:3; see ANTICHRIST; APOSTASY; MAN OF LAWLESSNESS.) All those classed as figurative “goats” at the time of Jesus’ kingly judgment of mankind likewise “depart into everlasting cutting-off,” no invitation to repentance being extended to them.​—Mt 25:33, 41-46.

Resurrection Affords Opportunity. By contrast, when addressing certain first-century Jewish cities, Jesus referred to a future judgment day in which they would be involved. (Mt 10:14, 15; 11:20-24) That implies that at least some people from those cities would be resurrected, and even though their formerly unrepentant attitude would make it very hard for them to repent, they would have opportunity to manifest humble repentance and “turn around” in conversion to God through Christ. Those failing to do so will receive everlasting destruction. (Compare Re 20:11-15; see JUDGMENT DAY.) Those, however, who follow a course like many scribes and Pharisees, who willfully and knowingly fought the manifestation of God’s spirit through Christ, will receive no resurrection, and so they cannot “flee from the judgment of Gehenna.”​—Mt 23:13, 33; Mr 3:22-30.

Evildoer on the stake. The evildoer on the stake who showed a measure of faith in Jesus, impaled alongside, was given the promise of being in Paradise. (Lu 23:39-43; see PARADISE.) While some have endeavored to read into this promise the idea that the evildoer was thereby guaranteed life everlasting, the evidence of the many scriptures already considered does not allow this. Though he admitted the wrongness of his criminal activity in contrast with Jesus’ innocence (Lu 23:41), there is nothing to show that the evildoer had come to ‘hate badness and love righteousness’; in his dying state he obviously was in no position to ‘turn around’ and produce the “works that befit repentance”; he had not been baptized. (Ac 3:19; 26:20) It therefore appears that upon his resurrection from the dead he will be given the opportunity to take this course.​—Compare Re 20:12, 13.

How can God, who is perfect, “feel regret”?

In the majority of cases where the Hebrew na·chamʹ is used in the sense of “feeling regret,” the reference is to Jehovah God. Genesis 6:6, 7 states that “Jehovah felt regrets that he had made men in the earth, and he felt hurt at his heart,” their wickedness being so great that God determined he would wipe them off the surface of the ground by means of the global Flood. This cannot mean that God felt regret in the sense of having made a mistake in his work of creation, for “perfect is his activity.” (De 32:4, 5) Regret is the opposite of pleasurable satisfaction and rejoicing. Hence, it must be that God regretted that after he had created mankind, their conduct became so evil that he now found himself obliged (and justly so) to destroy all mankind with the exception of Noah and his family. For God ‘takes no delight in the death of the wicked.’​—Eze 33:11.

M’Clintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia comments: “God himself is said to repent [na·chamʹ, feel regret]; but this can only be understood of his altering his conduct towards his creatures, either in the bestowing of good or infliction of evil​—which change in the divine conduct is founded on a change in his creatures; and thus, speaking after the manner of men, God is said to repent.” (1894, Vol. VIII, p. 1042) God’s righteous standards remain constant, stable, unchanging, free from fluctuation. (Mal 3:6; Jas 1:17) No circumstance can cause him to change his mind about these, to turn from them, or to abandon them. However, the attitude and reactions of his intelligent creatures toward those perfect standards and toward God’s application of them can be good or bad. If good, this is pleasing to God; if bad, it causes regret. Moreover, the creature’s attitude can change from good to bad or bad to good, and since God does not change his standards to accommodate them, his pleasure (and accompanying blessings) can accordingly change to regret (and accompanying discipline or punishment) or vice versa. His judgments and decisions, then, are totally free from caprice, fickleness, unreliability, or error; hence he is free from all erratic or eccentric conduct.​—Eze 18:21-30; 33:7-20.

A potter may begin to make one type of vessel and then change to another style if the vessel is “spoiled by the potter’s hand.” (Jer 18:3, 4) By this example Jehovah illustrates, not that he is like a human potter in ‘spoiling by his hand,’ but rather, that he has divine authority over mankind, authority to adjust his dealings with them according to the way they respond or fail to respond to his righteousness and mercy. (Compare Isa 45:9; Ro 9:19-21.) He can thus “feel regret over the calamity that [he] had thought to execute” upon a nation, or “feel regret over the good that [he] said to [himself] to do for its good,” all depending upon the reaction of the nation to his prior dealings with it. (Jer 18:5-10) Thus, it is not that the Great Potter, Jehovah, errs, but rather, that the human “clay” undergoes a “metamorphosis” (change of form or composition) as to its heart condition, producing regret, or a change of feeling, on Jehovah’s part.

This is true of individuals as well as of nations, and the very fact that Jehovah God speaks of his ‘feeling regret’ over certain of his servants, such as King Saul, who turned away from righteousness, shows that God does not predestinate the future of such individuals. (See FOREKNOWLEDGE, FOREORDINATION.) God’s regret over Saul’s deviation does not mean that God’s choice of him as king had been erroneous and was to be regretted on that ground. God must rather have felt regret because Saul, as a free moral agent, had not made good use of the splendid privilege and opportunity God had afforded him, and because Saul’s change called for a change in God’s dealings with him.​—1Sa 15:10, 11, 26.

