(Paʹa·rai) [possibly from a root meaning “open wide”].

An Arbite and one of the mighty men of David’s military forces. (2Sa 23:8, 35) He may be identical with the Naarai mentioned at 1 Chronicles 11:37, in what appears to be a parallel list.

(Padʹdan) [possibly, Plain (Flatland)].

The shortened form of “Paddan-aram” (Ge 35:9; 48:7); apparently the same as “the field of Syria [Aram].” (Ge 28:6, 7; Ho 12:12) Paddan was a region around the city of Haran in northern Mesopotamia. (Ge 28:7, 10; 29:4) Though some consider Paddan and Aram-naharaim to be identical, it seems more likely that Paddan was a part of Aram-naharaim. (Ge 24:10, ftn; 25:20, ftn) This may be deduced from the fact that Aram-naharaim included mountainous territory, something that could not be true of Paddan, if its name is correctly understood to mean “plain,” “flatland.”​—Nu 23:7, ftn; De 23:4, ftn.

The patriarch Abraham resided temporarily at Haran in Paddan. (Ge 12:4; 28:7, 10) Later, from among the offspring of his relatives there, his son Isaac and then his grandson Jacob got their wives. (Ge 22:20-23; 25:20; 28:6) Jacob personally spent 20 years at Paddan in the service of his father-in-law Laban. (Ge 31:17, 18, 36, 41) While there, he became father to Dinah and 11 sons. (Ge 29:20–30:24) His 12th son, Benjamin, was born in Canaan.​—Ge 35:16-18, 22-26; 46:15; 48:7.

See PADDAN.

(Paʹdon) [from a root meaning “redeem”].

Paternal head of a family of Nethinim. “The sons of Padon” returned with Zerubbabel from Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 44; Ne 7:46, 47.

(Paʹgi·el) [Encounter With God].

Wilderness chieftain of the tribe of Asher; son of Ochran. (Nu 1:13, 16) He assisted Moses in taking the first census of Israel, presented his offering at the inauguration of the tabernacle altar, and took the military command of his tribe.​—Nu 1:4, 5, 13, 17-19; 2:27, 28; 7:11, 72-77; 10:26.

(Paʹhath-moʹab) [Governor of Moab].

Founder of a family in Israel. If he was an official over Moab, as his name might imply, it was probably during the time when Moab was under Judah’s domination. His holding such a position remains uncertain, however, as nothing is said of him personally in the Scripture record.

Pahath-moab’s descendants noted in Ezra and Nehemiah are all postexilic. Some of them comprised the second most numerous family to return with Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 2:1, 2, 6; Ne 7:11) By the time of Ezra’s return in 468 B.C.E., with more descendants of Pahath-moab accompanying him, some of the first group (or their offspring) had taken foreign wives, but they responded to Ezra’s admonition to dismiss them. (Ezr 8:1, 4; 10:30, 44) Another of this family, Hasshub, helped Nehemiah to repair Jerusalem’s wall, and a descendant or representative of theirs also attested by seal the agreement of faithfulness that was put forward shortly thereafter.​—Ne 3:11; 9:38; 10:1, 14.

A sensation of physical discomfort, whether moderate or severe; also acute mental or emotional distress.

Because of exhausting labor in cultivating cursed ground (Ge 3:17-19; 5:29), injurious words (Pr 15:1), the unresponsiveness of others to good (Ro 9:2), disease and other adversities (Job 2:13; 16:6), humans have experienced mental, emotional, and physical pain. Dreadful or frightening situations, whether real or visionary, have likewise given rise to pain.​—Ps 55:3, 4; Isa 21:1-3; Jer 4:19, 20; Eze 30:4, 9; see also LABOR PAINS.

‘No More Pain.’ Although unpleasant, the physical sensation of pain serves a beneficial purpose by alerting a person to danger regarding bodily damage and thereby enables him to take steps to avoid serious injury. The fulfillment of God’s promise that “neither will . . . pain be anymore” (Re 21:4), therefore, could not mean that humans would become insensitive to or incapable of experiencing pain. Rather, mental, emotional, and physical pain that has resulted from sin and imperfection (Ro 8:21, 22) will ‘be no more’ in the sense that its causes (such as disease and death) will be removed. That bodily perfection does not of itself require absolute painlessness is verified by the fact that even the perfect man Jesus experienced physical and emotional pain in connection with his death and the unresponsiveness of those to whom he ministered. (Mt 26:37; Lu 19:41) It was even foretold that he would be “a man meant for pains.” (Isa 53:3) By curing those “distressed with various diseases and torments” (Mt 4:24), Jesus bore the pains of others.​—Isa 53:4.

Figurative Use. Often the Scriptures refer to pain in a figurative sense. Depending upon the context, it may denote hard work (Pr 5:10) or a wholesome fear and awesome regard for Jehovah God. (1Ch 16:30; Ps 96:9; 114:7) Waters, mountains, and the earth, when in a state of agitation, are described as being in pain. (Ps 77:16; 97:4; Jer 51:29; Hab 3:10) Jehovah viewed unfaithful Judah as having an incurable pain, one threatening death.​—Jer 30:15.

Pains, or pangs, can also denote a distressing circumstance. With reference to Jesus Christ, the apostle Peter stated: “God resurrected him by loosing the pangs of death, because it was not possible for him to continue to be held fast by it.” (Ac 2:24) Although the dead are not conscious, death is a bitter and distressing circumstance, both in the pain that often precedes it and in the loss of all activity and freedom that its paralyzing grip brings.​—Compare Ps 116:3.

The royal residence of a sovereign; sometimes the spacious and stately dwelling of a prince or a powerful man of wealth. (Da 4:4; Lu 11:21; see GOVERNOR’S PALACE.) One Hebrew word for palace, heh·khalʹ, often was applied to the temple as the dwelling place of the Sovereign Lord Jehovah. (1Sa 1:9; 1Ki 6:3; Ezr 5:14; Da 5:3) Ancient palaces were frequently castlelike fortresses with battlement walls and massive gates. (Ne 1:1; Es 1:2) The customary spacious courtyards and luxurious private gardens gave regal splendor and beauty to palace grounds.​—Es 1:5.

The Bible mentions the palaces of Assyria (Na 1:1; 2:6), Babylon (2Ki 20:18; 2Ch 36:7; Isa 39:7; Da 1:4; 5:5), and Persia (Ezr 4:14; Es 7:7, 8). Those in Babylon were described as “palaces of exquisite delight.” (Isa 13:22) One of the grandest palaces of the ancient world was built by Solomon, as is indicated by the impression it made on the queen of Sheba.​—1Ki 10:4, 5.

Solomon’s palace, erected on Mount Moriah south of the temple, was just one of a number of government structures in this area that, all together, took some 13 years to build. Included in this royal complex of buildings were the House of the Forest of Lebanon, the Porch of Pillars, and the Porch of the Throne. There was also a special house for Pharaoh’s daughter, one of Solomon’s many wives, besides the king’s palace.​—1Ki 7:1-8.

The description we have of Solomon’s palace is very meager compared with the details of the palatial temple. But the size of the foundation stones indicates that the palace must have been an impressive structure. In length these stones measured eight cubits (3.6 m; 11.7 ft) and ten cubits (4.5 m; 14.6 ft), and they must have been of proportionate size in their width and thickness, weighing many tons. The walls consisted of costly stones carefully sawed to measured specifications on both inside and outside surfaces.​—1Ki 7:9-11; compare Ps 144:12.

The psalmist, in the 45th psalm, may have had in mind the decorations and furnishings of Solomon’s palace when he made reference to “the grand ivory palace.” The apostle Paul applies the words of this psalm to Jesus Christ the heavenly King.​—Ps 45:8, 15; compare Ps 45:6, 7 with Heb 1:8, 9; Lu 4:18, 21.

(Paʹlal) [shortened form of Pelaliah, meaning “Jah Is Arbitrating”].

Repairer of a section of Jerusalem’s wall in the days of Nehemiah; son of Uzai.​—Ne 3:25.

See MOUTH.

That land situated at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, which was once occupied by the ancient nation of Israel. The name is derived from the Latin Palaestina and the Greek Pa·lai·stiʹne. This latter word, in turn, is drawn from the Hebrew Peleʹsheth. In the Hebrew Scriptures Peleʹsheth (translated “Philistia”) occurs only in reference to the limited coastal territory occupied by the Philistines. (Ex 15:14; Ps 60:8; 83:7; 87:4; 108:9; Isa 14:29, 31; Joe 3:4) Herodotus, however, in the fifth century B.C.E., and later other secular writers (Philo, Ovid, Pliny, Josephus, Jerome) used the Greek and Latin terms to designate all that territory formerly known as “the land of Canaan” or “the land of Israel.” (Nu 34:2; 1Sa 13:19) Because Jehovah had promised this land to Abraham and his descendants (Ge 15:18; De 9:27, 28), it was also appropriately called the Promised Land or the Land of Promise. (Heb 11:9) From the Middle Ages on, it has often been called the Holy Land.

In a sense Palestine is the connecting link between the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. This placed it in the center of a circle around the rim of which were located the ancient world powers of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. (Eze 5:5) Hemmed in by great deserts on the E and S and by the Great Sea, or Mediterranean, on the W, Palestine served as a land bridge between the Nile and Euphrates rivers, over which bridge the caravans on the world trade routes passed. Situated in what has been called the Fertile Crescent, Palestine itself was of particular interest, being a delightful place gifted with its own natural resources and special characteristics.

The term “Palestine” as it is used today refers to a general region. It does not imply precise boundaries. On the S an imaginary line could be drawn from the southern end of the Dead Sea to the SE corner of the Mediterranean, and on the N another line running from the southern slopes of Mount Hermon to a point near the city of Tyre. This area, from N to S, “from Dan to Beer-sheba” (1Sa 3:20; 2Sa 3:10), was about 240 km (150 mi) in length. From the Mediterranean Sea on the W, Palestine extended to the Arabian Desert on the E. All together, the area amounted to approximately 25,500 sq km (9,850 sq mi), less than the size of Belgium, but a little larger than the state of New Hampshire, U.S.A.

Geographic Features. (MAP, Vol. 1, p. 333) For a comprehensive view of its geography, the territory of Palestine may be conveniently divided into four rather parallel regions running from N to S.

First, there was a strip of fertile plain along the coast, a coast that, for the most part, had very little to offer in the way of natural harbors. Dividing this coastal plain in two was the promontory of the imposing Mount Carmel Range, which jutted out almost to the sea. The northern section was known as the Plain of Asher or Phoenicia. The southern portion skirted around sand dunes nestled close to the sea, and it consisted of the Plain of Sharon and the Plain of Philistia, the latter widening out in the S.

The second geographic region, next to the maritime plains, contained the principal mountain ranges, which ran N and S like a backbone of the country. In the N were the mountains of Naphtali, also called the Hills of Galilee. They were an extension of the Lebanon ranges, which were noted for their cedar forests and their prominent Mount Hermon, which towered skyward 2,814 m (9,232 ft). The northern mountains of Palestine ranged in altitude from 1,208 m (3,963 ft) at Har Meron in Upper Galilee to 562 m (1,844 ft) for Mount Tabor, made famous in the days of Barak. (Jg 4:12) Below Mount Tabor was a comparatively broad central plain that cut transversely across the country from W to E, separating the northern mountains from those to the S. The Jezreel Valley, or Esdraelon, was where many decisive battles were fought. It consisted of two parts, the eastern “low plain of Jezreel,” and the western section, “the valley plain of Megiddo.”​—Jos 17:16; 2Ch 35:22.

To the W and N of the Megiddo valley, which was drained by the Kishon, was the Carmel Range running southeasterly from the coast and joining the mountains of Ephraim, or Samaria, in which the historic peaks of Gerizim and Ebal were located, the latter being over 900 m (3,000 ft) high. (De 11:29) Continuing S, this range was known as “the mountainous region of Judah,” for though elevations varied from 600 m (2,000 ft) to over 1,000 m (3,300 ft), the area consisted largely of plateaus, rounded hills, and gentle slopes. (2Ch 27:4; Lu 1:39) Here in this region were such cities as Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Hebron.

Gradually the Judean mountains on the S merged into the Negeb, a name thought to be from a root meaning “be parched,” a region that extended to the torrent valley of Egypt and constituted the southern portion of Palestine. On the northern edge of the Negeb was the oasislike city of Beer-sheba; at the southern extremity, Kadesh-barnea.​—Ge 12:9; 20:1; 22:19.

When approaching the mountains of Judah from the W, one comes to the hill section known as the Shephelah, with its several small W-E valleys leading from the coastal plains to the highlands. (Jos 9:1) For the most part these hills were suitable for the grazing of flocks and cattle, the springs in the valleys furnishing the necessary water.

The third feature of Palestine’s geography was called the Arabah (De 11:30), part of the great Rift Valley. It divides the country longitudinally from top to bottom. This deep cleft began in Syria to the N and extended southward all the way to the Red Sea’s Gulf of ʽAqaba. What made this central depression of the land all the more spectacular were the parallel mountain ranges and cliffs on either side of it.

When tracing this trenchlike depression from N to S, one quickly drops from the foothills of Mount Hermon to the Hula Basin, where the headwaters of the Jordan once formed a small lake. From there the Jordan, in some 16 km (10 mi), rapidly drops over 270 m (890 ft) to the Sea of Galilee, which is about 210 m (700 ft) below sea level. From Galilee to the Dead Sea, this great rift in the earth’s crust is the Jordan Valley proper, and by the Arabs is called the Ghor, meaning “depression.” It is a “gorge” as much as 19 km (12 mi) wide in places. The Jordan itself is about 45 m (150 ft) below the floor of this valley; and as it slowly snakes its way down to the Dead Sea, it continues to drop about 180 m (600 ft) more. (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 334) This makes the surface of the Dead Sea about 400 m (1,300 ft) below the level of the Mediterranean​—the lowest point on the earth’s surface.

The extension of the Rift Valley south of the Dead Sea for another 160 km (100 mi) to the Gulf of ʽAqaba was more commonly known as the Arabah proper. (De 2:8) Midway it reached its highest point, about 200 m (650 ft) above sea level.

The fourth geographic region of Palestine consisted of hills and tablelands E of the great Jordanian rift. (De 2:36, 37; 3:8-10) In the N this arable land extended E of the Sea of Galilee perhaps 100 km (60 mi), while in the S the width was only about 40 km (25 mi) before it became a wilderness, arid steppes that eventually lost themselves in the Arabian Desert. The wider, northern section of this rolling eastern region, above Ramoth-gilead, was called the land of Bashan, about 600 m (2,000 ft) in average altitude; S of Bashan the domelike region of Gilead attained an elevation of 1,000 m (3,300 ft). On its S, Gilead bordered the tableland N of the torrent valley of Arnon, in which area was situated Mount Nebo, over 800 m (2,630 ft) high. This territory, at one time the possession of the Ammonites, was, in turn, bounded S of the torrent valley of Arnon by the land of Moab.​—Jos 13:24, 25; Jg 11:12-28.

Geographic Names. The ancient Hebrew names of many cities, mountains, and valleys have been lost, partly due to the occupation of Palestine by the Arabs for much of the time since 638 C.E. But, since Arabic is the living language most closely related to Hebrew, it is possible in some instances to identify with considerable accuracy certain ancient places and sites of major events.

Some common Arabic and Hebrew geographic terms that are helpful in relating places to Biblical sites are given on the following page.

Climatic Conditions. Palestine’s climate is as diversified as its topography. In the matter of some 160 km (100 mi), from the Dead Sea to Mount Hermon, the contrasting extremes in altitude produce climatic conditions equivalent to those that are elsewhere spread over thousands of miles in latitude between the Tropics and the Arctic. Mount Hermon is usually snowcapped much of the year, while down along the Dead Sea the thermometer sometimes reaches 50° C. (122° F.). Sea breezes up from the Mediterranean moderate the temperature along the central mountain range. As a result it is seldom hotter than 32° C. (90° F.) in Jerusalem, and rarely does it freeze there. Its average January temperature is around 10° C. (50° F.). Snowfall in that part of the country is not common.​—Compare 2Sa 23:20.

Rainfall in this country of contrasts also varies a great deal. Along the coast the annual precipitation is about 38 cm (15 in.), but in the higher altitudes of Mount Carmel, the central range, and the highlands E of the Jordan there is up to twice this amount. On the other hand, desert conditions prevail in the Negeb, the lower Jordan Valley, and the Dead Sea area, with 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in.) of rain annually. Most of the rain falls in the winter months of December, January, and February; only 6 or 7 percent in the summer months from June to October. The light “early,” or autumn, rain in October and November permits the plowing of soil (baked hard by the summer heat) in preparation for the sowing of winter grains. The “late,” or spring, rain comes in March and April.​—De 11:14; Joe 2:23; Zec 10:1; Jas 5:7.

One of Palestine’s great assets is the abundance of dew, especially through the rainless summer months, for without the heavy dews many of the vineyards and grazing lands would suffer greatly. (Hag 1:10; Zec 8:12) The moisture-laden breezes blowing up from the Mediterranean and down from Mount Hermon account for much of the dew in Palestine. (Ps 133:3) In certain areas the dew at night is so heavy that enough moisture is recovered by the vegetation to compensate for the losses during the heat of the day. (Compare Job 29:19.) Of particular importance is the dew in the Negeb and uplands of Gilead where rainfall is minimal.​—See DEW.

Plants and Animals. The tremendous variety of trees, shrubs, and plants found in this small area of the earth has been a source of amazement among botanists, one of whom estimates that there are about 2,600 plant varieties growing there. The diversity in altitude, climate, and soil helps to account for this variety in flora, some plants being at home in the cold alpine, others in the torrid desert, and still others in the alluvial plain or the rocky plateau, each blooming and bearing seed in its season. Within comparatively short distances from one another are found hot-weather palms and cold-weather oaks and pines; willows along the streams and tamarisks in the wilderness. This land is also famous for its cultivated vineyards, olive groves, fig orchards, and fields of wheat, barley, and millet. Other crops include peas, beans, lentils, eggplants, onions, and cucumbers, as well as cotton and flax. Modern visitors to this land are often disappointed unless it is springtime, when the countryside is in full bloom with its flower spectacle. For most of the year, the stony hillsides are barren and bleak. At one time, however, parts of the land were more heavily wooded than at present, lush like “the garden of Jehovah,” a veritable botanical garden “flowing with milk and honey,” hospitable and inviting.​—Ge 13:10; Ex 3:8; Nu 13:23, 24; De 8:7-9.

Animal, bird, and fish life was abundant in parklike Palestine, in the past more so than today. The lion, bear, wild bull, and hippopotamus are no longer present, but other wildlife that may be found include wolves, wild boars, wildcats, jackals, hares, and foxes. Domesticated animals are common​—sheep, goats, cows, horses, asses, and camels. It is estimated that there are about 85 different kinds of mammals, 350 kinds of birds, and 75 kinds of reptiles in Israel today.

Resources From the Ground. Besides proving to be a well-watered land capable of producing an abundance of foodstuffs, Palestine’s mountains contained useful iron and copper ores. (De 8:9) Gold, silver, tin, and lead had to be imported, but there were large deposits of salt, and in the Jordan Valley there were beds of clay for the brick, pottery, and foundry industries. (1Ki 7:46) Excellent limestone for the building trade was quarried, and there were outcroppings of dark basalt valued for its hardness and fine-grained texture.

(Palʹlu) [shortened form of Pelaiah, meaning “Jah Has Acted Wonderfully”].

Second-named son of Jacob’s firstborn Reuben. (Ge 46:9; 1Ch 5:3) Pallu founded the family of Palluites in the tribe of Reuben. (Ex 6:14; Nu 26:5) He is possibly the same son of Reuben called Peleth at Numbers 16:1.

(Palʹlu·ites) [Of (Belonging to) Pallu].