The prophet Samuel, in declaring God’s adverse decision regarding Saul, stated that “the Excellency of Israel will not prove false, and He will not feel regrets, for He is not an earthling man so as to feel regrets.” (1Sa 15:28, 29) Earthling men frequently prove untrue to their word, fail to make good their promises, or do not live up to the terms of their agreements; being imperfect, they commit errors in judgment, causing them regret. This is never the case with God.​—Ps 132:11; Isa 45:23, 24; 55:10, 11.

God’s covenant made between God and “all flesh” after the Flood, for example, unconditionally guaranteed that God would never again bring a flood of waters over all the earth. (Ge 9:8-17) There is, then, no possibility of God’s changing with regard to that covenant or ‘regretting it.’ Similarly, in his covenant with Abraham, God “stepped in with an oath” as “a legal guarantee” so as to “demonstrate more abundantly to the heirs of the promise the unchangeableness of his counsel,” his promise and his oath being “two unchangeable things in which it is impossible for God to lie.” (Heb 6:13-18) God’s sworn covenant with his Son for a priesthood like that of Melchizedek was likewise something over which God would “feel no regret.”​—Heb 7:20, 21; Ps 110:4; compare Ro 11:29.

However, in stating a promise or making a covenant, God may set out requirements, conditions to be met by those with whom the promise or covenant is made. He promised Israel that they would become his “special property” and “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation,” if they would strictly obey his voice and keep his covenant. (Ex 19:5, 6) God held true to his side of the covenant, but Israel failed; they violated that covenant time and again. (Mal 3:6, 7; compare Ne 9:16-19, 26-31.) So, when God finally annulled that covenant he did so with complete justice, the responsibility for the nonfulfillment of his promise resting entirely with the offending Israelites.​—Mt 21:43; Heb 8:7-9.

In the same way God can “feel regret” and ‘turn back’ from carrying out some punishment when his warning of such action produces a change in attitude and conduct on the part of the offenders. (De 13:17; Ps 90:13) They have returned to him and he ‘returns’ to them. (Zec 8:3; Mal 3:7) Instead of being ‘pained,’ he now rejoices, for he finds no delight in bringing death to sinners. (Lu 15:10; Eze 18:32) While never shifting away from his righteous standards, God extends help so that persons can return to him; they are encouraged to do so. He kindly invites them to return, ‘spreading out his hands’ and saying by means of his representatives, “Turn back, please, . . . that I may not cause calamity to you,” “Do not do, please, this detestable sort of thing that I have hated.” (Isa 65:1, 2; Jer 25:5, 6; 44:4, 5) He gives ample time for change (Ne 9:30; compare Re 2:20-23) and shows great patience and forbearance, since “he does not desire any to be destroyed but desires all to attain to repentance.” (2Pe 3:8, 9; Ro 2:4, 5) On occasion he kindly saw to it that his message was accompanied by powerful works, or miracles, that established the divine commission of his messengers and helped strengthen faith in those hearing. (Ac 9:32-35) When his message receives no response, he employs discipline; he withdraws his favor and protection, thereby allowing the unrepentant ones to undergo privations, famine, suffering of oppression from their enemies. This may bring them to their senses, may restore their proper fear of God, or may cause them to realize that their course was stupid and that their set of values was wrong.​—2Ch 33:10-13; Ne 9:28, 29; Am 4:6-11.

However, his patience has its limits, and when these are reached he gets “tired of feeling regret”; then his decision to render punishment is unchangeable. (Jer 15:6, 7; 23:19, 20; Le 26:14-33) He is no longer merely “thinking” or “forming” against such ones a calamity (Jer 18:11; 26:3-6) but has reached an irreversible decision.​—2Ki 23:24-27; Isa 43:13; Jer 4:28; Zep 3:8; Re 11:17, 18.

God’s willingness to forgive repentant ones, as well as his mercifully opening the way to such forgiveness even in the face of repeated offenses, sets the example for all of his servants.​—Mt 18:21, 22; Mr 3:28; Lu 17:3, 4; 1Jo 1:9; see FORGIVENESS.

(Rephʹa·el) [God Has Healed].

A son of Obed-edom’s firstborn Shemaiah. He was assigned with his brothers as a gatekeeper caring for the storehouses on the S of the sanctuary.​—1Ch 26:4, 7, 8, 15.

(Reʹphah).

An Ephraimite ancestor of Joshua.​—1Ch 7:22-27.

(Re·phaʹiah) [Jah Has Healed].

1. Second-named son of Tola and head of a paternal house in the tribe of Issachar.​—1Ch 7:1, 2.

2. A Benjamite descendant of King Saul and of Jonathan. (1Ch 9:39-43) He is called Raphah at 1 Chronicles 8:37.

3. One of the four sons of Ishi who, likely during Hezekiah’s reign, led 500 Simeonites against the Amalekites who had escaped into Mount Seir. The Simeonites then took over this territory.​—1Ch 4:41-43.