A Reubenite family descended from Pallu.​—Nu 26:5.

[Heb., ta·marʹ, toʹmer (Jg 4:5); Gr., phoiʹnix].

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), though now found only in certain sections, was once abundant in Palestine and apparently was as characteristic of that area as it was and is of the Nile Valley of Egypt. Following the second destruction of Jerusalem, Roman Emperor Vespasian had numerous coins minted bearing the figure of a weeping woman seated beneath a palm tree with the inscription “Judaea Capta.”​—PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 751.

Palms are associated with oases and are a welcome sight to desert travelers, as were the 70 palm trees growing beside the 12 springs of water at Elim, the second stop of the marching Israelites after their crossing the Red Sea.​—Ex 15:27; Nu 33:9.

In Bible times palms flourished on the coast of the Sea of Galilee (The Jewish War, III, 516, 517 [x, 8]) as well as along the lower reaches of the hot Jordan Valley, and they were particularly abundant around En-gedi (Jewish Antiquities, IX, 7 [i, 2]) and Jericho, called “the city of the palm trees.” (De 34:3; Jg 1:16; 3:13; 2Ch 28:15). They also grew in the highlands, as did “Deborah’s palm tree” in the mountainous region of Ephraim. (Jg 4:5) That they grew around Jerusalem is evident from the use made of their fronds at the Festival of Booths (Le 23:40; Ne 8:15) and also at the time of Jesus’ entry into the city. (Joh 12:12, 13) Tamar, one of Solomon’s cities, was named for the palm tree. (1Ki 9:17, 18) The land of Tyre and Sidon also later received the name Phoenicia (likely from a root meaning “palm tree”) from the Greek phoiʹnix (Ac 11:19; 15:3), as possibly did the city of Phoenix on the island of Crete.​—Ac 27:12.

The tall, stately palm, with its straight, uniform trunk rising up to 30 m (100 ft) and cresting with a plume of long feathery fronds, makes a graceful silhouette of unique beauty. Girls must have been pleased to receive the name Tamar, as did Judah’s daughter-in-law (Ge 38:6), Absalom’s sister (2Sa 13:1), and also his daughter, who was described as “a woman most beautiful in appearance.” (2Sa 14:27) The Shulammite maiden’s stature was likened to that of a palm tree and her breasts to its clusters. (Ca 7:7, 8) The spiral arrangement of its wood fibers also makes it a tree of unusual suppleness and strength.

The palm tree comes to full bearing after 10 to 15 years and continues to bear for nearly a hundred years, after which it gradually declines and dies toward the end of the second century. The annual crop of dates grows in immense drooping clusters and is usually harvested by August-September. The Arabs say that the palm tree has as many uses as the year has days. In addition to the many uses for its fruit, the leaves are used for thatching roofs and the sides of houses, as well as for making fences, mats, baskets, and even dishes. Its fibers are used to make ropes and boat rigging. The date seeds, or kernels, are ground up and fed to the camels. Wax, sugar, oil, tannin, and resin are all obtained from the tree, and a potent drink called arrack is distilled from the sap.

Engraved carvings of the palm tree, with its erect form, beauty, and fruitfulness, made an appropriate decoration for the inner walls and the doors of Solomon’s temple (1Ki 6:29, 32, 35; 2Ch 3:5) as well as for the sides of the carriages used in the temple service. (1Ki 7:36, 37) Palm trees were seen by Ezekiel as decorating the side pillars of the gates of the visionary temple and also the inner walls and doors of the temple. (Eze 40:16-37; 41:15-26) Being straight and tall as well as fruitful, the palm tree was also a fitting symbol of the ‘righteous man’ ‘planted in the courtyards of Jehovah.’​—Ps 92:12, 13.

The use of palm fronds by the crowd of people who hailed Jesus as “the king of Israel” (Joh 12:12, 13) evidently served to symbolize their praise as well as their submission to his regal position. The “great crowd” of Revelation 7:9, 10 are likewise pictured with palm branches in their hands, ascribing salvation to God and to the Lamb.

(Palʹti) [shortened form of Paltiel].

1. A Benjamite chieftain selected as one of the 12 spies to preview the land of Canaan in 1512 B.C.E. He was a son of Raphu.​—Nu 13:2, 3, 9, 27-33.

2. See PALTIEL No. 2.

(Palʹti·el) [God Is My Provider of Escape].

1. Representative of Issachar at the time the tribes divided the Promised Land into inheritance portions; son of Azzan.​—Nu 34:17, 18, 26.

2. Son of Laish from Gallim. Saul, after outlawing David, took his daughter Michal, David’s wife, and gave her in marriage to Palti (Paltiel). (1Sa 25:44) After becoming king, David demanded of Abner and Ish-bosheth that Michal be returned to him. This greatly grieved Paltiel, who followed her, weeping, until Abner ordered him to go home.​—2Sa 3:13-16.

(Palʹtite) [Of (Belonging to) Beth-pelet; or, Of (Belonging to) the House of Pelet].

A term used with reference to Helez, one of David’s mighty men and generally believed to refer to a native of Beth-pelet. (2Sa 23:8, 26) In the corresponding lists at 1 Chronicles 11:27; 27:10, Helez is called “the Pelonite.”​—See PELONITE.

(Pam·phylʹi·a).

A small Roman province on the S coast of Asia Minor visited by Paul on his first missionary tour. Though the size of the province may have varied over the years, Pamphylia is commonly viewed as having been a strip along the coastline some 120 km (75 mi) long and up to 50 km (30 mi) wide. It was bounded by the province of Lycia on the W, the Roman province of Galatia on the N, and the Kingdom of Antiochus on the E. On the coast the climate of Pamphylia was hot and tropical, while it moderated as one moved to the higher elevation of the Taurus Mountains.

The inhabitants are thought to have been a mixture of a native tribe with Greeks, some even suggesting Pamphylia to mean “of mingled tribes or races.” (Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon, revised by H. Jones, Oxford, 1968, p. 1295) Evidently Jews or proselytes were in the area, for on Pentecost 33 C.E. persons from Pamphylia were in Jerusalem and were amazed to hear the disciples speaking in their “own language.”​—Ac 2:6, 10.

A number of principal cities were on or near the coast, such as the seaport town of Attalia, Perga on the Cestrus (Aksu) River, and Side, where coastal pirates sold their booty and a slave market existed. From Paphos on Cyprus, Paul, Barnabas, and John Mark sailed NW across the sea “and arrived at Perga in Pamphylia.” It is not definitely known whether they landed at Attalia and traveled on land the few miles to Perga or whether they sailed right to Perga; it is reported that in ancient times the Cestrus was navigable at least as far as Perga. At this point John Mark separated from the others and returned to Jerusalem, but Paul and Barnabas went N through the mountains to Antioch in Pisidia (in the province of Galatia). (Ac 13:13, 14; 15:38; 27:5) That route was notorious for bandits. (Compare 2Co 11:26.) On the return trip the two Christians traveled through Pamphylia to Perga and preached there. Next they went to the port of Attalia and sailed from there to Antioch in Syria.​—Ac 14:24-26.

Pamphylia over the years was ruled by Lydia, Persia, Macedonia, and Rome. Under the Romans it was at various times united as a province with Cilicia (to the E), then with Galatia, and finally with Lycia.​—Ac 13:13; 16:6; 27:5.

In Bible times, a thin writing material made into sheets from strips obtained from the papyrus plant.​—See PAPYRUS.

The Egyptians are credited with being the first manufacturers of papyrus paper for writing purposes, using papyrus plants that then grew along the banks of the Nile River. Some archaeologists would place such paper production as far back as Abraham’s time.

Early Christians used papyrus paper for their letters, scrolls, and codices. It also played an important part in the production of Bible manuscripts, until it was replaced by vellum (fine-grained animal skin) in the fourth century C.E. At 2 John 12, the apostle wrote that he would rather convey his message “face to face” than with “paper and ink.” Here the word “paper” translates the Greek word kharʹtes, which is said to mean a sheet of paper made of papyrus.

(Paʹphos).

A city on the W coast of the island of Cyprus. Here Paul, after working his way across the island with Barnabas and John Mark, encountered the sorcerer Bar-Jesus (Elymas), who opposed their preaching to Sergius Paulus the proconsul. For this he was miraculously made temporarily blind by Paul. Witnessing this act, Sergius Paulus was converted to Christianity.​—Ac 13:6-13.

Two Cypriot cities have borne the name Paphos, “Old Paphos” and “New Paphos.” New Paphos, the city referred to in the Acts account, was capital of the senatorial province of Cyprus when Paul visited the island during his first missionary tour. This city is thought to be represented by the ruins at the ancient seaport of Paphos, located some 15 km (9 mi) NW of “Old Paphos” (Kouklia). The natural harbor there, which served as a naval base during Greek and Roman times, was no doubt the point from which Paul and his companions sailed NNW toward Perga in Asia Minor. Moles of the ancient harbor at Paphos still stand, as do the remains of various public and private buildings and a city wall.

Barnabas and Mark no doubt revisited the site around 49 C.E.​—Ac 15:36-39.

(pa·pyʹrus) [Heb., goʹmeʼ].

A large aquatic plant belonging to the sedge family. It has a tapering three-sided stem, or stock, that grows in shallow water to a height of 2 to 6 m (6.5 to 20 ft) and terminates in a bush, or plume, of fine grasslike panicles. (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 544) The papyrus plant was used in the manufacture of various items, including a writing material.

Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) thrives in shallow, stagnant waters or marshes and along the banks of slow-moving rivers, such as the lower Nile, where it once flourished but is now nearly extinct. Bildad asked Job: “Will a papyrus plant grow tall without a swampy place?”​—Job 8:11; Isa 35:7.

The plant’s stems are buoyant, and to prevent the death of the infant Moses, his mother placed him in “an ark of papyrus” coated with bitumen and pitch and set him adrift on the Nile River. (Ex 2:3) Large vessels for traveling long distances were also made from papyrus. (Isa 18:2) These may have been made of bundles of papyrus stems lashed together. They had narrow ends, but the beams were broad enough to support standing passengers. In 1970, Thor Heyerdahl and a group of associates traveled across thousands of miles of the Atlantic in such a craft.

Use as Writing Material. When the Egyptians prepared papyrus for writing material, they followed a rather simple process. In gathering the stems, they prized the thick pithy part that grew under the surface of the water because it yielded the broadest and whitest raw material. The outer rinds were peeled off, and the remaining pithy cores were cut into convenient lengths of 40 to 45 cm (16 to 18 in.). Next, the cellular pith was sliced into broad, but very thin, strips. The strips were then laid out vertically on a smooth surface and allowed to overlap slightly. Another layer of papyrus strips was placed horizontally over the vertical ones. Mallets were used to beat the layers until they were bonded into a unified sheet. Then after being dried in the sun, the sheets were trimmed to the desired size. Finally, they were smoothed and polished with pumice, shells, or ivory. This process produced a fairly durable, supple, near-white writing material that was available in many sizes and degrees of quality. The side having the horizontal strips was usually chosen for writing, although at times the reverse side was used to finish a writing. The joints of the strips served to guide the writer’s hand as he wrote with a reed pen and a writing fluid made from gum, soot, and water.

These papyrus sheets could be pasted along the edges and joined to make a scroll, normally consisting of about 20 sheets. Or they might be folded into leaves to form the booklike codex that became popular among the early Christians. The average scroll measured some 4 to 6 m (14 to 20 ft) in length, though one has been preserved that is 40.5 m (133 ft) long. The Greek word biʹblos originally applied to the soft pith of the papyrus plant but was later used with reference to a book. (Mt 1:1; Mr 12:26) The diminutive bi·bliʹon has the plural bi·bliʹa, literally meaning “little books,” and from this the word “Bible” is derived. (2Ti 4:13, Int) A Phoenician city was called Byblos after it became an important center for the papyrus industry.

Papyrus rolls were used widely until the beginning of the second century C.E., when they began to be superseded by the papyrus codex. Later, in the fourth century, the popularity of papyrus waned, and it was replaced extensively by a more durable writing material called vellum.

Papyrus had one major disadvantage as a writing material in that it was not very durable. It deteriorated in a damp environment and, when stored under arid conditions, became very brittle. Until the 18th century C.E., the assumption was that all ancient papyrus manuscripts had perished. However, in the late 19th century, a number of valuable Biblical papyri were brought to light. Discoveries have been made chiefly in Egypt and the region around the Dead Sea, places that afford the ideal dry climate so necessary for the preservation of papyri. Some of the Scriptural papyri found at these locations date back as far as the second or first century B.C.E.

Many of these papyrus manuscript discoveries are designated by the term “papyrus” or “papyri,” such as the Nash Papyrus of the first or second century B.C.E., the Papyrus Rylands 457 (second century B.C.E.), and the Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 1 (of the third century C.E.).

A beautiful park, or a parklike garden. The Greek word pa·raʹdei·sos occurs three times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. (Lu 23:43; 2Co 12:4; Re 2:7) Greek writers as far back as Xenophon (c. 431-352 B.C.E.) used the word, and Pollux attributed it to a Persian origin (pairidaeza). (Cyropaedia, I, iii, 14; Anabasis, I, ii, 7; Onomasticon, IX, 13) Some lexicographers would derive the Hebrew word par·desʹ (meaning, basically, a park) from the same source. But since Solomon (of the 11th century B.C.E.) used par·desʹ in his writings, whereas existing Persian writings go back only to about the sixth century B.C.E., such derivation of the Hebrew term is only conjectural. (Ec 2:5; Ca 4:13) The remaining use of par·desʹ is at Nehemiah 2:8, where reference is made to a royal wooded park of Persian King Artaxerxes Longimanus, in the fifth century B.C.E.​—See PARK.

The three terms (Hebrew par·desʹ, Persian pairidaeza, and Greek pa·raʹdei·sos), however, all convey the basic idea of a beautiful park or parklike garden. The first such park was that made by man’s Creator, Jehovah God, in Eden. (Ge 2:8, 9, 15) It is called a gan, or “garden,” in Hebrew but was obviously parklike in size and nature. The Greek Septuagint appropriately uses the term pa·raʹdei·sos with reference to that garden. (See EDEN No. 1; GARDEN [Garden of Eden].) Because of sin, Adam lost his right to live in that paradise and his opportunity to gain the right to everlasting life, which right was represented in the fruit of a divinely designated tree in the center of the garden. The garden of Eden may have been enclosed in some way, since it was necessary to place angelic guards only at the east side thereof to prevent human entrance.​—Ge 3:22-24.

What is the Paradise that Jesus promised to the evildoer who died alongside him?

Luke’s account shows that an evildoer, being executed alongside Jesus Christ, spoke words in Jesus’ defense and requested that Jesus remember him when he ‘got into his kingdom.’ Jesus’ reply was: “Truly I tell you today, You will be with me in Paradise.” (Lu 23:39-43) The punctuation shown in the rendering of these words must, of course, depend on the translator’s understanding of the sense of Jesus’ words, since no systematic punctuation was used in the original Greek text. Punctuation in the modern style did not become common until about the ninth century C.E. Whereas many translations place a comma before the word “today” and thereby give the impression that the evildoer entered Paradise that same day, there is nothing in the rest of the Scriptures to support this. Jesus himself was dead and in the tomb until the third day and was then resurrected as “the firstfruits” of the resurrection. (Ac 10:40; 1Co 15:20; Col 1:18) He ascended to heaven 40 days later.​—Joh 20:17; Ac 1:1-3, 9.

The evidence is, therefore, that Jesus’ use of the word “today” was not to give the time of the evildoer’s being in Paradise but, rather, to call attention to the time in which the promise was being made and during which the evildoer had shown a measure of faith in Jesus. It was a day when Jesus had been rejected and condemned by the highest-ranking religious leaders of his own people and was thereafter sentenced to die by Roman authority. He had become an object of scorn and ridicule. So the wrongdoer alongside him had shown a notable quality and commendable heart attitude in not going along with the crowd but, rather, speaking out in Jesus’ behalf and expressing belief in his coming Kingship. Recognizing that the emphasis is correctly placed on the time of the promise’s being made rather than on the time of its fulfillment, other translations, such as those in English by Rotherham and Lamsa, those in German by Reinhardt and W. Michaelis, as well as the Curetonian Syriac of the fifth century C.E., rendered the text in a form similar to the reading of the New World Translation, quoted herein.

As to the identification of the Paradise of which Jesus spoke, it is clearly not synonymous with the heavenly Kingdom of Christ. Earlier that day entry into that heavenly Kingdom had been held out as a prospect for Jesus’ faithful disciples but on the basis of their having ‘stuck with him in his trials,’ something the evildoer had never done, his dying on a stake alongside Jesus being purely for his own criminal acts. (Lu 22:28-30; 23:40, 41) The evildoer obviously had not been “born again,” of water and spirit, which Jesus showed was a prerequisite to entry into the Kingdom of the heavens. (Joh 3:3-6) Nor was the evildoer one of the ‘conquerors’ that the glorified Christ Jesus stated would be with him on his heavenly throne and that have a share in “the first resurrection.”​—Re 3:11, 12, 21; 12:10, 11; 14:1-4; 20:4-6.

Some reference works present the view that Jesus was referring to a paradise location in Hades or Sheol, supposedly a compartment or division thereof for those approved by God. The claim is made that the Jewish rabbis of that time taught the existence of such a paradise for those who had died and were awaiting a resurrection. Regarding the teachings of the rabbis, Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible states: “The Rabbinical theology as it has come down to us exhibits an extraordinary medley of ideas on these questions, and in the case of many of them it is difficult to determine the dates to which they should be assigned. . . . Taking the literature as it is, it might appear that Paradise was regarded by some as on earth itself, by others as forming part of Sheol, by others still as neither on earth nor under earth, but in heaven . . . But there is some doubt as respects, at least, part of this. These various conceptions are found indeed in later Judaism. They appear most precisely and most in detail in the mediaeval Cabbalistic Judaism . . . But it is uncertain how far back these things can be carried. The older Jewish theology at least . . . seems to give little or no place to the idea of an intermediate Paradise. It speaks of a Gehinnom for the wicked, and a Gan Eden, or garden of Eden, for the just. It is questionable whether it goes beyond these conceptions and affirms a Paradise in Sheol.”​—1905, Vol. III, pp. 669, 670.

Even if they did teach such a thing, it would be most unreasonable to believe that Jesus would propagate such a concept, in view of his condemnation of the non-Biblical religious traditions of the Jewish religious leaders. (Mt 15:3-9) Likely the paradise truly familiar to the Jewish malefactor to whom Jesus spoke was the earthly Paradise described in the first book of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Paradise of Eden. That being so, Jesus’ promise would reasonably point to a restoration of such earthly paradisaic condition. His promise to the wrongdoer would therefore give assured hope of a resurrection of such an unrighteous one to an opportunity to life in that restored Paradise.​—Compare Ac 24:15; Re 20:12, 13; 21:1-5; Mt 6:10.

A Spiritual Paradise. Throughout many of the prophetic books of the Bible, divine promises are found regarding the restoration of Israel from the lands of its exile to its desolated homeland. God would cause that abandoned land to be tilled and sown, to produce richly, and to abound with humankind and animalkind; the cities would be rebuilt and inhabited, and people would say: “That land yonder which was laid desolate has become like the garden of Eden.” (Eze 36:6-11, 29, 30, 33-35; compare Isa 51:3; Jer 31:10-12; Eze 34:25-27.) However, these prophecies also show that paradise conditions related to the people themselves, who, by faithfulness to God, could now “sprout” and flourish as “trees of righteousness,” enjoying beautiful spiritual prosperity like a “well-watered garden,” showered by bounteous blessings from God because of having his favor. (Isa 58:11; 61:3, 11; Jer 31:12; 32:41; compare Ps 1:3; 72:3, 6-8, 16; 85:10-13; Isa 44:3, 4.) The people of Israel had been God’s vineyard, his planting, but their badness and apostasy from true worship had caused a figurative ‘withering away’ of their spiritual field, even before the literal desolation of their land took place.​—Compare Ex 15:17; Isa 5:1-8; Jer 2:21.