4. A postexilic descendant of David.​—1Ch 3:5, 9, 10, 21.

5. An official in Jerusalem who helped on Nehemiah’s project of repairing Jerusalem’s wall; son of Hur.​—Ne 3:9.

(Rephʹa·im).

A tall people or tribe. There is uncertainty as to the meaning and origin of the name. Likely, they were called Rephaim because of being descendants of a man named Raphah. At 2 Samuel 21:16 ha·Ra·phahʹ (literally, the Raphah) seems to employ the father’s name to stand for the entire giant race.

At some early period the Rephaim evidently dwelt E of the Dead Sea. The Moabites, who dispossessed them, referred to the Rephaim as Emim (“Frightful Things”). The Ammonites called them Zamzummim (possibly from a root meaning “have in mind; scheme”). (De 2:10, 11, 19, 20) When King Chedorlaomer of Elam came W to fight five rebellious kings near the Dead Sea (taking Lot captive), he defeated the Rephaim in Ashteroth-karnaim. (Ge 14:1, 5) This locates the Rephaim at that time in Bashan, E of the Jordan. Shortly thereafter God said that he would give Abraham’s descendants the Promised Land, which included territory where the Rephaim lived.​—Ge 15:18-20.

More than 400 years later, just before Israel entered Canaan, “the land of the Rephaim” was still identified with Bashan. There the Israelites defeated Og the king of Bashan (De 3:3, 11, 13; Jos 12:4; 13:12), who alone “remained of what was left of the Rephaim.” It is uncertain whether this means that he was the last king of the Rephaim or that he was the last of the Rephaim in that section, for Rephaim were shortly found W of the Jordan.

In the Promised Land the Israelites had problems with the Rephaim, for some of them persisted in the forests of the mountainous region of Ephraim. The sons of Joseph were afraid to drive them away. (Jos 17:14-18) When David was fighting the Philistines, he and his servants struck down four men “born to the Rephaim in Gath.” One of them was described as “a man of extraordinary size whose fingers and toes were in sixes, twenty-four.” The description of their armor indicates that they were all men of great stature. One of these was “Lahmi the brother of Goliath the Gittite.” (1Ch 20:4-8) This Goliath, whom David killed, was in height six cubits and a span (2.9 m; 9.5 ft). (1Sa 17:4-7) The account at 2 Samuel 21:16-22 reads “Goliath,” instead of “the brother of Goliath,” as at 1 Chronicles 20:5, which may indicate that there were two Goliaths.​—See GOLIATH.

The Hebrew repha·ʼimʹ is used in another sense in the Bible. Sometimes it clearly applies, not to a specific people, but to those who are dead. Linking the word to a root meaning “drop down, relax,” some scholars conclude that it means “sunken, powerless ones.” In texts where it has this sense, the New World Translation renders it “those impotent in death,” and many other translations use renderings such as “dead things,” “deceased,” and “dead.”​—Job 26:5; Ps 88:10; Pr 2:18; 9:18; 21:16; Isa 14:9; 26:14, 19.

A broad plain or valley near Jerusalem. Presumably it got its name from the tall people named the Rephaim who must have lived there at one time. It is listed as a boundary between the territories of Judah and Benjamin. (Jos 15:1, 8; 18:11, 16) At its northern end was a mountain or a ridge that faced the Valley of Hinnom. The traditional identification for the Low Plain of Rephaim is the plain of the Baqaʽ to the SW of the Temple Mount. It descends for about 1.5 km (1 mi) and then narrows into the Wadi el Werd (Nahal Refaʼim).

The plain’s fertility (Isa 17:5) as well as its proximity to Jerusalem and Bethlehem would have made it desirable to the Philistines. (2Sa 23:13, 14; 1Ch 11:15-19) After David had been anointed as king over Israel, the Philistines made raids in the Low Plain of Rephaim. David followed God’s directions, however, and was victorious over them.​—2Sa 5:17-25; 1Ch 14:8-17; see BAAL-PERAZIM.

(Reʹphan).

An astral deity mentioned by Stephen in his defense before the Sanhedrin. (Ac 7:43) Stephen likely quoted from the Greek Septuagint the words of Amos 5:26, 27, to show that Israel’s exile resulted from their worship of foreign deities, such as Rephan (Kaiwan). The translators of the Septuagint rendered “Kaiwan” as Rhai·phanʹ, but in Stephen’s quotation the designation Rhom·phaʹ appears in the Westcott and Hort Greek text. In a note on Acts 7:43, F. J. A. Hort remarked: “In the LXX of Am v 26 the form used is [Rhai·phanʹ] or [Rhe·phanʹ], which is similar to Repa or Repha, one of the names of the Egyptian Saturn (Seb).”​—The New Testament in the Original Greek, by Westcott and Hort, Graz, 1974, Vol. II, appendix, p. 92; see ASTROLOGERS (Molech and Astrology in Israel); KAIWAN.

(Rephʹi·dim) [from a root meaning “spread out”; or, “refresh”].