It is evident, however, that the restoration prophecies recorded by the Hebrew prophets include elements that will also find a physical fulfillment in the restored earthly Paradise. There are features, for example, in Isaiah 35:1-7, such as the healing of the blind and the lame, that did not have a literal fulfillment following the restoration from ancient Babylon, nor are they fulfilled in such a manner in the Christian spiritual paradise. It would be inconsistent for God to inspire such prophecies as those of Isaiah 11:6-9, Ezekiel 34:25, and Hosea 2:18, with the intention that they have only a figurative or spiritual meaning, without having a literal fulfillment of these things in the physical experiences of God’s servants. The paradise that Paul mentioned at 2 Corinthians 12:4 could also refer to the future paradise, both physical and spiritual, of these Hebrew prophecies, as well as possibly being a vision of “the paradise of God,” the blessed condition in heaven.—Re 2:7.

Eating in “the Paradise of God.” Revelation 2:7 mentions a “tree of life” in “the paradise of God” and that eating from it would be the privilege of the one “that conquers.” Since other promises given in this section of Revelation to such conquering ones clearly relate to their gaining a heavenly inheritance (Re 2:26-28; 3:12, 21), it seems evident that “the paradise of God” in this case is a heavenly one. The word “tree” here translates the Greek word xyʹlon, which literally means “wood,” and in the plural could refer to an orchard of trees. In the earthly Paradise of Eden, eating of the tree of life would have meant living forever for man. (Ge 3:22-24) Even the fruit of the other trees of the garden would have been life sustaining for man as long as he continued obedient. So, the partaking of “the tree [or trees] of life” in “the paradise of God” evidently relates to the divine provision for sustained life granted the Christian conquerors, other texts showing that they receive the prize of immortality and incorruptibility along with their heavenly Head and Lord, Christ Jesus.​—1Co 15:50-54; 1Pe 1:3, 4.

(Paʹrah).

A city of Benjamin. (Jos 18:21, 23) Parah is usually identified with Khirbet el-Farah (Horvat ʽEn Para), about 9 km (5.5 mi) NE of Jerusalem. A nearby spring called ʽAin Farah (ʽEn Perat) furnishes water for the Old City of Jerusalem.

Impairment or total loss of muscular power or of sensation in one or more parts of the body. Sometimes called palsy, it results from damage or disorder of the nervous system or from atrophy of muscles, thus either preventing the transmission of nerve impulses or rendering the muscles unable to react to them. Paralysis has many names and forms, some of which types can be fatal. Among its causes are disease (as in the case of diphtheritic paralysis), brain lesions, damage to the spinal cord, or pressure from a tumor.

Paralyzed persons were among those miraculously cured by Jesus Christ. (Mt 4:24) A paralyzed man was brought to Jesus, who cured the sufferer after forgiving his sins. Then, at Christ’s bidding, the former paralytic picked up his cot and went home. (Mt 9:2-8; Mr 2:3-12; Lu 5:18-26) On another occasion the manservant of an army officer was laid up with paralysis and was about to die, but Jesus healed him from a distance. (Mt 8:5-13; Lu 7:1-10) This slave was “terribly tormented,” or terribly afflicted (Mt 8:6), which may, but does not necessarily, indicate that he was suffering intense pain. Though usually not painful, paralysis may be. Cramplike pains occur in the spine and the extremities in cases of paralysis agitans (parkinsonism, or shaking palsy), and there is agonizing pain in paraplegia dolorosa, a form of paralysis associated with some cases of spinal cord cancer. “Paralytics” are persons afflicted with paralysis.

The evangelist Philip preached, and he performed signs in the city of Samaria, curing many paralyzed persons. (Ac 8:5-8) In Lydda, paralyzed Aeneas, “who had been lying flat on his cot for eight years,” was told by Peter: “Aeneas, Jesus Christ heals you. Rise and make up your bed.” At that, “he rose immediately.”​—Ac 9:32-35.

(Paʹran).

The greater part of that vast wilderness region in which the nation of Israel wandered about for some 38 years before entering the Promised Land. (Nu 10:11, 12; De 2:14) Having no fixed boundaries, Paran occupied the central and northeastern portion of the Sinai Peninsula. On the E was that part of the Rift Valley known as the Arabah and also the Gulf of ʽAqaba, on the S the Wilderness of Sinai, on the SW the Wilderness of Sin, and on the NW and N the Wildernesses of Etham and Shur. Toward the Dead Sea to the NE, Paran blended with, and perhaps included, the Wilderness of Zin and perhaps even reached up to Beer-sheba near the mountains of Judah.​—1Sa 25:1, 2.

For the most part Paran was a rough mountainous region of limestone, plateaulike in places, the central section being between 600 and 750 m (2,000 to 2,500 ft) high. (De 33:2; compare Hab 3:3.) It was also included as part of “that great and fear-inspiring wilderness” referred to at Deuteronomy 1:1, 19; 8:15. Except during the brief rainy seasons, the gravel face of this rude country is devoid of green vegetation; springs are few and far between. These factors emphasize how completely the nation of Israel, numbering perhaps 3,000,000 persons, was dependent upon Jehovah for his miraculous provision of food and water during the many years they wandered in the wilderness.​—Ex 16:1, 4, 12-15, 35; De 2:7; 8:15, 16.

Apparently the first reference to this Wilderness of Paran was in the days of Lot when Chedorlaomer and his allies defeated a number of cities in the vicinities of the Dead Sea and Edom as far S as El-paran. (Ge 14:4-6) Later, after Ishmael was dismissed by his father Abraham, he settled down in the Wilderness of Paran and occupied himself mainly with the hunt.​—Ge 21:20, 21.

However, the principal references to Paran are in connection with the wanderings of the Israelites. After leaving Mount Sinai, Israel camped at Taberah and Kibroth-hattaavah, then at Hazeroth on the southern edge of Paran, before moving N toward Kadesh-barnea. (Nu 10:12, 33; 11:3, 34, 35; 12:16) Not long after entering Paran, the 12 spies were sent out to investigate Canaan. (Nu 13:3, 26) The bad report given by the majority upon their return resulted in Jehovah’s decree that the nation prolong their stay in the wilderness until all the registered ones who had murmured against God had died off. (Nu 13:31-33; 14:20-34) During that 40 years, by far the majority of Israel’s campsites, from Egypt to the Promised Land, were in Paran.​—Nu 33:1-49.

According to the Greek Septuagint, David went into the Wilderness of Maon following the death and burial of Samuel. However, the Masoretic text, Syriac Peshitta, and Latin Vulgate say he went into the Wilderness of Paran. (1Sa 25:1) When David became king and made war on Edom, the young Edomite prince Hadad, together with some of his father’s servants, made his escape to Egypt. On the way down they were joined by certain men of Paran as they passed through that country.​—1Ki 11:15-18.

Skins of sheep, goats, or calves prepared for use as writing material. Leather was long used as a writing material among ancient people; the Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah, copied toward the end of the second century B.C.E., is of leather. Papyrus from Egypt became a more widely used writing material but, according to Pliny, when the ruler of Egypt prohibited the exporting of it about 190 B.C.E., the use of leather parchment was invented in Pergamum. (The English word “parchment” comes from Lat. pergamena.) Perhaps this means simply the popularizing of an already-existing method of treating the skins so that both sides could be written on. Scrolls of parchment were much more durable than the less expensive papyrus scrolls.

At 2 Timothy 4:13 the apostle Paul asked Timothy to bring “the scrolls, especially the parchments.” (NW, Ro) He does not indicate the contents of these requested items, but quite possibly he was asking for portions of the Hebrew Scriptures so that he could study them while imprisoned in Rome. The phrase “especially the parchments” may indicate that both scrolls of papyrus and scrolls of parchment were involved.

Among the early Romans wooden tablets covered with wax were often used for writing matters of a temporary nature. Eventually sheets of leather or parchment were used instead for this purpose. The Latin word membranae (skins) was applied to such notebooks of parchment. In the text quoted earlier, Paul employed the Greek equivalent of the word in asking for “the scrolls, especially the parchments [mem·braʹnas].” Thus some commentators have suggested that he was requesting scrolls of the Hebrew Scriptures plus notes or letters of some type. So Moffatt translates it, “my books, and particularly my papers,” and The New English Bible reads, “the books, above all my notebooks.” However, whether “the parchments” were in the form of notebooks or papers, or were parchment scrolls (La; Kx) cannot be ascertained.

Vellum. Parchments were normally made from sheep, goat, or calf skin. In the third and fourth centuries C.E., there arose a distinction between the coarser and the finer grades of the material, the coarser continuing to be called parchment, but the finer, vellum. The vellum was made from delicate skins of calf (veal) or kid, or of stillborn calves or lambs. It was prepared by scraping the hair from the washed skins, stretching them on a frame, washing and scraping again to remove inequalities, dusting with chalk, and rubbing with pumice. This produced a thin, smooth, almost-white writing material that came to be widely used for important books until the invention of printing, for which paper was better and cheaper. Important Bible manuscripts such as the fourth-century Sinaitic and Vatican No. 1209 as well as the fifth-century Alexandrine manuscripts are of vellum.

The Hebrew word na·saʼʹ, sometimes translated “pardon,” is also used in the Scriptures in the sense of “raise,” “lift,” “lift up” (Ge 45:19; Ex 6:8; 2Ki 2:16), “take” (Ge 27:3), “take away” (Nu 16:15). A basic meaning of the word, however, is “bear, carry.” (Ge 47:30; 1Ki 2:26; Eze 44:12, 13) There is still an allusion to this in instances where na·saʼʹ is appropriately translated “pardon.” The Scriptures speak of the goat for Azazel as carrying away sin, and it was foretold that the Messiah would bear the error of the people. (Le 16:8, 10, 22; Isa 53:12) By reason of his carrying, or bearing, the error of others, pardon is made possible for them.​—See AZAZEL.

Whereas the word na·saʼʹ may denote the pardon, or forgiveness, extended by God or by humans (Ge 18:24, 26; 50:17), sa·lachʹ is used exclusively of God’s forgiveness, the act by which the sinner is restored to divine favor in answer to his sincere prayer for forgiveness or to another’s intercessory prayer.​—Nu 14:19, 20; 1Ki 8:30.

When the Hebrew na·saʼʹ has the sense of pardon, or forgiveness, the Greek Septuagint at times uses the word a·phiʹe·mi. In its basic sense, a·phiʹe·mi denotes “let go off.” This term can signify “forgive,” “pardon.” At Romans 4:7, the apostle Paul quoted from Psalm 32:1 (31:1, LXX), where the reference is to Jehovah’s pardoning “revolt,” and he used a form of the word a·phiʹe·mi, as does the Greek Septuagint for the Hebrew na·saʼʹ. The term appears elsewhere in the Christian Greek Scriptures and is applied to God’s and man’s forgiveness of sins, including the cancellation of debts.​—Mt 6:12, 14, 15; 18:32, 35.

Jehovah is outstandingly a God who grants pardon to those who seek forgiveness. But he does not withhold punishment from persons who deliberately set themselves in opposition to him and his righteous ways.​—Ex 34:6, 7; see FORGIVENESS.

The word par·desʹ occurs but three times in the Hebrew Scriptures and is considered by some to be derived from the Persian word pairidaeza. (However, see PARADISE.) According to M’Clintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia (1894, Vol. VII, p. 652), Xenophon used the Persian term as meaning “an extensive plot of ground, enclosed with a strong fence or wall, abounding in trees, shrubs, plants, and garden culture, and in which choice animals were kept in different ways of restraint or freedom, according as they were ferocious or peaceable.” The Greek form of the word (pa·raʹdei·sos) was used by the translators of the Septuagint in all references to the garden of Eden.

Among his great works, Solomon made both “gardens and parks [“orchards,” KJ; Heb., phar·de·simʹ]” in which he planted fruit trees of all sorts. (Ec 2:5) He uses the same term in his “superlative song” when he has the shepherd lover describe the Shulammite maiden’s skin as “a paradise of pomegranates, with the choicest fruits.” (Ca 1:1; 4:12, 13) In postexilic times, Nehemiah 2:7, 8 shows that the Persian king had placed Asaph as “the keeper of the park that belongs to the king” and that application had to be made for permission to fell trees from this park for the reconstruction work in Jerusalem.​—See FOREST; GARDEN.

(Par·mashʹta) [from Persian, possibly meaning “The Very First”].

One of Haman’s ten sons.​—Es 9:9.

(Parʹme·nas).

One of the seven recommended to the apostles and appointed by them to ensure a just daily distribution of food supplies in the Jerusalem congregation after Pentecost of 33 C.E.​—Ac 6:1-6.

(Parʹnach).

A Zebulunite whose son Elizaphan was the tribal representative in dividing the Promised Land.​—Nu 34:17, 18, 25.

(Paʹrosh) [Flea].

Founder of a family in Israel. There were 2,172 of his descendants who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 2:1-3; Ne 7:8) By the time that Ezra arrived in 468 B.C.E., with 150 “sons of Parosh” led by Zechariah, some of their family already in Jerusalem had taken foreign wives, whom they later sent away. (Ezr 8:1, 3; 10:25, 44) Pedaiah, one of the family, repaired a section of Jerusalem’s wall. (Ne 3:25) The head of the Parosh family attested to the later covenant agreeing to keep the Law of Jehovah.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 14.

(Par·shan·daʹtha) [from Persian, possibly meaning “The Investigator”].

One of Haman’s ten sons.​—Es 9:7.

(Parʹsin).

One of the words mysteriously written on the wall of Belshazzar’s palace and read and interpreted by Daniel. (Da 5:25) It is the plural number of “Peres,” which means “a half shekel,” a division of a shekel. In giving the interpretation, Daniel did not use the plural “Parsin,” but used the singular form (Peres). (Da 5:28) Perhaps this was because only Belshazzar was present to hear the prophet explain the prophetic message, although it applied to both rulers of the Babylonian Empire, Belshazzar and Nabonidus.​—See PERES.

(Parʹthi·ans) [Of (Belonging to) Parthia].

Jews and proselytes from Parthia are listed first among those visitors attending the Festival of Pentecost, 33 C.E., in Jerusalem. God’s holy spirit poured out on the group of about 120 Christian disciples enabled them to proclaim the good news in the language or dialect of those Parthians, some of whom doubtless responded favorably, became Christians, and likely spread the message among their own people upon returning to Parthia. (Ac 1:15; 2:1, 4-12, 37-47) The natural Jews from Parthia were part of the Dispersion; the “proselytes” (Ac 2:10) were non-Jews who had become converts to Judaism.

The Parthian Empire originated SE of the Caspian Sea but in time came to extend from the Euphrates as far as India. The Parthians were subject to the Persians from the time of King Cyrus. Later coming under Greek domination, they rebelled against the successors of Alexander the Great and managed to maintain their independence for several centuries, even against Rome. They held Judea for several years before losing it to the Romans. The Parthians were still an independent nation in the first century, and though they practiced the predominant Persian religion, the religions of the Jews and others were tolerated.

[Heb., qo·reʼʹ].

A chickenlike (gallinaceous) bird, stout-bodied, smaller than the pheasant, able to run and dodge with great swiftness, seldom resorting to flight and tiring quickly when it does. Two kinds of partridges found in Palestine are the sand partridge (Ammoperdix heyi) and the rock partridge (Alectoris graeca). The sand partridge is found in deserts and on rocky slopes, while the rock partridge is found principally in the hill country that is covered with sparse vegetation.

The Hebrew name of this bird means “caller.” While the partridge does have a ringing call, some believe its Hebrew name is intended to imitate the grating “krrr-ic” sound the bird makes when it is flushed.

The partridge has a delicate flesh and was hunted as food from ancient times, the hunters often using throwing sticks to bring down the bird when it was flushed from cover. Since the partridge seeks escape by running, dodging behind rocks and other obstacles, and seeking out a hiding place in clefts of rocks or similar places of concealment, David, moving from hiding place to hiding place in his endeavor to evade King Saul’s relentless pursuit, aptly likened himself to “a partridge upon the mountains.”​—1Sa 26:20; compare La 3:52.

The text at Jeremiah 17:11, likening the man unjustly amassing wealth to “the partridge that has gathered together [or, possibly, hatched] what it has not laid,” has been the subject of much discussion. Whereas certain ancient writers described the partridge as taking eggs from other hens’ nests and incubating them, present-day naturalists state that none of the birds classified as partridges have such a practice. However, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros refers to Jewish zoologist Israel Aharoni (1882-1946), a writer of works on Palestinian animal life, as having found “2 layings of 11 eggs each of 2 different females [partridges] in the same nest.” (By L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden, 1958, p. 851) Thus, the Encyclopaedia Judaica (1973, Vol. 13, col. 156) states: “Sometimes two females lay eggs in the same nest, in which case one gains the upper hand and drives the other away; however her small body is unable to keep such a large number of eggs warm, so that eventually the embryos die. It was to this that the proverb [in Jeremiah 17:11] referred when speaking of one who robs another of his possessions without ultimately deriving any benefit.”

Jeremiah 17:11 in the King James Version reads: “As the partridge sitteth on eggs, and hatcheth them not; so he that getteth riches, and not by right, shall leave them in the midst of his days, and at his end shall be a fool.” In support of this alternative interpretation, John Sawyer reasons that “the point is the proverbial vulnerability of the partridge’s nest, exposed as it is to marauding predators of many kinds, compared to the vulnerability of the fool who puts his trust in base gain.” He goes on to say that the effectiveness of the proverb in Jeremiah 17:11 “does not depend on the treachery of the brooding partridge, but on its vulnerability, compared to the false sense of security of the fool who thinks he can get away with his criminal acquisitiveness . . . unaware of the dangers hanging over him and defenceless when disaster strikes.”​—Vetus Testamentum, Leiden, 1978, pp. 324, 328, 329.

(Pa·ruʹah).

Father of the Jehoshaphat who served as Solomon’s food deputy in the territory of Issachar.​—1Ki 4:7, 17.

(Paʹsach).

Family head in the tribe of Asher; son of Japhlet.​—1Ch 7:30, 33, 40.

(Pas-damʹmim).

Evidently another name for Ephes-dammim, a place between Socoh and Azekah.​—1Sa 17:1; 1Ch 11:13.

(Pa·seʹah) [Lame].

1. A descendant of Judah in the line of “Chelub the brother of Shuhah.”​—1Ch 4:1, 11, 12.

2. Forefather of a family of Nethinim, some of whom returned from the Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 49; Ne 7:51.

3. Father of the Joiada who helped repair the Gate of the Old City in the wall of Jerusalem (455 B.C.E.).​—Ne 3:6.

(Pashʹhur).

1. Father of the Gedaliah who was one of the princes of Judah responsible for having Jeremiah thrown into a cistern.​—Jer 38:1, 4, 6.

2. A prince in the delegation King Zedekiah sent to inquire of Jeremiah concerning the future of Jerusalem. (Jer 21:1, 2) Pashhur also petitioned the king for Jeremiah to be put to death. (Jer 38:1, 4, 6) Pashhur is called in these two passages “the son of Malchijah.” The family of priests returning from Babylonian exile contains a similar link in their genealogy, “Pashhur the son of Malchijah.” (1Ch 9:12; Ne 11:12) If prince Pashhur was indeed a priest, he may be the one from whom “the sons of Pashhur” (No. 4) draw their name.

3. A priest, “the son [or descendant] of Immer, . . . the leading commissioner in the house of Jehovah.” Pashhur, objecting to Jeremiah’s prophecies, struck him and put him into the stocks and released him the following day. As a result Jehovah, through Jeremiah, foretold exile and death in Babylon for Pashhur and, accordingly, changed his name from Pashhur to “Fright all around” (Heb., Ma·ghohrʹ mis·sa·vivʹ) (Jer 20:1-6), an expression occurring several times in the book of Jeremiah.​—Jer 6:25; 20:3, 10; 46:5; 49:29.