One of the places where the Israelites encamped on their journey from the Red Sea to Mount Sinai. Upon leaving the Wilderness of Sin, they encamped at Dophkah, then Alush, and finally Rephidim. (Ex 17:1; Nu 33:12-14) Lacking water at Rephidim, the people complained and quarreled with Moses. At God’s direction Moses took some of the older men to “the rock in Horeb” (evidently the mountainous region of Horeb, not Mount Horeb) and struck a rock with his rod. Water flowed, apparently reaching to the people camped in Rephidim.​—Ex 17:2-7.

The Amalekites attacked the Israelites in Rephidim, but with Joshua leading in the fighting, God’s people vanquished the attackers. (Ex 17:8-16) The placement of the account in the record indicates that it was while the Israelites were at Rephidim that Moses’ father-in-law brought Zipporah and her two sons to Moses and suggested that he select chiefs to aid in judging the people.​—Ex 18:1-27.

The exact location of Rephidim is uncertain. The various locations offered by geographers have been determined in accord with their understanding as to the route the Israelites traveled from the Wilderness of Sin to Mount Sinai. Many modern geographers identify Rephidim with a site in Wadi Refayied, not far to the NW of the traditional location of Mount Sinai. Adjacent to the wadi is a hill of the same name, on which Moses might have stood with arms elevated during the battle with the Amalekites.

Defamation, disgrace, or scorn, whether for just cause or not. Commonly translated from the Greek noun o·nei·di·smosʹ (and oʹnei·dos) and the Hebrew noun cher·pahʹ.​—Compare Ge 30:23; Ps 69:9; Lu 1:25; Ro 15:3.

Causes for reproach could, of course, vary according to circumstances. For an Israelite male to be uncircumcised during the period of the Law covenant would be cause for reproach. (Compare Jg 14:3.) Thus when all the males born during the wilderness journey were finally circumcised just after the crossing of the Jordan, Jehovah stated: “Today I have rolled away the reproach of Egypt from off you.” (Jos 5:2-9) Since the evidence indicates that the Egyptians practiced circumcision, this may mean that now the Egyptians would have no basis for reproaching Israel because so many of its males were uncircumcised. (Jer 9:25, 26; see CIRCUMCISION.) On the other hand, circumcision was “a sign of the covenant” between Jehovah and Abraham’s seed. (Ge 17:9-11) Now, by this circumcision of the new generation that had grown up in the wilderness (the older generation having died there), circumcision could point to a reaffirming of their covenant relationship with God. The 40 years of wandering having ended, God was also showing them his favor; he had introduced them into the Promised Land and would now enable them to conquer it. Therefore any past Egyptian taunts, or reproach, because of what may have seemed to the Egyptians to be inability of Jehovah to bring Israel into a land of their own were now proved false. Christians under the new covenant, whether Jew or Gentile, were not subject to reproach for uncircumcision.​—Ro 2:25-29; 3:28-30; 4:9-12; 1Co 7:18, 19.

For Hebrew women, continuous singleness or widowhood (Isa 4:1; 54:4), also barrenness (Ge 30:23; Lu 1:25), was viewed as a reproach. God’s promise concerning the Abrahamic seed and its becoming like “the grains of sand that are on the seashore” doubtless contributed to this feeling. (Ge 22:15-18; compare 24:59, 60.) By contrast, the apostle Paul commended singleness on the part of both men and women where the motive was service to God with undivided attention, and he said of the widow that “she is happier if she remains as she is, according to my opinion.”​—1Co 7:25-28, 32-40; compare Mt 19:10-12.

Wrongs such as idolatry, adultery, thievery, and other types of immorality, however, were constant in being cause for reproach, as was all disloyalty to God.​—2Sa 13:13; Pr 6:32, 33; Ro 1:18-32; 2:17-24.

Those seeking God’s approval cannot be defaming others. Concerning one who would be a guest in God’s tent, the psalmist declared: “To his companion he has done nothing bad, and no reproach has he taken up against his intimate acquaintance,” that is, he does not spread defamatory information about his intimate acquaintance. (Ps 15:1, 3) One who defrauds the lowly one or holds him in derision actually reproaches God (Pr 14:31; 17:5), as do those who level reproach against God’s servants. (Ps 74:18-23) Ultimately such reproaching leads to calamity for those engaging in it.​—Zep 2:8-10.

Jehovah Silences Reproach of His People. When the Israelites engaged in false worship or in unrighteous practices, they reproached Jehovah God, because they made the worship of Jehovah appear no better than that of the nations around them. (Isa 65:7) For their unfaithfulness God permitted calamity to befall them, causing them to become an object of reproach among the nations. (Eze 5:14, 15) Not appreciating that the judgment was from God, other nations attributed it to his inability to save Israel, so additional reproach was brought upon Jehovah. Therefore, in restoring the Israelites on the basis of their repentance, Jehovah cleared his name of such reproach.​—Eze 36:15, 20, 21, 30-36.

Whenever situations arise that make it appear that God has seemingly forsaken his people, others conclude that he is not protecting or blessing them and so they heap reproach upon them. (Ps 31:9-11; 42:10; 74:10, 11; 79:4, 5; 102:8, 9; Joe 2:17-19) But eventually Jehovah demonstrates his saving acts and thereby silences those who reproach.​—Ne 1:3; 2:17; 4:4; 6:16.

Bearing Reproach for Sake of Christ. Also, in carrying out their commission, Jehovah’s servants have been reproached by those to whom they were sent. This was the experience of Jeremiah (Jer 6:10; 15:15-18; 20:8), of Christ Jesus (Mt 27:44; Mr 15:32; Ro 15:3), and of his followers (Heb 10:33). An individual who is reproached for the sake of Christ has reason for rejoicing, because his continued faithfulness under such reproach leads to a great reward in the heavens (Mt 5:11; Lu 6:22, 23) and constitutes a proof of his having God’s spirit. (1Pe 4:14) Therefore, reproach should not be feared. To those knowing righteousness, Jehovah said: “Do not be afraid of the reproach of mortal men, and do not be struck with terror just because of their abusive words.”​—Isa 51:7.

Although knowing the great reproach that would come upon him, Jesus voluntarily submitted to the doing of his Father’s will to the point of dying a shameful death on a torture stake. (Isa 53:3-7; Joh 10:17, 18; Heb 12:2; 13:12, 13) To render good to others, he did not seek to please himself but was willing to take reproach from persons who by word and deed reproached Jehovah God. The apostle Paul pointed to this when highlighting the right attitude toward spiritually weak ones: “We, though, who are strong ought to bear the weaknesses of those not strong, and not to be pleasing ourselves. Let each of us please his neighbor in what is good for his upbuilding. For even the Christ did not please himself; but just as it is written: ‘The reproaches of those who were reproaching you have fallen upon me.’” (Ro 15:1-3) In the previous chapter (Ro 14), Paul had discussed the weaknesses of some Christians who had conscientious scruples regarding certain foods or the observance of a certain day; he had shown the need to avoid being a cause for stumbling such ones and the need to build them up. This would likely mean that those strong in understanding, faith, and conscience would have to restrict themselves in the exercise of their rights, and this might be somewhat unpleasant to them. Nevertheless, they must “bear” (the verb here allowing both the sense of “carry” and “put up with or endure” [compare Ga 6:2; Re 2:2]) whatever burdens such weaknesses might cause them, imitating Christ. (Compare Mt 17:17-20; also Moses’ expression at Nu 11:10-15.) Additionally, they should not simply forge ahead in their own pursuit of God’s favor, blessings, and rewards, while pushing aside these spiritually weak ones as an encumbrance or allowing them to be lopped off by the Adversary because of lack of consideration and help from these strong ones.​—Compare 1Co 9:19-23; 10:23-33.

Avoid Bringing Reproach by Wrongdoing. While expecting reproach for righteousness’ sake, a Christian should never “suffer as a murderer or a thief or an evildoer or as a busybody in other people’s matters.” (1Pe 4:15, 16) One of the qualifications for an overseer in the Christian congregation is that he “have a fine testimony from people on the outside, in order that he might not fall into reproach.” This would prevent bringing dishonor to the position and would avoid the spread of unfavorable talk about true Christians because of the conduct of one of the prominent members of the congregation.​—1Ti 3:7.

That which is designed to convince others of their having erred, in order to move them to acknowledge their mistakes and correct these. Unlike reproof, a rebuke may be a censure without any laying bare of fault by the presentation of evidence. (See REBUKE.) The Hebrew verb ya·khachʹ (reprove) is a legal term also rendered ‘call to account’ (Isa 37:4) and “set matters straight” (Isa 1:18; 2:4). The corresponding Greek term is e·legʹkho. Both terms often convey the idea of convicting one of sin and summoning that one to repentance. Regarding the use of e·legʹkho in the Greek Septuagint to translate many occurrences of ya·khachʹ, the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament states: “It denotes the disciplining and educating of man by God as a result of His judicial activity. This embraces all aspects of education from the conviction of the sinner to chastisement and punishment, from the instruction of the righteous by severe tests to his direction by teaching and admonition.”​—Edited by G. Kittel, 1964, Vol. II, p. 473.

When Needed. In God’s law to Israel, persons transgressed against were urged: “You must not hate your brother in your heart. You should by all means reprove your associate, that you may not bear sin along with him.” (Le 19:17) Feelings of resentment against the erring brother were not to be allowed to fester. He was to be reproved with a view to recovering him from sin. Failure to discharge this moral responsibility could contribute toward further sin, and the person who held back from reproving his associate would share responsibility for such sin.​—Compare Mt 18:15.

At times, elders representative of the congregation must reprove serious wrongdoers, even doing so in the presence of others who have knowledge of the sinful course. Such reproof is not reserved only for those who show a receptiveness to it. Elders are also called on to “reprove those who contradict” and to ‘reprove with severity’ those who are “unruly” and “profitless talkers.”​—1Ti 5:20; Tit 1:9, 10, 13.