4. “The sons of Pashhur” were a paternal house of priests, 1,247 of whom returned from the exile with priest Jeshua in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 2:1, 2, 36, 38; Ne 7:41) Six of these married foreign wives but sent them away after Ezra arrived in 468 B.C.E.​—Ezr 10:22, 44; see No. 2.

5. A priest or the forefather of one who, in the time of Governor Nehemiah, supported the covenant not to take foreign wives.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 3, 8.

Passover (Heb., peʹsach; Gr., paʹskha) was instituted the evening preceding the Exodus from Egypt. The first Passover was observed about the time of full moon, on the 14th day of Abib (later called Nisan) in the year 1513 B.C.E. This was thereafter to be celebrated annually. (Ex 12:17-20, 24-27) Abib (Nisan) falls within the months March-April of the Gregorian calendar. Passover was followed by seven days of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, Nisan 15-21. Passover commemorates the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt and the ‘passing over’ of their firstborn when Jehovah destroyed the firstborn of Egypt. Seasonally, it fell at the beginning of the barley harvest.​—Ex 12:14, 24-47; Le 23:10.

Passover was a memorial celebration; therefore the Scriptural command was: “And it must occur that when your sons say to you, ‘What does this service mean to you?’ then you must say, ‘It is the sacrifice of the passover to Jehovah, who passed over the houses of the sons of Israel in Egypt when he plagued the Egyptians, but he delivered our houses.’”​—Ex 12:26, 27.

Since the Jews reckoned the day as starting after sundown and ending the next day at sundown, Nisan 14 would begin after sundown. It would be in the evening after Nisan 13 concluded that the Passover would be observed. Since the Bible definitely states that Christ is the Passover sacrifice (1Co 5:7) and that he observed the Passover meal the evening before he was put to death, the date of his death would be Nisan 14, not Nisan 15, in order to fulfill accurately the time feature of the type, or shadow, provided in the Law.​—Heb 10:1.

Laws Governing Its Observance. Each household was to choose a male sheep or goat that was sound and a year old. It was taken into the house on the 10th day of the month Abib and kept until the 14th, and then it was slaughtered and its blood was splashed with a bunch of hyssop on the doorposts and the upper part of the doorway of the dwelling in which they were to eat it (not on the threshold where the blood would be trampled on).

The lamb (or goat) was slaughtered, skinned, its interior parts cleansed and replaced, and it was roasted whole, well-done, with no bones broken. (2Ch 35:11; Nu 9:12) If the household was too small to consume the whole animal, then it was to be shared with a neighbor household and eaten that same night. Anything left over was to be burned before morning. (Ex 12:10; 34:25) It was eaten with unfermented cakes, “the bread of affliction,” and with bitter greens, for their life had been bitter under slavery.​—Ex 1:14; 12:1-11, 29, 34; De 16:3.

What is meant by the expression “between the two evenings”?

The Israelites measured their day from sundown to sundown. So Passover day would begin at sundown at the end of the 13th day of Abib (Nisan). The animal was to be slaughtered “between the two evenings.” (Ex 12:6) There are differences of opinion as to the exact time meant. According to some scholars, as well as the Karaite Jews and Samaritans, this is the time between sunset and deep twilight. On the other hand, the Pharisees and the Rabbinists considered the first evening to be when the sun began to descend and the second evening to be the real sunset. Due to this latter view the rabbis hold that the lamb was slaughtered in the latter part of the 14th, not at its start, and therefore that the Passover meal was actually eaten on Nisan 15.

On this point Professors Keil and Delitzsch say: “Different opinions have prevailed among the Jews from a very early date as to the precise time intended. Aben Ezra agrees with the Caraites and Samaritans in taking the first evening to be the time when the sun sinks below the horizon, and the second the time of total darkness; in which case, ‘between the two evenings’ would be from 6 o’clock to 7.20. . . . According to the rabbinical idea, the time when the sun began to descend, viz. from 3 to 5 o’clock, was the first evening, and sunset the second; so that ‘between the two evenings’ was from 3 to 6 o’clock. Modern expositors have very properly decided in favour of the view held by Aben Ezra and the custom adopted by the Caraites and Samaritans.”​—Commentary on the Old Testament, 1973, Vol. I, The Second Book of Moses, p. 12; see DAY.

From the foregoing, and particularly in view of such texts as Exodus 12:17, 18, Leviticus 23:5-7, and Deuteronomy 16:6, 7, the weight of evidence points to the application of the expression “between the two evenings” to the time between sunset and dark. This would mean that the Passover meal was eaten well after sundown on Nisan 14, for it took considerable time to slaughter, skin, and roast the animal thoroughly. Deuteronomy 16:6 commands: “You should sacrifice the passover in the evening as soon as the sun sets.” Jesus and his apostles observed the Passover meal “after evening had fallen.” (Mr 14:17; Mt 26:20) Judas went out immediately after the Passover observance, “And it was night.” (Joh 13:30) When Jesus observed the Passover with his 12 apostles, there must have been no little conversation; then, too, some time would have been occupied by Jesus in washing the apostles’ feet. (Joh 13:2-5) Hence, the institution of the Lord’s Evening Meal certainly took place quite late in the evening.​—See LORD’S EVENING MEAL.

At the Passover in Egypt, the head of the family was responsible for the slaying of the lamb (or goat) at each home, and all were to stay inside the house to avoid being slain by the angel. The partakers ate in a standing position, their hips girded, staff in hand, sandals on so as to be ready for a long journey over rough ground (whereas they often did their daily work barefoot). At midnight all the firstborn of the Egyptians were slain, but the angel passed over the houses on which the blood had been spattered. (Ex 12:11, 23) Every Egyptian household in which there was a firstborn male was affected, from the house of Pharaoh himself to the firstborn of the prisoner. It was not the head of the house, even though he may have been a firstborn, but was any male firstborn in the household under the head, as well as the male firstborn of animals, that was slain.​—Ex 12:29, 30; see FIRSTBORN, FIRSTLING.

The Ten Plagues upon Egypt all proved to be a judgment against the gods of Egypt, especially the tenth, the death of the firstborn. (Ex 12:12) For the ram (male sheep) was sacred to the god Amon-Ra, so that splashing the blood of the Passover lamb on the doorways would be blasphemy in the eyes of the Egyptians. Also, the bull was sacred, and the destruction of the firstborn of the bulls would be a blow to the god Osiris. Pharaoh himself was venerated as a son of Ra. The death of Pharaoh’s own firstborn would thus show the impotence of both Ra and Pharaoh.

In the Wilderness and the Promised Land. Only one Passover celebration in the wilderness is mentioned. (Nu 9:1-14) The keeping of the Passover during the wilderness journey likely was limited, for two reasons: (1) Jehovah’s original instructions were that it must be kept when they reached the Promised Land. (Ex 12:25; 13:5) (2) Those born in the wilderness had not been circumcised (Jos 5:5), whereas all male partakers of Passover had to be circumcised.​—Ex 12:45-49.

Record of Passovers Observed. The Hebrew Scriptures give direct accounts of the Passover (1) in Egypt (Ex 12); (2) in the wilderness at Sinai, Nisan 14, 1512 B.C.E. (Nu 9); (3) when they reached the Promised Land, at Gilgal and after the circumcision of the males, 1473 B.C.E. (Jos 5); (4) at the time that Hezekiah restored true worship (2Ch 30); (5) the Passover of Josiah (2Ch 35); and (6) the celebration by Israel after the return from Babylonian exile (Ezr 6). (Also, mention is made of Passovers held in Samuel’s day and during the days of the kings, at 2Ch 35:18.) After the Israelites were settled in the land, the Passover festival was observed “in the place that Jehovah will choose to have his name reside,” instead of in each home or in the various cities. In time, the chosen place came to be Jerusalem.​—De 16:1-8.

Accretions. After Israel had settled in the Promised Land, certain changes were made and various accretions came about in observing the Passover. They no longer partook of the feast in a standing position, or equipped for a journey, for they were then in the land that God had given them. The first-century celebrants customarily ate it while lying on their left side, with the head resting on the left hand. This explains how one of Jesus’ disciples could be “reclining in front of Jesus’ bosom.” (Joh 13:23) Wine was not used at the Passover in Egypt nor was there any command given by Jehovah for its use with the festival. This practice was introduced later on. Jesus did not condemn the use of wine with the meal, but he drank wine with his apostles and afterward offered a cup for them to drink as he introduced the Lord’s Evening Meal, the Memorial.​—Lu 22:15-18, 20.

According to traditional Jewish sources, red wine was used and four cups were handed around, although the service was not restricted to four cups. Psalms 113 to 118 were sung during the meal, concluding with Psalm 118. It is likely that it was one of these psalms that Jesus and his apostles sang in concluding the Lord’s Evening Meal.​—Mt 26:30.

Customs at Passover Time. Great preparations were made in Jerusalem when the festival was due, as it was a requirement of the Law that every male Israelite and every male of the circumcised alien residents observe the Passover. (Nu 9:9-14) This meant that vast numbers would be making the journey to the city for some days in advance. They would come before the Passover in order to cleanse themselves ceremonially. (Joh 11:55) It is said that men were sent out about a month early to prepare the bridges and put the roads in good order for the convenience of the pilgrims. Since contact with a dead body rendered a person unclean, special precautions were taken to protect the traveler. As it was a practice to bury persons in the open field, if they died there, the graves were made conspicuous by being whitened a month ahead. (The Temple, by A. Edersheim, 1874, pp. 184, 185) This supplies background for Jesus’ words to the scribes and Pharisees, that they resembled “whitewashed graves.”​—Mt 23:27.

Accommodations were made available in the homes for those coming to Jerusalem for Passover observance. In an Oriental home all the rooms could be slept in, and several persons could be accommodated in one room. Also, the flat roof of the house could be used. Added to this is the fact that numbers of the celebrants obtained accommodations outside the city walls, especially at Bethphage and Bethany, two villages on the slopes of the Mount of Olives.​—Mr 11:1; 14:3.

Questions as to Time Order. It was a question of defilement that gave rise to the words: “They themselves did not enter into the governor’s palace, that they might not get defiled but might eat the passover.” (Joh 18:28) These Jews considered it a defilement to enter into a Gentile dwelling. (Ac 10:28) This statement was made, however, “early in the day,” hence after the Passover meal had taken place. It is to be noted that at this time the entire period, including Passover day and the Festival of Unfermented Cakes that followed, was at times referred to as “Passover.” In the light of this fact, Alfred Edersheim offers the following explanation: A voluntary peace offering was made on Passover and another, a compulsory one, on the next day, Nisan 15, the first day of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes. It was this second offering that the Jews were afraid they might not be able to eat if they contracted defilement in the judgment hall of Pilate.​—The Temple, 1874, pp. 186, 187.

“The first day of the unfermented cakes.” A question also arises in connection with the statement at Matthew 26:17: “On the first day of the unfermented cakes the disciples came up to Jesus, saying: ‘Where do you want us to prepare for you to eat the passover?’”

The expression “the first day” here could be rendered “the day before.” Concerning the use of the Greek word here translated “first,” a footnote on Matthew 26:17 in the New World Translation says: “Or, ‘On the day before.’ This rendering of the Gr. word [proʹtos] followed by the genitive case of the next word agrees with the sense and rendering of a like construction in Joh 1:15, 30, namely, ‘he existed before [proʹtos] me.’” According to Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon, “[proʹtos] is sts. [sometimes] used where we should expect [proʹte·ros (meaning ‘former, earlier’)].” (Revised by H. Jones, Oxford, 1968, p. 1535) At this time, Passover day had come to be generally considered as the first day of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes. So, then, the original Greek, harmonized with Jewish custom, allows for the question to have been asked of Jesus on the day before Passover.

“Preparation.” At John 19:14, the apostle John, in the midst of his description of the final part of Jesus’ trial before Pilate, says: “Now it was preparation of the passover; it was about the sixth hour [of the daytime, between 11:00 a.m. and noon].” This, of course, was after the time of the Passover meal, which had been eaten the night before. Similar expressions are found at verses 31 and 42. Here the Greek word pa·ra·skeu·eʹ is translated “preparation.” This word seems to mark, not the day preceding Nisan 14, but the day preceding the weekly Sabbath, which, in this instance, was “a great one,” namely, not only a Sabbath by virtue of being Nisan 15, the first day of the actual Festival of Unfermented Cakes, but also a weekly Sabbath. This is understandable, since, as already stated, “Passover” was sometimes used to refer to the entire festival.​—Joh 19:31; see PREPARATION.

Prophetic Significance. The apostle Paul, in urging Christians to live clean lives, attributes pictorial significance to the Passover. He says: “For, indeed, Christ our passover has been sacrificed.” (1Co 5:7) Here he likens Christ Jesus to the Passover lamb. John the Baptizer pointed to Jesus, saying: “See, the Lamb of God that takes away the sin of the world!” (Joh 1:29) John may have had in mind the Passover lamb, or he could have been thinking of the male sheep that Abraham offered up instead of his own son Isaac or of the male lamb that was offered up upon God’s altar at Jerusalem each morning and evening.​—Ge 22:13; Ex 29:38-42.

Certain features of the Passover observance were fulfilled by Jesus. One fulfillment lies in the fact that the blood on the houses in Egypt delivered the firstborn from destruction at the hands of the destroying angel. Paul speaks of anointed Christians as the congregation of the firstborn (Heb 12:23), and of Christ as their deliverer through his blood. (1Th 1:10; Eph 1:7) No bones were to be broken in the Passover lamb. It had been prophesied that none of Jesus’ bones would be broken, and this was fulfilled at his death. (Ps 34:20; Joh 19:36) Thus the Passover kept by the Jews for centuries was one of those things in which the Law provided a shadow of the things to come and pointed to Jesus Christ, “the Lamb of God.”​—Heb 10:1; Joh 1:29.

Agricultural land, especially that used for grazing animals, around each of the 48 Levite cities scattered in Israel. These lands were never to be sold, though houses in the cities could be sold and came under the Jubilee regulation.​—Nu 35:2-5; Le 25:32-34; Jos 21:41, 42.

The area of the pasture grounds was to be “from the wall of the city and out for a thousand cubits [445 m; 1,458 ft] all around.” But the next verse adds: “You must measure outside the city on the east side two thousand cubits” and so on in all four directions. (Nu 35:4, 5) Numerous suggestions have been offered to harmonize the two figures. Some have pointed out that the Greek Septuagint reads “two thousand” in the first instance instead of “a thousand.” However, the Hebrew text as well as the Latin Vulgate and the Syriac Peshitta read “a thousand.” Jewish commentators have offered the possibility that the first thousand cubits (Nu 35:4) were open and used for olive groves and stalls for animals, while the second measurement (Nu 35:5) was for actual grazing or pasture grounds as well as for fields and vineyards, making a total of 3,000 cubits on each side.

However, since this reads into the text thoughts that are not there expressed, another explanation seems more likely. Thus, some commentators believe the measurements to mean that the pastureland was determined by measuring out 1,000 cubits from each of the four sides of the city, east, west, north, and south. As to the 2,000 cubits on each side, they believe the expression “outside the city” means that these 2,000 cubits were not measured from the city walls outward but were the measurements of each of the four sides of the pasture area as measured along its perimeter. If so, this would mean that the space occupied by “the city in the middle” was not counted in the 2,000 cubits measured. As shown in the diagram below, this would allow for harmonizing the two sets of measurements.

In Ezekiel’s temple vision the sanctuary was to have 50 cubits “as pasture ground on each side.” (Eze 45:2) The city “Jehovah Himself Is There” that the prophet saw in vision had pasture grounds of 250 cubits on each side. (Eze 48:16, 17, 35) Pasture grounds were mentioned in 1 Chronicles 5:16 in connection with “Sharon,” which some believe to have been a region or town E of the Jordan. The Hebrew word translated “pasture ground” in the above instances also appears at Ezekiel 27:28, where it is used in connection with Tyre, the city situated on the coast and on an island. In this instance the word has been rendered “coast(s)” (Mo, JB), “countryside” (RS), “open country” (NW), and “rural districts” (Le), the prophecy thus perhaps indicating that those along the coast near Tyre would lament at her overthrow.

Flocks held an important place in the lives of many Israelites, requiring pasture grounds where sheep and goats could graze. (2Sa 7:8; 1Ch 4:39-41) Lack of pasturage for herds brought hardship. (Ge 47:3, 4) Whereas, abundant grazing land contributed to a time of plenty and peace. (Isa 30:23; Ps 65:12, 13; 23:2) By extension, abandoned pasture ground would indicate complete desolation (Isa 27:10), but restoration to peace and favor would be suggested by pasture grounds being used again. (Isa 65:10; Jer 23:3; 33:12; 50:19; Mic 2:12) As sheep were led by a loving shepherd to pasture grounds where they were safe and had an abundance, so God’s people are guided and cared for by Jehovah.​—Ps 79:13; 95:7; 100:3; Eze 34:31.

(Patʹa·ra).

The Lycian seaport where the apostle Paul and his associates, likely in 56 C.E., transferred to a boat sailing for Phoenicia. (Ac 21:1, 2) Patara is today identified with ancient ruins at the village of Gelemish on the mountainous SW coast of Asia Minor and lies about 10 km (6 mi) E of the mouth of the Xanthus (Koca) River. It served as a port of call for ships from Italy, Egypt, Syria, and other places, and it was the primary harbor for cities along the Xanthus River valley.

At Acts 21:1 certain ancient manuscripts add “and Myra” after Patara. If this addition is correct, then the ship on which Paul sailed from Miletus either passed Patara or put into port there, with the actual transfer to another boat taking place at Myra, not Patara.

(Pathʹros).

Pathros is regularly associated with Egypt (Heb., Mits·raʹyim). (Eze 30:13, 14) Most scholars connect the name Pathros with an Egyptian expression meaning “Land of the South” and evidently referring to Upper Egypt. Upper Egypt generally designates the region of the Nile Valley running from a point somewhat S of Memphis on up (south) to Syene (modern Aswan) at the first cataract of the Nile. The text at Isaiah 11:11, which foretells the return of Israelite exiles from ‘Egypt (Mizraim), Pathros and Cush,’ would seem to corroborate the placing of Pathros somewhere in Upper Egypt, with Cush (Ethiopia) bordering it on the S. An Assyrian inscription of King Esar-haddon gives a similar lineup, referring to “Egypt (Musur), Paturisi and Nubia [Kusu, or Cush].”​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 290.

Ezekiel 29:14 calls Pathros “the land of their [the Egyptians’] origin.” The traditional Egyptian view, as recounted by Herodotus (II, 4, 15, 99), apparently corroborates this, as it makes Upper Egypt, and particularly the region of Thebes, the seat of the first Egyptian kingdom, under a king whom Herodotus calls Menes, a name not found in Egyptian records. Diodorus Siculus (first century B.C.E.) records a similar view. (Diodorus of Sicily, I, 45, 1) The Egyptian tradition set forth by these Greek historians may be a feeble echo of the true history presented in the Bible regarding Mizraim (whose name came to stand for Egypt) and his descendants, including Pathrusim.​—Ge 10:13, 14.

Following the desolation of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar, a remnant of the Jews fled into Egypt. Among the places listed in which they dwelt are Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph (all cities of Lower Egypt), and “the land of Pathros.” (Jer 44:1) Here they engaged in idolatrous worship, resulting in Jehovah’s condemnation of them and the warning of a coming conquest of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar. (Jer 44:15, 26-30) Papyrus evidence of the fifth century B.C.E. shows a Jewish colony situated all the way at the southern end of ancient Egypt at Elephantine by Syene.