Although reproof can benefit those who receive it, the efforts of the reprover are not always appreciated. Thus Proverbs 9:7, 8 warns: “He that is correcting the ridiculer is taking to himself dishonor, and he that is giving a reproof to someone wicked​—a defect in him. Do not reprove a ridiculer, that he may not hate you. Give a reproof to a wise person and he will love you.”

Proper Attitude. Since the Scriptures are inspired of God, all reproof solidly based on them is really reproof from him. (2Ti 3:16) Jehovah’s reproof is an expression of love, not to be abhorred or rejected. (Pr 3:11, 12) As head of the Christian congregation, Jesus Christ, in affection for its members, sees to it that needed reproof is given through spiritually qualified men. (Re 3:14, 19) Wise ones appreciate that “the reproofs of discipline are the way of life.”​—Pr 6:23.

The sinful human tendency is to resent reproof and the human servant through whom it may be given. But yielding to this tendency degrades one to the level of an unreasoning beast lacking moral discrimination; as the inspired proverb expresses it: “A hater of reproof is unreasoning.” (Pr 12:1) In contrast, the psalmist David, who was himself repeatedly reproved, wrote: “Should the righteous one strike me, it would be a loving-kindness; and should he reprove me, it would be oil upon the head, which my head would not want to refuse.”​—Ps 141:5.

A reptile is a cold-blooded, vertebrate, air-breathing animal. The Hebrew term for reptiles comes from the verb za·chalʹ, meaning “glide.” As stated at Deuteronomy 32:24, among the things that would bring trouble upon idolatrous Israel was “the venom of reptiles of the dust,” evidently referring there to poisonous snakes. (Compare Jer 8:17.) At Micah 7:17, the nations that are overwhelmed by God’s power are spoken of as coming out of their defensive positions like excited reptiles.

In addition to serpents, other reptiles mentioned in the Bible are the chameleon, the gecko and other lizards.​—See comments under their individual names.

The Hebrew verb ga·ʼalʹ, appearing first in Genesis 48:16 (‘recover’), also has the meaning of “repurchase or redeem,” that is, to recover, redeem, or buy back the person, property, or inheritance of the next of kin; it was also used with reference to a blood avenger. (Ps 74:2; Isa 43:1) The next of kin having the obligation of being a repurchaser (Heb., go·ʼelʹ) evidently fell in this order: (1) brother, (2) uncle, (3) son of an uncle, (4) any other male blood relative of the family.​—Le 25:48, 49; compare the order in Nu 27:5-11; see AVENGER OF BLOOD.

Under the Mosaic Law, if an Israelite, because of economic circumstances, had sold himself into slavery, the repurchaser could buy him back out of slavery. (Le 25:47-54) Or, if he had sold his land inheritance, his repurchaser could buy back the property, and he could return to his possession. (Le 25:25-27) However, no thing “devoted,” “devoted to destruction,” not even a man’s life, could be repurchased.​—Le 27:21, 28, 29; see DEVOTED THING.

An example of the transaction of repurchase by a go·ʼelʹ is found in the book of Ruth. When Ruth reported that she had gleaned in the field of Boaz, her mother-in-law Naomi exclaimed: “The man is related to us. He is one of our repurchasers.” (Ru 2:20) Boaz accepted this obligation and concluded a covenant of repurchase before judges and witnesses, but only after another relative more closely related than Boaz had turned down this privilege.​—Ru 3:9, 12, 13; 4:1-17.

Jehovah as Repurchaser. By the sacrifice of his only-begotten Son, Jehovah as Repurchaser provided for the recovery of mankind from sin and death and the power of the grave. This Son had to come to earth, becoming “like his ‘brothers’ in all respects,” partaking of blood and flesh, thereby being a near relative of mankind. (Heb 2:11-17) The apostle Paul writes to Christians: “By means of him we have the release by ransom through the blood of that one.”​—Eph 1:7; compare Re 5:9; 14:3, 4; for further details see RANSOM.

(Reʹsen).

A city in Assyria built by Nimrod between Nineveh and Calah. Its location is otherwise unknown.​—Ge 10:10-12.

(Reʹsheph).

An Ephraimite; one of Joshua’s ancestors.​—1Ch 7:22-27.

See ALIEN RESIDENT.

[Heb., goʹpher].

A tree whose wood Noah used in the construction of the ark but which cannot be identified with any degree of certainty. (Ge 6:14) The King James Version simply transliterates the Hebrew name. On the basis of the similarity between the Hebrew name and the Hebrew term for “tar” (“pitch,” KJ; Heb., koʹpher) some relate it to some kind of resinous tree. Scholars generally favor the cypress, which is a very durable tree, extremely resistant to decay.​—See CYPRESS.

The giving of particular attention or deference to one judged worthy of esteem; a recognition and due regard for a thing or, especially, for another person, his qualities, achievements, office, position, or authority. To manifest respect is to “honor.” Various original-language words convey the thought of according to others honor, respect, or wholesome fear.​—See FEAR; HONOR.