(Path·ruʹsim) [Of (Belonging to) Pathros].

Listed fifth among the offspring of Mizraim the son of Ham. (Ge 10:6, 13, 14; 1Ch 1:11, 12) The name is apparently the plural form of Pathros. (Eze 29:14) This would indicate that the tribe of Pathrusim settled or became predominant in Upper Egypt.

See LONG-SUFFERING.

(Patʹmos).

An island where the apostle John was exiled “for speaking about God and bearing witness to Jesus.” (Re 1:9) While there, he received the Revelation. According to ancient tradition, John, having been condemned by Domitian to dwell on the island of Patmos, was released after the death of that ruler (96 C.E.).​—The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. VIII, p. 562, “Acts of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian.”

Situated in the Icarian Sea (a part of the Aegean) about 55 km (34 mi) W of Asia Minor, Patmos lay about 60 km (37 mi) WSW of Miletus and less than 240 km (150 mi) from all seven congregations specifically addressed in Revelation chapters 2 and 3. This small volcanic island has a very irregular coastline and is quite barren and rocky. But today wheat, olives, and grapes are cultivated there. Apparently because of its isolation, Patmos, along with other Aegean islands, served as a penal isle.

(Patʹro·bas).

A Christian of the congregation in Rome whom Paul greets in his letter.​—Ro 16:14.

(Paʹu).

A place in Edom, where a certain King Hadar (Hadad) evidently had his royal residence. (Ge 36:31, 39; 1Ch 1:43, 50) The location of Pau is now unknown.

[Little; Small].

An Israelite of the tribe of Benjamin and an apostle of Jesus Christ. (Eph 1:1; Php 3:5) Though perhaps having both the Hebrew name Saul and the Roman name Paul from childhood (Ac 9:17; 2Pe 3:15), this apostle may have chosen to go by his Roman name in view of his commission to declare the good news to the non-Jews.​—Ac 9:15; Ga 2:7, 8.

Paul was born in Tarsus, a prominent city of Cilicia. (Ac 21:39; 22:3) His parents were Hebrews and evidently adhered to the Pharisaic branch of Judaism. (Ac 23:6; Php 3:5) He was a Roman citizen from birth (Ac 22:28), his father having perhaps been granted citizenship for services rendered. Paul probably learned the trade of tentmaker from his father. (Ac 18:3) But, at Jerusalem, he received instruction from the learned Pharisee Gamaliel, suggesting that Paul was from a prominent family. (Ac 22:3; 5:34) Languagewise, Paul was versed at least in Greek and Hebrew. (Ac 21:37-40) At the time that Paul traveled as a missionary, he was unmarried. (1Co 7:8) During this general period, if not already earlier, he had a sister and a nephew who resided in Jerusalem.​—Ac 23:16-22.

It was the apostle Paul’s privilege to write more books, or letters, of the Christian Greek Scriptures than anyone else. He was given supernatural visions (2Co 12:1-5) and, by means of the holy spirit, was enabled to speak numerous foreign tongues.​—1Co 14:18.

Persecution, Conversion, Early Ministry. The Biblical record introduces Saul, or Paul, as the “young man” at whose feet the false witnesses who stoned Christ’s disciple Stephen laid their outer garments. (Ac 6:13; 7:58) Paul approved of the murder of Stephen and, because of misdirected zeal for tradition, began a campaign of vicious persecution against Christ’s followers. When they were to be executed, he voted against them. At the time of their trial in synagogues, he endeavored to force them to recant. He extended his persecution to cities other than Jerusalem and even procured written authorization from the high priest to search out disciples of Christ as far N as Damascus, in Syria, and to bind them and bring them to Jerusalem, probably for trial by the Sanhedrin.​—Ac 8:1, 3; 9:1, 2; 26:10, 11; Ga 1:13, 14.

As Paul neared Damascus, Christ Jesus revealed himself to Paul in a flashing light and commissioned him to be an attendant and a witness of the things he had seen and would yet see. Whereas those with Paul also fell to the ground because of this manifestation and heard the sound of someone speaking, Paul alone understood the words and was blinded, necessitating his being led by the hand to Damascus. (Ac 9:3-8; 22:6-11; 26:12-18) For three days he neither ate nor drank. Then, while praying in the house of a certain Judas at Damascus, Paul, in vision, saw Christ’s disciple Ananias come in and restore his sight. When the vision became reality, Paul was baptized, received holy spirit, partook of food, and gained strength.​—Ac 9:9-19.

The record at Acts 9:20-25 describes Paul’s spending time with the disciples in Damascus and “immediately” beginning to preach in the synagogues there. It describes his preaching activity up until the time he was forced to leave Damascus because of a plot against his life. On the other hand, Paul’s letter to the Galatians speaks of his going off into Arabia after his conversion and then of his returning to Damascus. (Ga 1:15-17) It is not possible to assign the trip into Arabia a definite place in the order of these events.

Paul may have gone into Arabia right after his conversion in order to meditate on God’s will for him. In such a case, Luke’s use of the word “immediately” would mean that immediately upon his return to Damascus and upon associating with the disciples there, Paul began his preaching. However, at Galatians 1:17 Paul is evidently emphasizing the fact that he did not immediately go up to Jerusalem; that the only place outside of Damascus to which he went during that early period was Arabia. So, the trip to Arabia does not necessarily have to have come immediately after his conversion. It may be that Paul first spent some days in Damascus and quickly made public renunciation of his previous course of opposition by expressing his faith in Christ in the synagogues. Thereafter he may have made his trip into Arabia (the actual purpose of which is undisclosed) and upon his return continued his preaching in Damascus, becoming stronger in it to the point that his opposers sought to put him to death. The two accounts are complementary rather than contradictory, and the only question is as to the precise order of events, which simply is not provided.

Arriving at Jerusalem (perhaps in 36 C.E.; the three years mentioned at Galatians 1:18 possibly meaning parts of three years), Paul found that the brothers there did not believe that he was a disciple. However, “Barnabas came to his aid and led him to the apostles,” evidently Peter and “James the brother of the Lord.” (James, though not one of the 12, could be designated as an apostle because of being such for the Jerusalem congregation.) For 15 days Paul stayed with Cephas (Peter). While at Jerusalem, Paul spoke boldly in the name of Jesus. When the brothers learned that the Greek-speaking Jews were therefore making attempts to kill Paul, “they brought him down to Caesarea and sent him off to Tarsus.”​—Ac 9:26-30; Ga 1:18-21.

It appears that Paul (about 41 C.E.) was privileged to experience a supernatural vision so real that he did not know whether it was in the body or out of the body that he was caught away to “the third heaven.” “The third heaven” seems to refer to the superlative form of rulership of the Messianic Kingdom.​—2Co 12:1-4.

Later, Barnabas brought Saul from Tarsus to assist in the work at Antioch among the Greek-speaking people there. About 46 C.E., after a year’s labor at Antioch, Paul and Barnabas were sent by the congregation to Jerusalem with a relief ministration for the brothers there. (Ac 11:22-30) Accompanied by John Mark, they returned to Antioch. (Ac 12:25) Thereafter the holy spirit directed that Paul and Barnabas be set aside for special work.​—Ac 13:1, 2.

First Missionary Journey. (MAP, Vol. 2, p. 747) Following the spirit’s direction, Paul, in company with Barnabas and with John Mark as their attendant, began his first missionary journey (c. 47-48 C.E.). Embarking from Seleucia, the seaport of Antioch, they sailed to Cyprus. In the synagogues at Salamis, on the E coast of Cyprus, they commenced “publishing the word of God.” Traversing the island, they arrived at Paphos on the W coast. There the sorcerer Elymas tried to oppose the witness being given to proconsul Sergius Paulus. Paul then caused Elymas to be struck with temporary blindness. Astounded by what had happened, Sergius Paulus became a believer.​—Ac 13:4-12.

From Paphos, Paul and his associates sailed for Asia Minor. On their arrival at Perga in the Roman province of Pamphylia, John Mark left them and returned to Jerusalem. But Paul and Barnabas headed northward to Antioch in Pisidia. Although finding great interest there, they were finally thrown out of the city at the instigation of the Jews. (Ac 13:13-50) Undaunted, they traveled southeastward to Iconium, where the Jews also incited the crowds against them. Learning of an attempt to stone them, Paul and Barnabas fled to Lystra in the region of Lycaonia. After Paul healed a man lame from birth, the populace of Lystra imagined that Paul and Barnabas were incarnate gods. But, later, Jews from Iconium and Pisidian Antioch turned the crowds against Paul so that they stoned him and dragged his body outside the city, believing him to be dead. However, when surrounded by fellow Christians, Paul got up and entered Lystra. The next day he and Barnabas left for Derbe. After making numerous disciples there, they returned to Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch (in Pisidia), strengthening and encouraging the brothers and appointing elders to serve in the congregations established in these places. Later, they preached in Perga and then sailed from the seaport of Attalia for Syrian Antioch.​—Ac 13:51–14:28.

Circumcision Issue. Certain men from Judea came to Antioch (in about 49 C.E.), claiming that non-Jews had to be circumcised in compliance with the Mosaic Law in order to gain salvation. Paul and Barnabas disputed this. Yet Paul, though an apostle, did not take it upon himself to settle the matter on his own authority. Instead, accompanied by Barnabas, Titus, and others, he went to Jerusalem to set the issue before the apostles and older men of the congregation there. The decision then made was that circumcision was not required for Gentile believers but that they should keep free from idolatry, from eating and drinking of blood, and from sexual immorality. Besides providing a letter setting forth this decision, the brothers of the Jerusalem congregation sent Judas and Silas as their representatives to clarify the matter at Antioch. Also, in a discussion with Peter (Cephas), John, and the disciple James, it was agreed that Paul and Barnabas should continue preaching to uncircumcised Gentiles.​—Ac 15:1-29; Ga 2:1-10.

Sometime after this, Peter personally came to Syrian Antioch and associated with Gentile Christians. But, when certain Jews from Jerusalem arrived, he, evidently giving way to the fear of men, withdrew from the non-Jews, thereby acting contrary to the spirit’s direction that fleshly distinctions did not count with God. Even Barnabas was led astray. Noting this, Paul courageously censured Peter publicly, as his conduct was detrimental to the progress of Christianity.​—Ga 2:11-14.

Second Missionary Journey. (MAP, Vol. 2, p. 747) Later, Paul and Barnabas thought about visiting the brothers in the cities where they had preached during their first missionary journey. A dispute about whether to take along John Mark, in view of his having left them the first time, resulted in a split between Paul and Barnabas. Paul therefore chose Silas (Silvanus) and traveled through Syria and into Asia Minor (c. 49-52 C.E.). Evidently at Lystra, Paul arranged for the young man Timothy to accompany him and he also circumcised him. (Ac 15:36–16:3) Though circumcision was not a Christian requirement, had the half Jew Timothy remained in an uncircumcised state, doubtless this would have prejudiced the Jews against Paul’s preaching. Therefore, in removing this possible obstacle, Paul acted in agreement with what he later wrote to the Corinthians: “To the Jews I became as a Jew.”​—1Co 9:20.

One night at Troas on the Aegean Sea, Paul had a vision of a Macedonian man, entreating him: “Step over into Macedonia and help us.” Concluding this to be God’s will, Paul and his missionary companions, joined by Luke the physician, sailed for Macedonia, in Europe. At Philippi, the chief Macedonian city, Lydia and her household became believers. Paul’s causing a girl to lose her powers of prediction by expelling a demon from her led to his being jailed along with Silas. But an earthquake freed them, and the jailer and his household became Christians. At Paul’s insistence, on the basis of his Roman citizenship, the civil magistrates came personally to bring the apostle and Silas out of prison. After encouraging the brothers, Paul and his companions traveled through Amphipolis and Apollonia to Thessalonica. A congregation of believers developed there. Jealous Jews, however, instigated a riot against Paul. For this reason the brothers sent him and Silas to Beroea. Many became believers there also, but trouble caused by Jews from Thessalonica obliged Paul to leave.​—Ac 16:8–17:14.

The brothers conducted the apostle to Athens. His preaching in the marketplace there led to his being taken to the Areopagus. His defense moved Dionysius, one of the judges of the court that convened there, and others to embrace Christianity. (Ac 17:15-34) Next Paul went to Corinth, taking up lodging with a Jewish couple, Aquila and Priscilla, and working with them part-time as a tentmaker. From Corinth, Paul apparently wrote his two letters to the Thessalonians. After teaching in Corinth for a year and a half and establishing a congregation, he was accused by the Jews before Gallio. But Gallio dismissed the case. (Ac 18:1-17) Later Paul sailed for Caesarea, first stopping at Ephesus and preaching there. From Caesarea the apostle “went up and greeted the congregation,” undoubtedly referring to the congregation at Jerusalem, and then went to Syrian Antioch. (Ac 18:18-22) Possibly earlier from Corinth or perhaps now from Syrian Antioch he wrote his letter to the Galatians.

Third Missionary Journey. (MAP, Vol. 2, p. 747) On his third missionary journey (c. 52-56 C.E.), Paul revisited Ephesus and labored there for some three years. From Ephesus he wrote his first letter to the Corinthians and, it appears, dispatched Titus to assist the Christians there. Following a riot instigated against him by the silversmith Demetrius, Paul left Ephesus and headed for Macedonia. Receiving news from Corinth through Titus, Paul, in Macedonia, composed his second letter to the Corinthians. Before leaving Europe with a contribution from the brothers in Macedonia and Achaia for the needy Christians in Jerusalem, and most probably when he was in Corinth, Paul wrote his letter to the Romans.​—Ac 19:1–20:4; Ro 15:25, 26; 2Co 2:12, 13; 7:5-7.

On his way to Jerusalem, Paul discoursed at Troas and raised the accidentally killed Eutychus to life. He also stopped at Miletus, where he met with the overseers of the Ephesus congregation, reviewed his own ministry in the district of Asia, and encouraged them to imitate his example.​—Ac 20:6-38.

Arrest. As Paul continued his journey, Christian prophets along the way foretold that bonds awaited him at Jerusalem. (Ac 21:4-14; compare 20:22, 23.) Their prophecies were fulfilled. While Paul was at the temple to cleanse himself ceremonially, Jews from Asia stirred up mob violence against him, but Roman soldiers rescued the apostle. (Ac 21:26-33) On his way up the stairs to the soldiers’ quarters, Paul got permission to address the Jews. As soon as he mentioned his commission to preach to the Gentiles, violence erupted anew. (Ac 21:34–22:22) Inside the soldiers’ quarters, Paul was stretched out for whipping in an effort to ascertain the nature of his guilt. The apostle prevented this by calling attention to his Roman citizenship. The next day Paul’s case came before the Sanhedrin. Apparently realizing that he would not get a fair hearing, Paul endeavored to create division between the Pharisees and Sadducees by making the resurrection an issue in his case. As he believed in the resurrection and was “a son of Pharisees,” Paul identified himself as a Pharisee and thus succeeded in setting the Sadducees, who did not believe in the resurrection, against the Pharisees and vice versa.​—Ac 22:23–23:10.

A plot against the prisoner Paul made it necessary to transfer him from Jerusalem to Caesarea. Some days later High Priest Ananias, some of the older men of the Jews, and the orator Tertullus came to Caesarea to present their case against Paul before Governor Felix, accusing Paul of stirring up sedition and trying to profane the temple. The apostle showed that there was no evidence to support their charges against him. But Felix, hoping for a bribe, kept Paul in custody for two years. When Felix was replaced by Festus, the Jews renewed their charges. The case was heard again at Caesarea, and Paul, to prevent a transfer of the trial to Jerusalem, appealed to Caesar. Later, after stating his case before King Herod Agrippa II, Paul and some other prisoners were sent to Rome in about 58 C.E.​—Ac 23:12–27:1.

First and Second Imprisonments at Rome. On the way, Paul and those with him experienced shipwreck on the island of Malta. After wintering there, they finally arrived at Rome. (MAP, Vol. 2, p. 750) Paul was permitted to stay in his own hired house, though under soldier guard. Shortly after his arrival, Paul arranged a meeting with the principal men of the Jews. But only some believed. The apostle continued to preach to all those who came to him for two years, from about 59 to 61 C.E. (Ac 27:2–28:31) During this time he also wrote his letters to the Ephesians (4:1; 6:20), Philippians (1:7, 12-14), Colossians (4:18), to Philemon (vs 9), and evidently also to the Hebrews. (PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 750) It appears that Caesar Nero pronounced Paul innocent and released him. Evidently Paul renewed his missionary activity, in association with Timothy and Titus. After having left Timothy at Ephesus and Titus on Crete, Paul, probably from Macedonia, wrote letters to them relative to their duties. (1Ti 1:3; Tit 1:5) Whether the apostle extended his activity to Spain before his final imprisonment at Rome is not known. (Ro 15:24) During that imprisonment (c. 65 C.E.) Paul wrote his second letter to Timothy, wherein he implied that his death was imminent. (2Ti 4:6-8) Likely Paul suffered martyrdom at the hands of Nero shortly thereafter.

An Example Worthy of Imitation. In view of his faithfulness in copying Christ’s example, the apostle Paul could say: “Become imitators of me.” (1Co 4:16; 11:1; Php 3:17) Paul was alert to follow the leading of God’s spirit. (Ac 13:2-5; 16:9, 10) He was no peddler of God’s Word, but spoke out of sincerity. (2Co 2:17) Though educated, Paul did not try to impress others with his speech (1Co 2:1-5) nor did he seek to please men. (Ga 1:10) He did not insist on doing what he had the right to do, but adapted himself to the people to whom he preached, exercising care so as not to stumble others.​—1Co 9:19-26; 2Co 6:3.

During the course of his ministry, Paul exerted himself zealously, traveling thousands of miles on sea and land, establishing many congregations in Europe and Asia Minor. So he did not need letters of recommendation written with ink but could point to living letters, persons who had become believers through his efforts. (2Co 3:1-3) Yet he humbly acknowledged that he was a slave (Php 1:1), obligated to declare the good news. (1Co 9:16) He did not take any credit to himself, but gave all honor to God as the One responsible for growth (1Co 3:5-9) and the One who had adequately qualified him for the ministry. (2Co 3:5, 6) The apostle highly valued his ministry, glorifying it and recognizing its possession to be an expression of God’s mercy and that of his Son. (Ro 11:13; 2Co 4:1; 1Ti 1:12, 13) To Timothy he wrote: “The reason why I was shown mercy was that by means of me as the foremost case Christ Jesus might demonstrate all his long-suffering for a sample of those who are going to rest their faith on him for everlasting life.”​—1Ti 1:16.

Because of having been a former persecutor of Christians, Paul did not consider himself fit to be called an apostle and acknowledged that he was such only by God’s undeserved kindness. Concerned that this undeserved kindness might not have been extended to him in vain, Paul labored in excess of the other apostles. Yet he realized that only by God’s undeserved kindness was he able to carry on his ministry. (1Co 15:9, 10) “For all things,” said Paul, “I have the strength by virtue of him who imparts power to me.” (Php 4:13) He endured much but did not complain. When comparing his experiences with those of others, he wrote (c. 55 C.E.): “In labors more plentifully, in prisons more plentifully, in blows to an excess, in near-deaths often. By Jews I five times received forty strokes less one, three times I was beaten with rods, once I was stoned, three times I experienced shipwreck, a night and a day I have spent in the deep; in journeys often, in dangers from rivers, in dangers from highwaymen, in dangers from my own race, in dangers from the nations, in dangers in the city, in dangers in the wilderness, in dangers at sea, in dangers among false brothers, in labor and toil, in sleepless nights often, in hunger and thirst, in abstinence from food many times, in cold and nakedness. Besides those things of an external kind, there is what rushes in on me from day to day, the anxiety for all the congregations.” (2Co 11:23-28; 6:4-10; 7:5) Besides all of this and more in subsequent years, Paul had to contend with “a thorn in the flesh” (2Co 12:7), possibly an affliction of his eyes or of another sort.​—Compare Ac 23:1-5; Ga 4:15; 6:11.

Being imperfect, Paul experienced a continual conflict between his mind and the sinful flesh. (Ro 7:21-24) But he did not give up. He said: “I pummel my body and lead it as a slave, that, after I have preached to others, I myself should not become disapproved somehow.” (1Co 9:27) Paul always kept the glorious prize of immortal life in the heavens before him. He viewed all the suffering as nothing in comparison with the glory to be received as a reward for faithfulness. (Ro 8:18; Php 3:6-14) Therefore, evidently not long before his death, Paul could write: “I have fought the fine fight, I have run the course to the finish, I have observed the faith. From this time on there is reserved for me the crown of righteousness.”​—2Ti 4:7, 8.

As an inspired apostle, Paul had authority to command and give orders, and did so (1Co 14:37; 16:1; Col 4:10; 1Th 4:2, 11; compare 1Ti 4:11), but he preferred to appeal to the brothers on the basis of love, entreating them by “the compassions of God” and by “the mildness and kindness of the Christ.” (Ro 12:1; 2Co 6:11-13; 8:8; 10:1; Phm 8, 9) He was gentle and expressed tender affection for them, exhorting and consoling them like a father. (1Th 2:7, 8, 11, 12) While he was entitled to receive material support from the brothers, he chose to work with his hands in order not to be an expensive burden. (Ac 20:33-35; 1Co 9:18; 1Th 2:6, 9) As a result, a close bond of brotherly affection existed between Paul and those to whom he ministered. The overseers of the Ephesus congregation were greatly pained and were moved to tears upon learning that they might see his face no more. (Ac 20:37, 38) Paul was very much concerned about the spiritual welfare of fellow Christians and wanted to do what he could to assist them to make their heavenly calling sure. (Ro 1:11; 15:15, 16; Col 2:1, 2) Constantly he remembered them in his prayers (Ro 1:8, 9; 2Co 13:7; Eph 3:14-19; Php 1:3-5, 9-11; Col 1:3, 9-12; 1Th 1:2, 3; 2Th 1:3) and requested that they also pray for him. (Ro 15:30-32; 2Co 1:11) He drew encouragement from the faith of fellow Christians. (Ro 1:12) On the other hand, Paul was firm for what is right, not hesitating to correct even a fellow apostle when that was necessary for the advancement of the good news.​—1Co 5:1-13; Ga 2:11-14.

Was Paul one of the 12 apostles?

Though having strong conviction and proofs as to his own apostleship, Paul never included himself among “the twelve.” Prior to Pentecost, as a result of Peter’s Scriptural exhortation, the Christian assembly had sought a replacement for unfaithful Judas Iscariot. Two disciples were selected as candidates, perhaps by vote of the male members of the assembly (Peter having addressed himself to the “Men, brothers”; Ac 1:16). Then they prayed to Jehovah God (compare Ac 1:24 with 1Sa 16:7; Ac 15:7, 8) that He should designate which of the two he had chosen to replace the unfaithful apostle. Following their prayer, they cast lots and “the lot fell upon Matthias.”​—Ac 1:15-26; compare Pr 16:33.

There is no reason to doubt that Matthias was God’s own choice. True, once converted, Paul became very prominent and his labors exceeded those of all the other apostles. (1Co 15:9, 10) Yet there is nothing to show that Paul was personally predestinated to an apostleship so that God, in effect, refrained from acting on the prayer of the Christian assembly, held open the place vacated by Judas until Paul’s conversion, and thus made the appointment of Matthias merely an arbitrary action of the Christian assembly. On the contrary, there is sound evidence that Matthias was a divinely appointed replacement.

At Pentecost the outpouring of holy spirit gave the apostles unique powers; they are the only ones shown to have been able to lay hands on newly baptized ones and communicate to them miraculous gifts of the spirit. (See APOSTLE [Miraculous powers].) If Matthias were not in reality God’s choice, his inability to do this would have been apparent to all. The record shows this was not the case. Luke, the writer of Acts, was Paul’s traveling companion and associate during certain missions, and the book of Acts therefore undoubtedly reflects and coincides with Paul’s own view of matters. That book refers to “the twelve” as appointing the seven men who were to handle the matter of the food distribution problem. This was after Pentecost of 33 C.E. but before Paul’s conversion. Hence Matthias is here acknowledged as one of “the twelve,” and he shared with the other apostles in laying hands on the seven designates.​—Ac 6:1-6.

Whose name then appears among those on the “twelve foundation stones” of the New Jerusalem of John’s vision​—Matthias’ or Paul’s? (Re 21:2, 14) One line of reasoning would make it appear that Paul is the more likely one. He contributed so much to the Christian congregation by his ministry and particularly by his writing a large portion of the Christian Greek Scriptures (14 letters being attributed to him). In these respects Paul ‘outshone’ Matthias, who receives no further direct mention after Acts chapter 1.

But sober consideration makes evident that Paul also ‘outshone’ many of the original 12 apostles, some of whom are rarely even named outside the apostolic lists. By the time that Paul was converted, the Christian congregation, spiritual Israel, had been established, or founded, and had been growing for perhaps a year or even more. Then, too, Paul’s first canonical letter was evidently not written until about 50 C.E. (see THESSALONIANS, LETTERS TO THE) or as much as 17 years after the foundation of the new nation of spiritual Israel on Pentecost of 33 C.E. These facts, plus the evidence submitted earlier in this article, thus clarify the matter. It seems reasonable, therefore, that God’s original choice, namely, Matthias, as the one to replace Judas among “the twelve apostles of the Lamb,” remained firm and unaffected by the later apostleship of Paul.

What, then, was the purpose of Paul’s apostleship? Jesus himself stated that it was for a particular purpose​—not as a replacement for Judas—​but that Paul might serve as an ‘apostle [sent one] to the nations’ (Ac 9:4-6, 15), and Paul recognized this as the purpose of his apostleship. (Ga 1:15, 16; 2:7, 8; Ro 1:5; 1Ti 2:7) This being so, his apostleship was not needed to serve as a foundation when spiritual Israel was established on Pentecost, 33 C.E.

(Pauʹlus) [from Lat., meaning “Little; Small”].

The proconsul of Cyprus when Paul visited there on his first missionary journey, about 47 C.E. Luke is correct in calling him proconsul, since the administration of Cyprus was at that time under the Roman Senate rather than the emperor. (Ac 13:7, 12) Cyprus was formerly an imperial province, but in 22 B.C.E. was placed under control of the Senate by Augustus.​—See PROCONSUL.

At Soli, on the N coast of the island of Cyprus, an inscription was found which includes the words “in the proconsulship of Paulus.” The name Lucius Sergius Paullus was found in the Roman world as that of a curator of the Tiber under Claudius Caesar. However, any identification of these persons with the Sergius Paulus mentioned in the Bible is uncertain.​—The Annual of the British School at Athens, London, 1947, pp. 201-206.

Sergius Paulus resided in Paphos, on the western coast of the island. He was “an intelligent man,” and earnestly seeking to hear the word of God, he summoned Barnabas and Paul. As they spoke to the man, Elymas (Bar-Jesus), a Jewish sorcerer, “began opposing them, seeking to turn the proconsul away from the faith.” But Paul, filled with holy spirit, told this sorcerer who opposed the good news that he would be struck with temporary blindness. He was. On observing this powerful work of God’s spirit, the proconsul became a believer, “as he was astounded at the teaching of Jehovah.”​—Ac 13:6-12.

[פ; final, ף].

The 17th letter of the Hebrew alphabet. It is one of the five Hebrew letters that have a different form when used as the final letter of a word. The name assigned to the letter means “mouth.”

The Hebrew sound corresponds to the English “p,” when it has the point (daghesh lene) in it; but without this point it is pronounced like “ph,” as in “philosophy.” This letter initiates each of the eight verses in the Hebrew text of Psalm 119:129-136.​—See HEBREW, II.

Sha·lohmʹ, the Hebrew word rendered “peace,” refers to the state of being free from war or disturbance (Jg 4:17; 1Sa 7:14; 1Ki 4:24; 2Ch 15:5; Job 21:9; Ec 3:8); it can convey the idea of health, safety, soundness (Ge 37:14, ftn), welfare (Ge 41:16), friendship (Ps 41:9), and entirety or completeness (Jer 13:19). The Greek word for peace (ei·reʹne) has taken on the same broad connotations as the Hebrew word sha·lohmʹ and may express the ideas of well-being, salvation, and concord, in addition to the absence of conflict. It occurs in the farewell exclamation “go in peace,” which somewhat corresponds to the expression ‘may it go well with you.’​—Mr 5:34; Lu 7:50; 8:48; Jas 2:16; compare 1Sa 1:17; 20:42; 25:35; 29:7; 2Sa 15:9; 2Ki 5:19.

Since “peace” is not always the exact equivalent for the original-language words, the context must be taken into consideration to determine what is meant. For example, to be ‘sent away in peace’ could signify being sent away amicably, with no fear of interference from the one granting permission to leave. (Ge 26:29; 44:17; Ex 4:18) To ‘return in peace,’ as from battle, meant returning unharmed or victoriously. (Ge 28:21; Jos 10:21; Jg 8:9; 11:31; 2Ch 18:26, 27; 19:1) ‘Asking concerning the peace’ of a person meant inquiring as to how he was getting along. (Ge 29:6, ftn; 43:27, ftn) ‘Working for the peace’ of someone denoted working for that one’s welfare. (De 23:6) For a person to die in peace could mean his dying a tranquil death after having enjoyed a full life or the realization of a cherished hope. (Compare Ge 15:15; Lu 2:29; 1Ki 2:6.) The prophecy concerning Josiah’s ‘being gathered to his own graveyard in peace’ indicated that he would die before the foretold calamity upon Jerusalem. (2Ki 22:20; 2Ch 34:28; compare 2Ki 20:19.) At Isaiah 57:1, 2 the righteous one is depicted as entering into peace at death, thereby escaping calamity.

Acquiring Peace. Jehovah is the God of peace (1Co 14:33; 2Co 13:11; 1Th 5:23; Heb 13:20) and the Source of peace (Nu 6:26; 1Ch 22:9; Ps 4:8; 29:11; 147:14; Isa 45:7; Ro 15:33; 16:20), it being a fruit of his spirit. (Ga 5:22) For this reason true peace can be had only by those who are at peace with God. Serious transgressions put a strain on a person’s relationship with God and cause the individual to be disturbed. The psalmist said: “There is no peace in my bones on account of my sin.” (Ps 38:3) Those who desire to seek and pursue peace must therefore “turn away from what is bad, and do what is good.” (Ps 34:14) Without righteousness, there can be no peace. (Ps 72:3; 85:10; Isa 32:17) That is why the wicked cannot have peace. (Isa 48:22; 57:21; compare Isa 59:2-8.) On the other hand, peace is the possession of those who are fully devoted to Jehovah, love his law (Ps 119:165), and heed his commandments.​—Isa 48:18.

When Christ Jesus was on earth, neither the natural Jews nor the non-Jews were at peace with Jehovah God. Having transgressed God’s law, the Jews had come under the curse of the Law. (Ga 3:12, 13) As for the non-Jews outside God’s covenant, they “had no hope and were without God in the world.” (Eph 2:12) However, by means of Christ Jesus both peoples were given the opportunity to come into a peaceful relationship with God. Pointing forward to this was the angelic announcement made to shepherds at Jesus’ birth: “Upon earth peace among men of goodwill.”​—Lu 2:14.

The peaceful message proclaimed by Jesus and his followers appealed to ‘friends of peace,’ that is, to persons desiring to be reconciled to God. (Mt 10:13; Lu 10:5, 6; Ac 10:36) At the same time this message caused divisions in households, as some accepted it while others rejected it. (Mt 10:34; Lu 12:51) The majority of the Jews rejected the message and thus failed to discern “the things having to do with peace,” evidently including repentance and acceptance of Jesus as the Messiah. (Compare Lu 1:79; 3:3-6; Joh 1:29-34.) Their failure resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman armies in 70 C.E.​—Lu 19:42-44.

However, even the Jews who did accept “the good news of peace” were sinners and needed to have their transgressions atoned for so as to enjoy peace with Jehovah God. Jesus’ death as a ransom sacrifice cared for this need. As had been foretold: “The chastisement meant for our peace was upon him, and because of his wounds there has been a healing for us.” (Isa 53:5) Jesus’ sacrificial death on the torture stake also provided the basis for canceling the Mosaic Law, which divided the Jews from the non-Jews. Therefore, upon becoming Christians, both peoples could be at peace with God and with one another. The apostle Paul wrote: “[Jesus] is our peace, he who made the two parties one and destroyed the wall in between that fenced them off. By means of his flesh he abolished the enmity, the Law of commandments consisting in decrees, that he might create the two peoples in union with himself into one new man and make peace; and that he might fully reconcile both peoples in one body to God through the torture stake, because he had killed off the enmity by means of himself. And he came and declared the good news of peace to you, the ones far off, and peace to those near, because through him we, both peoples, have the approach to the Father by one spirit.”​—Eph 2:14-18; compare Ro 2:10, 11; Col 1:20-23.

“The peace of God,” that is the calmness and tranquillity that result from a Christian’s precious relationship with Jehovah God, guards his heart and mental powers from becoming anxious about his needs. He has the assurance that Jehovah God provides for his servants and answers their prayers. This puts his heart and mind at rest. (Php 4:6, 7) Similarly, the peace that Jesus Christ gave to his disciples, based on their faith in him as God’s Son, served to calm their hearts and minds. Although Jesus told them that the time was coming when he would no longer be with them personally, they had no reason to be concerned or to give way to fear. He was not leaving them without help but promised to send them the holy spirit.​—Joh 14:26, 27; 16:33; compare Col 3:15.

The peace that Christians enjoyed was not to be taken for granted. They were to be “peaceable”; that is, they were to be peacemakers, going out of their way to establish and to maintain peace. (1Th 5:13) To preserve peace among themselves, they had to exercise care so as not to stumble fellow believers. (Ro 14:13-23) In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus stated: “Happy are the peaceable [literally, peacemakers], since they will be called ‘sons of God.’” (Mt 5:9, ftn; compare Jas 3:18.) Christians were counseled to pursue peace and to do their utmost to be found at peace with God. (2Ti 2:22; Heb 12:14; 1Pe 3:11; 2Pe 3:14) Therefore, they had to fight against the desires of the flesh, as these would cause them to be at enmity with God. (Ro 8:6-8) The fact that remaining in a peaceful relationship with God was necessary for divine approval lends much weight to the oft-repeated prayerful expression ‘may you have peace.’​—Ro 1:7; 1Co 1:3; 2Co 1:2; Ga 1:3; 6:16; Eph 1:2; 6:23; Php 1:2.

Christians also wanted others to enjoy peace. Therefore, “shod with the equipment of the good news of peace,” they carried on their spiritual warfare. (Eph 6:15) Even within the congregation they waged warfare in overturning reasonings that were out of harmony with the knowledge of God, so that these reasonings did not damage their relationship with God. (2Co 10:4, 5) However, it was not a verbal fight or quarrel, not even when correcting those who had deviated from the truth. With reference to handling cases of those who had departed from a right course, the apostle Paul counseled Timothy: “A slave of the Lord does not need to fight, but needs to be gentle toward all, qualified to teach, keeping himself restrained under evil, instructing with mildness those not favorably disposed; as perhaps God may give them repentance leading to an accurate knowledge of truth, and they may come back to their proper senses out from the snare of the Devil, seeing that they have been caught alive by him for the will of that one.”​—2Ti 2:24-26.

Peaceful Rule. The Son of God, as the one to have ‘the princely rule upon his shoulder,’ is called the “Prince of Peace.” (Isa 9:6, 7) It is, therefore, noteworthy that Christ Jesus, while on earth, showed that his servants should not arm themselves for physical warfare, when saying to Peter: “Return your sword to its place, for all those who take the sword will perish by the sword.” (Mt 26:52) Figuratively speaking, those who became Christians “beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning shears.” They learned war no more. (Isa 2:4) This and God’s past activities, especially in connection with Israel during Solomon’s reign, point to the peace that will prevail during Jesus’ rule as King. Regarding Solomon’s reign, the Bible reports: “Peace itself became his in every region of his, all around. And Judah and Israel continued to dwell in security, everyone under his own vine and under his own fig tree, from Dan to Beer-sheba, all the days of Solomon.” (1Ki 4:24, 25; 1Ch 22:9) As is evident from other scriptures (compare Ps 72:7, 8; Mic 4:4; Zec 9:9, 10; Mt 21:4, 5), this served as a pattern of what would take place under the rule of Christ Jesus, the One greater than Solomon, which name comes from a root meaning “peace.”​—Mt 12:42.

Peace Between Man and Animals. Jehovah God promised to the Israelites, if obedient: “I will put peace in the land, and you will indeed lie down, with no one making you tremble; and I will make the injurious wild beast cease out of the land.” (Le 26:6) This meant that the wild animals would stay within the confines of their habitat and not bring harm to the Israelites and their domestic animals. On the other hand, if the Israelites proved to be disobedient, Jehovah would allow their land to be invaded and devastated by foreign armies. As this would result in reducing the population, wild animals would multiply, penetrate formerly inhabited areas, and do injury to the survivors and their domestic animals.​—Compare Ex 23:29; Le 26:22; 2Ki 17:5, 6, 24-26.

The peace promised to the Israelites in connection with the wild animals differed from that enjoyed by the first man and woman in the garden of Eden, for Adam and Eve enjoyed full dominion over the animal creation. (Ge 1:28) By contrast, in prophecy, like dominion is attributed only to Christ Jesus. (Ps 8:4-8; Heb 2:5-9) Therefore, it is under the government of Jesus Christ, “a twig out of the stump of Jesse,” or God’s “servant David,” that peace will again prevail between men and the animals. (Isa 11:1, 6-9; 65:25; Eze 34:23-25) These last cited texts have a figurative application, for it is obvious that the peace between animals, such as the wolf and the lamb, there described did not find literal fulfillment in ancient Israel. It was thus foretold that persons of harmful, beastlike disposition would cease their vicious ways and live in peace with their more docile neighbors. However, the prophetic use of the animals figuratively to portray the peaceful conditions to prevail among God’s people implies that there will also be peace among literal animals under the rule of Christ Jesus, even as there evidently was in Eden.

[Heb., tuk·ki·yimʹ (plural)].

The brilliantly colored male of the peafowl. It is a large bird of the pheasant family, about the size of a turkey. The peacock (Pavo muticus and Pavo cristatus) is particularly noted for its magnificent train of iridescent green and gold feathers marked with large “eyespots” of blue. The train can be spread at will to form an impressive semicircular screen, or fan, touching the ground on either side. The peacock shakes the fanned train, producing a rustling sound and causing the feathers to shimmer with their iridescent hues. The neck and breast are also of a beautiful metallic greenish-blue color. Because of its majestic beauty, the bird was greatly prized from ancient times.

In King Solomon’s time his fleet of ships of Tarshish made triannual voyages, bringing cargoes of “gold and silver, ivory, and apes and peacocks.” (1Ki 10:22) While certain of Solomon’s ships made trips to Ophir (evidently in the Red Sea area; 1Ki 9:26-28), 2 Chronicles 9:21 mentions ships “going to Tarshish” (likely in Spain) in connection with the carrying of the above commodities, including peacocks. It is not certain, therefore, from what place or area the peacocks were imported. These beautiful birds are held to be native of SE Asia and are abundant in India and Sri Lanka. Some believe that the Hebrew name (tuk·ki·yimʹ) is to be connected with the Old Tamil name for the peacock, tokei. Solomon’s fleet could have obtained the peacocks when the ships sailed along their usual route and stopped at some trading center that had contacts with India. Of interest, also, is the statement in The Animal Kingdom, by Frederick Drimmer: “For centuries scientists assumed that there were no peacocks in Africa​—their known dwelling places were the East Indies and southeastern Asia. The belief of the naturalists was shattered in 1936, when the Congo peacock [Afropavo congensis] was discovered in the Belgian Congo.”​—1954, Vol. II, p. 988.