Toward Jehovah and His Representatives. By reason of his being Creator, Jehovah God is worthy of the greatest honor from all his intelligent creatures. (Re 4:11) Such honor calls for individuals to render faithful obedience to him, obedience based on love for him and an appreciation for what he has done in their behalf. (Mal 1:6; 1Jo 5:3) It also includes the use of one’s valuable things on behalf of true worship.​—Pr 3:9.

One who appropriates to himself that which belongs to the Creator shows disrespect for sacred things. This was done by Hophni and Phinehas, the sons of High Priest Eli. They seized the best of every offering made to Jehovah. And Eli, by failing to take firm measures against his sons for this, honored them more than Jehovah.​—1Sa 2:12-17, 27-29.

Whereas the honor given by men to Jehovah God is manifested by faithful obedience to him and furthering the interests of his worship, God honors humans by blessing and rewarding them. (1Sa 2:30) Thus King David, who served Jehovah faithfully and desired to build a temple for housing the sacred ark of the covenant, was honored or rewarded with a covenant for a kingdom.​—2Sa 7:1-16; 1Ch 17:1-14.

As Jehovah’s spokesmen, the prophets, especially God’s Son Jesus Christ, were deserving of respect. But instead of being accorded such by the Israelites, they were abused verbally and physically, even to the point of being put to death. Israel’s disrespect for Jehovah’s representatives reached its climax in their killing his Son. For this reason Jehovah used the Roman armies to execute his vengeance upon unfaithful Jerusalem in 70 C.E.​—Mt 21:33-44; Mr 12:1-9; Lu 20:9-16; compare Joh 5:23.

In the Christian congregation. Those entrusted with special responsibilities as teachers in the Christian congregation deserved the support and cooperation of fellow believers. (Heb 13:7, 17) They were “worthy of double honor,” including voluntary material assistance for their hard work in behalf of the congregation.​—1Ti 5:17, 18; see OLDER MAN.

However, all Christians were entitled to honor from fellow believers. The apostle Paul counseled: “In showing honor to one another take the lead.” (Ro 12:10) As the individual Christian knows his own weaknesses and failings better than fellow believers do, it is only right that he put others ahead of himself, honoring or highly valuing them on account of their faithful work. (Php 2:1-4) Needy and deserving widows were honored by receiving material assistance from the congregation.​—1Ti 5:3, 9, 10.

Among family members. A wife is rightly to manifest wholesome fear, or deep respect, for her husband as head of the family. (Eph 5:33) This harmonizes with the preeminence given to man in God’s arrangement. Man, not woman, was created first, and he is “God’s image and glory.” (1Co 11:7-9; 1Ti 2:11-13) Sarah was a notable example of a woman who had deep respect for her husband. Her respect came from the heart, for Sarah referred to her husband as “lord,” not merely for others to hear but even “inside herself.”​—1Pe 3:1, 2, 5, 6; compare Ge 18:12.

On the other hand, husbands are admonished: “Continue dwelling in like manner with [your wives] according to knowledge, assigning them honor as to a weaker vessel, the feminine one, since you are also heirs with them of the undeserved favor of life.” (1Pe 3:7) Thus spirit-anointed Christian husbands were to take into consideration that their wives had an equal standing as joint heirs with Christ (compare Ro 8:17; Ga 3:28) and should be treated in an honorable way in recognition of the fact that they have less strength than men.

In relation to their children, parents are God’s representatives, authorized to train, discipline, and direct them. Parents are therefore entitled to honor, or respect. (Ex 20:12; Eph 6:1-3; Heb 12:9) This would not be limited to a child’s obedience and his manifesting a high regard for his parents. When necessary, it would include lovingly caring for parents in later life. (Compare Mt 15:4-6.) In the Christian congregation, one who failed to provide for an aged and needy parent was regarded as being worse than a person without faith. (1Ti 5:8) As the apostle Paul pointed out to Timothy, the congregation was not to take on the burden of caring for widows who had children or grandchildren that were able to render material assistance.​—1Ti 5:4.

Toward Rulers and Others. Honor, or respect, is also due men in high governmental station. A Christian shows such respect, not to gain some favor, but because it is God’s will. Personally these men may be corrupt. (Compare Lu 18:2-6; Ac 24:24-27.) But respect is rendered to them out of regard for the position of responsibility for which their office stands. (Ro 13:1, 2, 7; 1Pe 2:13, 14) Similarly, slaves were to consider their owners worthy of full honor, doing their assigned work and not giving cause for bringing reproach upon God’s name.​—1Ti 6:1.

When others demanded that a Christian give a reason for his hope, he was to do so “with a mild temper and deep respect [literally, fear].” Though questions might be propounded in an insulting manner, the Christian would present his reasons with calmness and gentleness, not responding in an irritated, angry, or resentful way. Though not cowed because of fear of men, the Christian would manifest deep respect, or a wholesome fear, as if in the presence of Jehovah God and the Lord Jesus Christ. (1Pe 3:14, 15, ftn) In this regard he could take as an example the angels, who, though greater in strength and power, do not present accusations in abusive terms.​—2Pe 2:11.

A bringing back to a former condition. Outstandingly, in the Scriptures, in connection with the return of Christ, mention is made of “times of restoration [form of Gr., a·po·ka·taʹsta·sis] of all things of which God spoke through the mouth of his holy prophets.”​—Ac 3:20, 21.