Some prefer to link the Hebrew word tuk·ki·yimʹ to the Egyptian ky, a kind of ape.

A smooth, relatively hard, globular, and generally white gem with a soft iridescent luster, which has from ancient times been used for adornment. (1Ti 2:9; Re 17:4; 18:11, 12, 15, 16; 21:2, 21) It is a hardened mass of calcium carbonate that forms inside oysters and certain other mollusks. When a foreign particle (such as a grain of sand or a small parasite) enters the area between the body and the shell of a mollusk, it stimulates the creature’s secretion of a calcareous substance called nacre, which hardens into a pearly layer around the irritating intruding material. Successive layers of this shell-like substance are built up around the foreign particle that serves as a nucleus. If the nucleus remains free from the shell because of contractions of the mantle lining the shell, a beautiful pearl is formed in the course of several years.

Pearls of gem quality are taken from the sea pearl oyster, a native of most warm tropical waters, and notably those of the vicinity of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, and of the Red Sea.

Illustrative Use. The Bible at times alludes to the preciousness of pearls in an illustrative way. With reference to the surpassing value of true wisdom, Job said: “A bagful of wisdom is worth more than one full of pearls.” (Job 28:18) In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus Christ counseled: “Do not give what is holy to dogs, neither throw your pearls before swine, that they may never trample them under their feet and turn around and rip you open.” (Mt 7:6) Evidently Jesus meant that, if a person shows that he is like a dog or a swine, with no appreciation for spiritual things, one should not further endeavor to share spiritual thoughts and teachings with him. Such corrupt persons would only trample upon valuable spiritual things and abuse or injure anyone endeavoring to share these with them. Jesus also illustrated the preciousness of the Kingdom of the heavens by speaking of “one pearl” of such high value that a traveling merchant seeking fine pearls “promptly sold all the things he had and bought it.” (Mt 13:45, 46) Thereby Jesus showed that an individual appreciating the true worth of gaining the Kingdom of the heavens would be willing to part with everything in order to gain it.​—Compare Mt 11:12; Lu 13:23-25; Php 3:8-11.

(Ped·ahʹel) [God Has Redeemed].

A chieftain of Naphtali, appointed by Jehovah to help divide the Promised Land among the tribes; son of Ammihud.​—Nu 34:16, 17, 28.

(Pe·dahʹzur) [The Rock Has Redeemed].

A man in the tribe of Manasseh whose son Gamaliel was appointed chieftain of their tribe after the Exodus.​—Nu 1:10, 16; 2:20; 7:54, 59; 10:23.

(Pe·daiʹah) [meaning “Jehovah Has Redeemed”].

1. Father of Joel, who during David’s reign was prince of the half of the tribe of Manasseh dwelling W of the Jordan.​—1Ch 27:20, 22.

2. Father of Jehoiakim’s mother Zebidah; Pedaiah lived in Rumah.​—2Ki 23:36.

3. Third-named son of King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) born during the Babylonian exile. Pedaiah became father to postexilic Governor Zerubbabel and was therefore a vital link in the line leading to Jesus. (1Ch 3:17-19) Because of some unrecorded circumstance, Zerubbabel is also called the son of Pedaiah’s brother Shealtiel. Shealtiel may have adopted Zerubbabel if Pedaiah died when the boy was young; or, if Shealtiel died before fathering a son, Pedaiah may have performed brother-in-law marriage, fathering Zerubbabel in the name of his brother Shealtiel.​—Ezr 5:2; Mt 1:12.

4. A Benjamite whose descendant lived in Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile.​—Ne 11:4, 7.

5. A descendant of Parosh who helped Nehemiah repair Jerusalem’s wall.​—Ne 3:25.

6. A postexilic Israelite, probably a priest, who stood at Ezra’s left during the reading of Jehovah’s Law to the assembled people.​—Ne 8:1, 4.

7. A faithful Levite whom Nehemiah, on his second visit to Jerusalem, assigned with Shelemiah the priest and Zadok the copyist to take charge of the contributed tithe.​—Ne 13:6, 7, 12, 13.

(Peʹkah) [from a root meaning “open”].

King of Israel for a 20-year period beginning in about 778 B.C.E.; contemporaneous with Judean Kings Azariah (Uzziah), Jotham, and Ahaz. Earlier, Pekah had served as adjutant to Israelite King Pekahiah. But in the 52nd year of Uzziah’s reign, Pekah the son of Remaliah, with the cooperation of 50 men of Gilead, assassinated Pekahiah and seized the kingship over Israel in Samaria. (2Ki 15:25, 27) During Pekah’s reign idolatrous calf worship continued. (2Ki 15:28) This ruler also formed an alliance with Rezin the king of Syria. Toward the close of Judean King Jotham’s reign (which began in the second year of Pekah), both Pekah and Rezin caused trouble for Judah.​—2Ki 15:32, 37, 38.

After Jotham’s son Ahaz began his reign in the 17th year of Pekah, Rezin and Pekah invaded Judah, intending to dethrone that monarch and install a certain son of Tabeel as king. They did not succeed in taking Jerusalem (2Ki 16:1, 5; Isa 7:1-7), but Judah sustained heavy losses. In one day Pekah killed 120,000 valiant men of Judah. The Israelite army also took 200,000 Judeans captive. However, on the advice of the prophet Oded, supported by a number of leading men of Ephraim, these captives were returned to Judah.​—2Ch 28:6, 8-15.

Though assured through the prophet Isaiah that the Syro-Israelite combine would fail in deposing him as king (Isa 7:6, 7), faithless Ahaz bribed Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser III to come to his assistance. In response, the Assyrian monarch captured Damascus and put Rezin to death. (2Ki 16:7-9) Apparently also at this time Tiglath-pileser captured the regions of Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali, as well as a number of cities in northern Israel. (2Ki 15:29) Thereafter Hoshea the son of Elah killed Pekah and became Israel’s next king.​—2Ki 15:30.

A fragmentary historical text of Tiglath-pileser III reports about his campaign against Israel: “All its inhabitants (and) their possessions I led to Assyria. They overthrew their king Pekah (Pa-qa-ha) and I placed Hoshea (A-ú-si-ʼ) as king over them.”​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritchard, 1974, p. 284.

(Pek·a·hiʹah) [Jah Has Opened].

King of Israel in Samaria, son and successor of Menahem. His brief reign of two years (c. 780-779 B.C.E.) was marked by idolatrous calf worship like that introduced by Jeroboam and permitted by Menahem. Pekahiah’s adjutant, Pekah, conspired against him, killed him, and began to reign in his place.​—2Ki 15:22-26.

(Peʹkod).

Apparently the name of an area in the vicinity of Babylon. Men of Pekod were to be included among the military forces to execute Jehovah’s judgment on unfaithful Jerusalem. (Eze 23:4, 22-26) Later, Pekod itself was to be devoted to destruction.​—Jer 50:21.

Pekod is usually identified with the Puqudu of Assyrian inscriptions. The Nimrud Inscription of Tiglath-pileser III indicates that Pekod was added to the Assyrian Empire and lay in the vicinity of Elam. (Records of the Past: Ancient Monuments of Egypt and Western Asia, edited by A. Sayce, London, 1891, Vol. V, pp. 120, 121) Therefore, if correctly identified with Puqudu, Pekod would appear to have been located E of the Tigris and N of that river’s confluence with the Karkheh.

It has been suggested that at Jeremiah 50:21 the designation “Pekod” (like Merathaim) possibly is a poetic name for Babylon. It is noteworthy that an inscription from the time of Nebuchadnezzar shows that Puqudu was under the control of Babylon. Therefore, when Babylon fell to the Medes and Persians, this must also have affected Pekod.

(Pe·laʹiah) [Jah Has Acted Wonderfully].

1. A Levite who assisted Ezra in reading and explaining the Law to the Israelites assembled in Jerusalem’s public square. He is probably the same Levite (unless a representative of a family by that name is meant) who attested to the covenant of faithfulness put forward shortly thereafter.​—Ne 8:1, 5-8; 9:38; 10:1, 9, 10.

2. One of the last generation of David’s descendants mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures.​—1Ch 3:1, 5, 10, 24.

(Pel·a·liʹah) [Jah Is Arbitrating].

A priest whose descendant Adaiah was among those serving at the sanctuary after the return from Babylonian exile.​—Ne 11:10, 12.

(Pel·a·tiʹah) [Jehovah Has Provided Escape].

1. One of four Simeonite chieftains who led 500 men against Mount Seir and struck down the remnant of the Amalekites, likely during Hezekiah’s reign.​—1Ch 4:41-43.

2. Son of Benaiah; a prince of Israel whom Ezekiel saw in vision. Pelatiah, along with Jaazaniah, was “scheming hurtfulness and advising bad counsel” against Jerusalem. Ezekiel was inspired to utter a prophecy against the people of Israel, after which Pelatiah died.​—Eze 11:1-13.

3. A distant descendant of David and grandson of Zerubbabel. (1Ch 3:19-21) Possibly the same as No. 4.

4. A family head represented in the signatures to the covenant promising not to take foreign wives.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 14, 22; see No. 3.

(Peʹleg) [Division].

A son of Eber and father of Reu in the line from Shem to Abraham, and therefore an early ancestor of Jesus. Peleg lived 239 years (2269-2030 B.C.E.) and founded one of the 70 post-Flood families.​—Ge 11:16-19; 1Ch 1:24-27; Lu 3:35.

Peleg was so named, for “in his days the earth was divided.” (Ge 10:25; 1Ch 1:19) The text of these passages does not say that this notable division came at Peleg’s birth a hundred years after the Deluge, but simply “in his days.” If the name was given him at birth, its bestowal was possibly prophetic of the scattering that stemmed from the confusion of languages at the Tower of Babel.​—Ge 11:1-9; compare the name Noah (probably meaning “Rest; Consolation”), which also proved to be prophetic, Ge 5:29.

(Pelʹet) [Providing of Escape].

1. A son of Jahdai listed in the Calebite division of Judah’s genealogy.​—1Ch 2:47.

2. One of the ambidextrous Benjamite mighty men who joined David at Ziklag; son of Azmaveth.​—1Ch 12:1-3.

(Peʹleth).

1. A Reubenite whose son On joined Dathan, Abiram, and Korah in their rebellion.​—Nu 16:1.

2. A descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel.​—1Ch 2:33.

(Pelʹe·thites).

Loyal fighters for King David; always mentioned with the Cherethites. When David fled from Jerusalem because of Absalom’s rebellion (which a major portion of the army supported), the Pelethites went along with David across the Kidron. (2Sa 15:18, 23) They also helped put down the rebellion of Sheba (2Sa 20:7), and later they supported David’s choice of Solomon as his successor, instead of siding with Adonijah as Joab did. (1Ki 1:38, 44) The Cherethites and Pelethites were not part of the regular army but were a separate division in the service of King David, for Joab is called the head of the army, but, separately, Benaiah was over the Cherethites and Pelethites. (2Sa 8:18; 20:23; 1Ch 18:17) Since the Pelethites were not mentioned either before or after the reign of David, it may be concluded that they were his personal servants, rather than a permanent group serving the regal office.​—Compare 2Sa 8:18 and 23:22, 23.

The lack of any positive identification of the Pelethites has given rise to numerous suggestions, among which are two primary schools of thought: (1) The great similarity in Hebrew between the two names Pelethites and Philistines (פלתי [Pelethite] plus only one additional character gives פלשתי [Philistine]) is the basis for saying that they are of the same background, or perhaps that the Pelethites were a branch of the Philistines. Some object to this suggestion that Philistines comprised David’s personal bodyguard, but this possibility should not be wholly discounted. (2) On the other hand, the names Cherethites and Pelethites may perhaps be terms designating duty or ranks of service performed by David’s bodyguard, the Cherethites serving as executioners, the Pelethites as runners. Such a division of runners is mentioned during the reigns of Saul and later kings. (1Sa 22:17; 2Ki 11:4; 2Ch 30:6) This second view, however, is less widely held than the first.

[Heb., qa·ʼathʹ].

The translators of the Greek Septuagint and Latin Vulgate identified the Hebrew word qa·ʼathʹ with the “pelican.” It is listed among the birds designated as ‘unclean’ in the Mosaic Law.​—Le 11:13, 18; De 14:11, 12, 17.

The pelican is one of the largest of the flying birds, attaining a length of over 1.5 m (5 ft), with a majestic wingspread of 2.5 m (8 ft) or more. The yellowish beak is long and hooked, and the large elastic pouch beneath is scarcely noticeable when empty. Ponderous on land, the pelicans are strong, graceful fliers and have been known to have their nesting places as much as 100 km (60 mi) from the places of their fishing. They are superb fishers, and their webbed feet enable them to maneuver swiftly in the water.

When the pelican is gorged with food, it often flies away to a lonely place, where it takes a melancholy posture, with its head sunk on its shoulders, so motionless that it might be mistaken from a distance for a white stone. The bird assumes this attitude for hours at a time, thus befitting the melancholy inactivity to which the psalmist refers when he illustrates the poignancy of his grief by writing: “I do resemble the pelican of the wilderness.” (Ps 102:6) Here “wilderness” does not necessarily connote a desert, but simply an area away from human habitations, perhaps a swamp. During certain seasons, swamps in the northern Jordan Valley are still the home of pelicans. Three varieties of pelicans are found in Israel. The most common is the eastern white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus); the Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus crispus) and the pink-backed pelican (Pelecanus rufescens) are seen less often.

The pelican shows a distinct preference for uncultivated places, where it will not be disturbed by man. There it nests and hatches its young and retires after fishing. Because of this fondness for lonely, desolate places, this bird is used in the Bible as a symbol of utter desolation. To symbolize Edom’s coming desolation, Isaiah foretold that the pelican would take possession of that land. (Isa 34:11) Zephaniah prophesied that pelicans would dwell among the pillar capitals of Nineveh, indicating total ruin and absence of humankind.​—Zep 2:13, 14.

(Pelʹo·nite).

A term used with reference to two of David’s principal warriors, Helez and Ahijah. (1Ch 11:26, 27, 36; 27:10) Helez is referred to as “the Paltite” in the parallel record at 2 Samuel 23:26, and some lexicographers consider this the preferred rendering of the designation. The name of Ahijah (1Ch 11:36) does not appear, in that form at least, in the corresponding list at 2 Samuel 23:24-39.

A small enclosure for animals. (Zep 2:6; see SHEEPFOLD.) In Micah’s prophecy, regathered and united Israel is likened to “a flock in the pen.” (Mic 2:12, NW; Le) The Masoretic text here uses the Hebrew word bots·rahʹ, which is elsewhere rendered “Bozrah,” the name of a city of Edom and a city of Moab. However, in view of the phraseology of Micah 2:12, some scholars feel that bots·rahʹ also means a “pen” or “fold.” (JP, Mo) If the word should be vowel pointed slightly differently, it would correspond closely to the Arabic sirat (pen).

An implement for writing with ink or similar fluid. When ancients wrote on clay, wax, or soft metal they used a stylus (see STYLUS), but writing was also done on parchment or papyrus with pen and ink. (3Jo 13; 2Jo 12) The Greek word translated “pen” (kaʹla·mos) refers to a reed or cane and can literally be rendered “writing-reed.” Among ancient Egyptians the reed pen was made with a flat chisel-shaped head that was cut or sliced so that it would act as a brush. The reeds may have been dried and hardened by leaving them under dung heaps for several months, as has been the practice in recent years. The Greeks and Romans used a reed pen that was pointed and slit, as was later done with quill pens and as has been done even in recent times with pen points.

(Pe·niʹel).

The place near the ford of the Jabbok where Jacob wrestled with an angel; hence he called the place Peniel because there he ‘had seen God face to face.’ (Ge 32:22-31) The same as Penuel.​—See PENUEL.

(Pe·ninʹnah) [Coral].

A wife of Elkanah. Peninnah produced many children, in contrast with Elkanah’s other wife, Hannah. Nonetheless, Peninnah was loved less than Hannah, and so she ridiculed Hannah’s barrenness, especially at the time of the family’s annual visits to the tabernacle.​—1Sa 1:1-8.

(Penʹta·teuch).

This anglicized Greek word (meaning “five rolls” or “fivefold volume”) refers to the first five books of the Bible​—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Contents. The Pentateuch is a most important segment of God’s written Word, furnishing a solid foundation upon which much that follows firmly rests. Its first book, Genesis, gives us the inspired account of creation and also traces man’s history from Eden down through much of the patriarchal era to the death of Joseph (“in the beginning” to 1657 B.C.E.). The second book, Exodus, begins with the death of Joseph and tells of Moses’ birth during a time of slavery, of the deliverance of God’s people from Egyptian bondage, and of the inauguration of the Law covenant at Sinai; it includes details for the construction of the central structure for worship, namely, the tabernacle in the wilderness (historic events from 1657 to 1512 B.C.E.). Leviticus, the third book, covering only about one month’s time (1512 B.C.E.), gives invaluable information about the Levitical priesthood, its ordination, and its duties, as well as laws and regulations governing the congregation’s obligatory support of Jehovah’s worship. The fourth book, Numbers, as its name implies, tells of the censuses taken near the beginning and end of the wilderness journey. It also gives us many details on the 40 years of wandering (down to 1473 B.C.E.) and includes many laws embraced within the framework of the national covenant. The final book, Deuteronomy, covers about two months’ time (1473 B.C.E.); it explains portions of the Law covenant and provides many ordinances necessary for the new generation of Israelites who were poised on the Plains of Moab, ready to invade and occupy the Promised Land. The closing chapters tell of the appointment of Joshua as leader and the death of Moses.

Writership. There is no single text saying that Moses wrote the entire Pentateuch, but scattered throughout the material are explicit statements serving the same purpose. (Ex 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Nu 33:2; De 31:9, 19, 22, 24-26) There are also many sections where the words are directly credited to Moses, beginning with his first recorded conversation (Ex 2:13, 14), continuing to his final blessing on the people (De 33:1-29), and including some of his lengthy speeches (De 1:1; 5:1; 27:1; 29:2; 31:1) and notable songs. (Ex 15:1-19; De 31:30–32:43) The opening verses of 20 out of 27 chapters of Leviticus tell us that what follows are the words of Jehovah spoken to Moses so he, in turn, could inform the people. The same is true in more than 50 instances in the book of Numbers. So, with the exception of the closing verses of Deuteronomy, the evidence within the Pentateuch itself shows that its writership properly belongs to Moses.

Many other passages in the Bible witness to the fact that the Pentateuch was from the hand of Moses. (Jos 1:7; Jg 3:4; 2Ki 18:6; Mal 4:4) Such men as David (1Ki 2:1-3), Daniel (9:11), Ezra (6:18), Nehemiah (8:1), Jesus (Mr 12:26; Lu 16:29; Joh 7:19), Luke (24:27), and John (1:17) make references to this work as that of Moses. More directly to the point, Jesus acknowledged that Moses was the writer (Mr 10:3-5; Joh 5:46, 47), as did also the Sadducees.​—Mr 12:18, 19.

A name used in the Christian Greek Scriptures to denote the Festival of Harvest (Ex 23:16) or Festival of Weeks (Ex 34:22), called also “the day of the first ripe fruits.” (Nu 28:26) Instructions for this festival are found at Leviticus 23:15-21; Numbers 28:26-31; Deuteronomy 16:9-12. It was to be celebrated on the 50th day (Pentecost means “Fiftieth [Day]”) from Nisan 16, the day that the barley sheaf was offered. (Le 23:15, 16) In the Jewish calendar it falls on Sivan 6. It was after the barley harvest and the beginning of the harvest of wheat, which ripened later than the barley.​—Ex 9:31, 32.