The King James Version here renders a·po·ka·taʹsta·sis as “restitution.” The Greek word itself comes from a·poʹ, meaning “back” or “again,” and ka·thiʹste·mi, literally meaning “set down.” The corresponding verb form is translated ‘restore’ in Acts 1:6. The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by G. Kittel, states that the basic meaning of the term is “restitution to an earlier state” or “restoration.” (Translated by G. Bromiley, 1964, Vol. I, p. 389) It was used by Jewish historian Josephus in referring to the return of the Jews from exile. In papyrus writings it is used of the repair of certain buildings, the restoration of estates to rightful owners, and a balancing of accounts.

The text itself does not specify what the things to be restored are, hence the “all things” must be ascertained by the study of God’s message spoken through his prophets.

The Greek word a·naʹsta·sis literally means “raising up; standing up.” It is used frequently in the Christian Greek Scriptures with reference to the resurrection of the dead. The Hebrew Scriptures at Hosea 13:14, quoted by the apostle Paul (1Co 15:54, 55), speak of the abolition of death and the rendering powerless of Sheol (Heb., sheʼohlʹ; Gr., haiʹdes). Sheʼohlʹ is rendered in various versions as “grave” and “pit.” The dead are spoken of as going there. (Ge 37:35; 1Ki 2:6; Ec 9:10) Its usage in the Scriptures, along with the usage of its Greek equivalent haiʹdes in the Christian Greek Scriptures, shows that it refers, not to an individual grave, but to the common grave of mankind, gravedom. (Eze 32:21-32; Re 20:13; see HADES; SHEOL.) To render Sheol powerless would mean to loosen its hold on those in it, which would imply the emptying of gravedom. This, of course, would require a resurrection, a raising up from the lifeless condition of death or out of the grave for those there.

Through Jesus Christ. The foregoing shows that the teaching of resurrection appears in the Hebrew Scriptures. Nevertheless, it remained for Jesus Christ to “shed light upon life and incorruption through the good news.” (2Ti 1:10) Jesus said: “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.” (Joh 14:6) Just how everlasting life would come, and more than that, incorruption for some, was brought to light through the good news about Jesus Christ. The apostle affirms that the resurrection is a sure hope, arguing: “Now if Christ is being preached that he has been raised up from the dead, how is it some among you say there is no resurrection of the dead? If, indeed, there is no resurrection of the dead, neither has Christ been raised up. But if Christ has not been raised up, our preaching is certainly in vain, and our faith is in vain. Moreover, we are also found false witnesses of God, because we have borne witness against God that he raised up the Christ, but whom he did not raise up if the dead are really not to be raised up. . . . Further, if Christ has not been raised up, your faith is useless; you are yet in your sins. . . . However, now Christ has been raised up from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep in death. For since death is through a man, resurrection of the dead is also through a man.”​—1Co 15:12-21.

Christ himself when on earth performed resurrections. (Lu 7:11-15; 8:49-56; Joh 11:38-44) Only through Jesus Christ can resurrection, with everlasting life thereafter, be possible.​—Joh 5:26.

A Sure Purpose of God. Jesus Christ pointed out to the Sadducees, a sect that did not believe in resurrection, that the writings of Moses in the Hebrew Scriptures, which they possessed and claimed to believe, prove there is a resurrection; Jesus reasoned that when Jehovah said He was “the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob” (who were actually dead), He counted those men as alive because of the resurrection that He, “the God, not of the dead, but of the living,” purposed to give them. God, because of his power, “makes the dead alive and calls the things that are not as though they were.” Paul includes this fact when speaking of Abraham’s faith.​—Mt 22:23, 31-33; Ro 4:17.

God’s ability to resurrect. For the One with the ability and power to create man in His own image, with a perfect body and with the potential for full expression of the marvelous characteristics implanted in the human personality, it would pose no insurmountable problem to resurrect an individual. If scientific principles established by God can be used by scientists to preserve and later reconstruct a visible and audible scene by means of video recording, how easy it is for the great Universal Sovereign and Creator to resurrect a person by repatterning the same personality in a newly formed body. Concerning the revitalizing of Sarah to have a child in her old age, the angel said: “Is anything too extraordinary for Jehovah?”​—Ge 18:14; Jer 32:17, 27.

How the Need for Resurrection Arose. In the beginning a resurrection was not necessary. It was not a part of God’s original purpose for mankind, because death was not the natural, purposed thing for humans. Rather, God indicated that he purposed the earth to be full of living humans, not a deteriorating, dying race. His work was perfect, hence without flaw, imperfection, or sickness. (De 32:4) Jehovah blessed the first human pair, telling them to multiply and fill the earth. (Ge 1:28) Such blessing certainly did not include sickness and death; God set no limited life span for man, but he told Adam that disobedience is what would cause death. This implies that man would otherwise live forever. Disobedience would incur God’s disfavor and remove his blessing, bringing a curse.​—Ge 2:17; 3:17-19.