The Israelites were not allowed to begin the harvest until the firstfruits of the barley had been presented to Jehovah on Nisan 16. Therefore, in Deuteronomy 16:9, 10 the instructions are: “From when the sickle is first put to the standing grain you will start to count seven weeks. Then you must celebrate the festival of weeks to Jehovah your God.” Every male was required to attend, and it is also stated in connection with this festival: “You must rejoice before Jehovah your God, you and your son and your daughter and your man slave and your slave girl and the Levite who is inside your gates and the alien resident and the fatherless boy and the widow, who are in your midst, in the place that Jehovah your God will choose to have his name reside there.” (De 16:11) The Passover was a close family observance. The Festival of Harvest, or Pentecost, called for a more open and hospitable liberality, in this sense resembling the Festival of Booths.

The firstfruits of the wheat harvest were to be treated differently from the barley firstfruits. Two tenths of an ephah of fine wheat flour (4.4 L; 4 dry qt) along with leaven was to be baked into two loaves. They were to be “out of your dwelling places,” which meant that they were to be loaves like those made for the daily use of the household and not expressly for holy purposes. (Le 23:17) Burnt offerings and a sin offering went along with this, and as a communion offering two male lambs. The priest waved the loaves and the lambs before Jehovah by putting his hands underneath the loaves and the pieces of the lambs and waving them back and forth, signifying that they were presented before Jehovah. After the loaves and the lambs were offered, they became the priest’s for him to eat as a communion offering.​—Le 23:18-20.

There is a slight difference in description of the other offerings (aside from the communion offering) in the account at Numbers 28:27-30. Instead of seven lambs, one young bull, two rams, and one kid of the goats, as at Leviticus 23:18, 19, it calls for seven lambs, two young bulls, one ram, and one kid of the goats. Jewish commentators say that the passage in Leviticus refers to the sacrifice to accompany the wave loaves, and the one in Numbers to the properly appointed sacrifice of the festival, so that both were offered. Supporting this, Josephus, in describing the sacrifices on Pentecost day, first mentions the two lambs of the communion offering, then combines the remaining offerings, enumerating three calves, two rams (evidently a transcriber’s error for three), 14 lambs, and two kids. (Jewish Antiquities, III, 253 [x, 6]) The day was a holy convention, a sabbath day.​—Le 23:21; Nu 28:26.

The Festival of Pentecost came at the end of the barley harvest and was a time of rejoicing, as is indicated by the communion offering that was presented by the congregation and was given to the priest. This offering would also denote peaceful fellowship with Jehovah. At the same time the sin offering reminded the Israelites of sin on their part and was a petition to God for forgiveness and cleansing. The increased burnt offering served as a practical expression of their gratitude for His bountifulness as well as a symbol of their wholeheartedness in carrying out their covenant relationship with God.

Not only was it specially appropriate for Israel to offer thanks to Jehovah on this day but they also were not to forget their poor brothers. After giving instructions on the festival, Jehovah commanded: “And when you people reap the harvest of your land, you must not do completely the edge of your field when you are reaping, and the gleaning of your harvest you must not pick up. You should leave them for the afflicted one and the alien resident. I am Jehovah your God.” (Le 23:22) Thus, the poor would have real incentive for thanking the Lord and enjoying the festival along with all others. There would also be many personal offerings of the firstfruits of the harvest during this festival.

According to rabbinic sources, after the exile the participants in the festival customarily went up to Jerusalem the day previous to its commencement and there prepared everything necessary for its observance. In the evening the blasts of the trumpets announced the approach of the festival day. (Nu 10:10) The altar of burnt sacrifice was cleansed, and the gates of the temple were opened immediately after midnight for the priests and so that the people who brought the sacrifices for burnt offerings and for thanksgiving offerings to the court could have them examined by the priests. Alfred Edersheim comments: “Before the morning sacrifice all burnt- and peace-offerings which the people proposed to bring at the feast had to be examined by the officiating priesthood. Great as their number was, it must have been a busy time, till the announcement that the morning glow extended to Hebron put an end to all such preparations, by giving the signal for the regular morning sacrifice.”​—The Temple, 1874, p. 228.

After the regular daily morning sacrifice was offered, the festive sacrifices described in Numbers 28:26-30 were brought. Afterward came the offering peculiar to Pentecost​—the wave loaves with their accompanying sacrifices. (Le 23:18-20) After the loaves were waved, one of them was taken by the high priest, and the second was divided among all the officiating priests.

Symbolic Significance of the Festival. It was on the day of Pentecost that the holy spirit was poured out by Jesus Christ on the group of about 120 disciples in the upper room at Jerusalem in the year 33 C.E. (Ac 1:13-15) Jesus had been resurrected on Nisan 16, the day of the offering of the barley sheaf by the high priest. He was, in a figurative sense, without leaven, which represents sin. (Heb 7:26) At Pentecost, as the great High Priest, he could present to his Father Jehovah additional sons, Jesus’ footstep followers, who were taken from sinful mankind and who accepted his sacrifice. The approval by God of Jesus’ own human sacrifice and of Jesus’ presentation of his disciples (although born in sin) to be spirit-begotten sons of God was manifested by the pouring out of God’s spirit upon them. The fact that there were two loaves of newly ripened grain that were presented to Jehovah at Pentecost indicates that more than one person would be involved in the fulfillment. It may also point to the fact that those who become spirit-begotten followers of Jesus Christ would be taken from two groups on earth: First from the natural circumcised Jews, and later from all the other nations of the world, the Gentiles.​—Compare Eph 2:13-18.

The Jews traditionally hold that Pentecost corresponded to the time of the giving of the Law at Sinai, when Israel became a distinguished people. It was early in the third month (Sivan) that the Israelites gathered at Sinai and received the Law. (Ex 19:1) Just as Moses as mediator was used to introduce Israel into the Law covenant, so Jesus Christ as Mediator of spiritual Israel now brought that new nation into the new covenant. The apostle Paul draws a comparison from these two events, saying that Christians are gathered to a far greater assemblage at “a Mount Zion and a city of the living God, heavenly Jerusalem,” under new covenant arrangements.​—Heb 12:18-24; compare Re 14:1-5.

Jesus had announced the new covenant to his disciples on the evening of his last Passover and, just before his ascension, had instructed them to wait at Jerusalem for the promised holy spirit. Now, as the apostle Peter explained, “because he was exalted to the right hand of God and received the promised holy spirit from the Father, he has poured out this which you see and hear.” (Lu 22:20; Ac 2:33) The presence of God’s spirit was manifested in that some 120 disciples were miraculously speaking in different tongues. By this means, the multitudes of Jews and proselytes from all parts of the Roman Empire could hear with intelligibility “the magnificent things of God.” (Ac 2:7-11) First at this time, by means of Peter, baptism in the name of the Father, Son, and holy spirit was preached, as Jesus had commanded at Matthew 28:19. (Ac 2:21, 36, 38, 39) Having gone into the heavens with the value of his sacrifice, Jesus was able to bring his followers into the new covenant.​—Heb 9:15-26.

These followers, then, with the 3,000 added that day (Ac 2:41) and others later, were not the very first firstfruits to God, for this was Jesus Christ himself, resurrected on Nisan 16 of 33 C.E. (1Co 15:23), when the barley sheaves were waved. Rather, they were like the firstfruits of the wheat, a second crop, “certain firstfruits” to God. (Jas 1:18) They now became God’s new nation, God’s “chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for special possession.”​—1Pe 2:9.

(Pe·nuʹel) [Face of God].

1. “Father of Gedor” in the tribe of Judah. (1Ch 4:1, 4) Since Gedor appears as the name of a town in Judah, Penuel may have been its founder or the ancestor of its inhabitants.

2. A family head in the tribe of Benjamin who lived in Jerusalem; son of Shashak.​—1Ch 8:1, 25, 28.

3. A city to the S of the Jabbok. In the time of the Judges, Gideon asked the men of Penuel for food in order that his forces might continue to pursue the kings of Midian, but the Penuelites refused, for which reason Gideon later destroyed their tower and killed all their men. (Jg 8:4-9, 17) Nothing more is mentioned of Penuel until King Jeroboam I “built” it again, or at least fortified it.​—1Ki 12:25.

Penuel is generally identified with Tulul edh-Dhahab esh-Sherqiyeh, about 6 km (3.5 mi) E of Succoth and near the Jabbok, some 14 km (8.5 mi) or so NE of its confluence with the Jordan. Indications are that it was heavily fortified and strategically positioned so as to control the entrance of the Jabbok gorge leading westward down to the Jordan.​—See PENIEL.

This expression (Heb., ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets, with its plural forms) occurs 75 times in the Hebrew text. In Jesus’ day it was employed by the religious leaders as a term of contempt, but originally this was not the case.

The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon by Koehler and Baumgartner explains this Hebrew expression to mean “the citizens possessing the full rights.” (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden, 1958, p. 711) The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible states that the term “in the strict sense includes only the responsible male citizenry, the married men who live on their own land and have full rights and duties, including the duty of serving in the army and of participating in judicial proceedings and . . . festivals.” (Edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 106) (Compare Le 20:2-5; 2Ki 15:5; 16:15; Eze 45:16, 22; 46:3, 9.) Thus, originally, the expression was one of respect. It did not apply only to a lowly class or those of the poorer element.

In bargaining for the property rights to the cave of Machpelah, Abraham dealt with the Hittite “people of the land.” (Ge 23:7, 13, RS) In these verses both An American Translation and the New World Translation render the Hebrew ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets as “natives.” Pharaoh, in speaking to Moses and Aaron, referred to the Israelites dwelling in Goshen as “the people of the land.” (Ex 5:5) The expression was used in the singular to embrace all the people of Canaan (Nu 14:9), and with the plural of ʽam (ʽam·mehʹ, “peoples”) to describe them as forming separate tribes or peoples within that land. (Ne 9:24, 30) It is used in a similar way to refer to the subject peoples within the Persian Empire in Queen Esther’s time. (Es 8:17) Sennacherib used the full plural form (ʽam·mehʹ ha·ʼara·tsohthʹ, “peoples of the lands”) as applying to the many peoples or nations conquered by the Assyrian forces.​—2Ch 32:13.

Within the nation of Israel, the phrase ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets often distinguished the general citizenry from governmental or priestly officials. (2Ki 11:14, 18-20; Jer 1:18; 34:19; 37:2; 44:21; Eze 7:27; Da 9:6; Zec 7:5) However, it is evident that it embraced not merely the poor laboring class but also included persons of means, since Ezekiel, after decrying the injustices committed by greedy prophets, priests, and princes, inveighs against “the people of the land” who have “carried on a scheme of defrauding and have done a tearing away in robbery, and the afflicted one and the poor one they have maltreated, and the alien resident they have defrauded without justice.” (Eze 22:25-29) To pay the heavy duties imposed by Pharaoh Nechoh, King Jehoiakim “exacted the silver and the gold from the people of the land” by means of taxation. Thus the ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets that struck down the conspirators against King Amon and made Josiah king or that later made Jehoahaz king were no so-called rabble element. (2Ki 23:30, 35; 21:24) When Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah, 60 men of “the people of the land” were included along with the high court officials who were taken to Riblah and executed, these 60 doubtless being among the more prominent or leading citizens. (2Ki 25:19-21) Of course, the phrase ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets did embrace the poor and lowly citizens as well, and the king of Babylon designated a number of such to remain in Judah, as he had done earlier in Jerusalem.​—2Ki 24:14; 25:12; Jer 40:7; 52:15, 16.

In postexilic times Ezra and Nehemiah condemned the wrong practice of the returned exiles in mingling with “the peoples of the land(s),” marrying their women, allowing them to carry on commerce within the city on the Sabbath, and learning their detestable practices. (Ezr 9:11; 10:2, 11; Ne 10:28, 31) The expression here referred to the surrounding non-Israelite peoples specified at Ezra 9:1, 2, and the reason for separating from them was not because of any low social or economic position on their part but because of God’s law requiring purity of worship.​—Ne 10:28-30.

As a Term of Contempt. In course of time, however, the religious leaders of Judah began to use the term to designate those persons, Jewish or non-Jewish, who were unlearned in the Law and more particularly those who were ignorant of or who failed to observe in detail the great body of rabbinic traditions that now developed. (Mt 15:1, 2) The term expressed the contemptuous attitude exemplified in the statement of the Pharisees at John 7:49: “This crowd that does not know the Law are accursed people.” Rabbi Joshua said that an ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets is: “Anyone who does not put on tefillin [phylacteries].” Other rabbinic statements applying to such nonobservers of Jewish traditions were: “Even if one has learnt Scripture and Mishnah, if he has not ministered to the disciples of the wise, he is an ʽam ha-arez.” (Babylonian Talmud, Berakhot 47b, translated by M. Simon) “Neither is an ignorant person [ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets] pious.” (Babylonian Talmud, Avot 2:5, translated by J. Israelstam) “The illiterate will not be resurrected.” (Babylonian Talmud, Ketubbot 111b, translated by I. Slotki) (Compare Mt 9:11; Lu 15:2; 18:11.) Jesus, however, said that he “came to call . . . sinners,” and he showed affection for the people who were “thrown about like sheep without a shepherd.”​—Mt 9:13, 36.

Thus the sense of ʽam ha·ʼaʹrets changed from one of general respect to one of religious opprobrium, much as the Latin term paganus, from which the English word “pagan” is derived. Pagan originally meant simply a dweller in a rural community, but since those country people were often the last to be converted, it came to be used by city dwellers as applying to all who did not adopt their professed Christian beliefs. In a similar way the term “heathen” at first meant simply one who lived out on the “heath” or field.

(Peʹor).

In the account of King Balak’s efforts to get the prophet Balaam to curse Israel, the third vantage point to which Balaam was conducted is said to be “the top of Peor, which looks toward Jeshimon.” (Nu 23:28) From here Balaam could see the tents of Israel spread about on the Plains of Moab below.​—Nu 22:1; 24:2.

Some consider Peor to be the abbreviated form of the name Beth-peor. (De 4:46) However, this latter place is evidently a town, included as such in the territorial assignment of Reuben. (Jos 13:15, 16, 20) Others, therefore, consider Peor to be a summit, or peak, and suggest that the town of Beth-peor may have been so named because of being situated on the slopes of such a summit. Both Peor and Beth-peor appear to be connected with the pagan worship of “the Baal of Peor” (Nu 25:1-3, 18; 31:16; Jos 22:17), and it is possible that the height of Peor was a center of such immoral worship.​—See BAAL No. 4; BAAL OF PEOR.

Balaam was first taken to Bamoth-baal, then to “the top of Pisgah,” and finally to “the top of Peor.” (Nu 22:41; 23:14, 28) The direction of movement is from S to N and seems to indicate that Peor was N of Pisgah and Mount Nebo. Based on the testimony of Eusebius and Jerome, of the third and fourth centuries C.E., the summit of Peor is suggested to have been one of the peaks bordering the Wadi Husban.​—See BETH-PEOR.

(Pe·raʹzim) [Breakings Through].

A mount seemingly referred to elsewhere as Baal-perazim.​—Isa 28:21; see BAAL-PERAZIM.

(Peʹres).

Daniel used this Aramaic word when interpreting the handwriting on the wall, “MENE, MENE, TEKEL and PARSIN.” (Da 5:25, 28) Dr. Judah Slotki points out that the handwriting means “a maneh, a maneh, a shekel and half shekels.” (Soncino Books of the Bible, edited by A. Cohen, London, 1951; see also Peake’s Commentary on the Bible, edited by M. Black and H. H. Rowley, London, 1964, p. 596.) Since “Peres” is the singular number of “Parsin,” it would mean “a half shekel.”

In the prophet’s interpretation of “Peres,” he employed two other Aramaic words spelled with the same three consonants but vocalized differently. “PERES [Peresʹ], your kingdom has been divided [peri·sathʹ] and given to the Medes and the Persians [u·Pha·rasʹ].” Thus the inspired explanation included a double play on the word “Peres” and the root meaning “divide.” The subsequent events of that night proved the accuracy of the interpretation.​—See PARSIN.

(Peʹresh).

A son of Machir and Maacah in the tribe of Manasseh.​—1Ch 7:14, 16.

(Peʹrez) [Rupture; Perineal Rupture].

One of the twin sons of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar. At birth, Perez’ brother Zerah started to emerge first but withdrew, and Perez came out first, producing a perineal rupture of Tamar. (Ge 38:24-30) Perez retained priority over his brother and is always listed ahead of him, and his house became the more famous of the two. (Ru 4:12) Perez and his own two sons, Hezron and Hamul, are listed among those of Jacob’s lineage coming into Egypt, where all three became heads of individual families in Judah. (Ge 46:8, 12) Aside from this, no personal information about him is recorded.

The references to Perez are primarily genealogical, the bulk of Judah’s genealogies being traced through Perez. (1Ch 2:4, 5, 9-55; 4:1-20) The families of Perez and his two sons comprised a generous portion of the tribe of Judah at the time of the second wilderness registration. (Nu 26:20-22) Some of Perez’ descendants were in the first division of David’s monthly militia. (1Ch 27:3) Many sons of Perez returned from the Babylonian exile, and 468 of them resided in Jerusalem. (1Ch 9:3, 4; Ne 11:4, 6) A direct genealogical line from Perez went through Boaz to David and finally to Jesus the Messiah.​—Ru 4:18-22; 1Ch 2:4-15; Mt 1:3; Lu 3:33.

(Peʹrez-uzʹzah) [meaning “Rupture Against Uzzah”].

The name given to the threshing floor of Nacon (Chidon) after Jehovah struck down Uzzah for handling the Ark irreverently when an attempt was made to move it from Kiriath-jearim to the City of David. (2Sa 6:4-10; 1Ch 13:6-11) The exact location of Perez-uzzah is unknown.

The thought of perfection is expressed through Hebrew terms drawn from such verbs as ka·lalʹ (perfect [compare Eze 27:4]), sha·lamʹ (come to completion [compare Isa 60:20]), and ta·mamʹ (be completed, come to perfection [compare Ps 102:27; Isa 18:5]). In the Christian Greek Scriptures the words teʹlei·os (adjective), te·lei·oʹtes (noun), and te·lei·oʹo (verb) are used similarly, conveying such ideas as bringing to completeness or full measure (Lu 8:14; 2Co 12:9; Jas 1:4), being full grown, adult, or mature (1Co 14:20; Heb 5:14), having attained the appropriate or appointed end, purpose, or goal (Joh 19:28; Php 3:12).

Importance of Correct Viewpoint. For correct Bible understanding one must not make the common error of thinking that everything called “perfect” is so in an absolute sense, that is, to an infinite degree, without limitation. Perfection in this absolute sense distinguishes only the Creator, Jehovah God. Because of this Jesus could say of his Father: “Nobody is good, except one, God.” (Mr 10:18) Jehovah is incomparable in his excellence, worthy of all praise, supreme in his superb qualities and powers, so that “his name alone is unreachably high.” (Ps 148:1-13; Job 36:3, 4, 26; 37:16, 23, 24; Ps 145:2-10, 21) Moses extolled God’s perfection, saying: “For I shall declare the name of Jehovah. Do you attribute greatness to our God! The Rock, perfect is his activity, for all his ways are justice. A God of faithfulness, with whom there is no injustice; righteous and upright is he.” (De 32:3, 4) All of God’s ways, words, and law are perfect, refined, free from flaw or defect. (Ps 18:30; 19:7; Jas 1:17, 25) There is never any just cause for objection, criticism, or faultfinding regarding Him or his activity; rather, praise is always due Him.​—Job 36:22-24.

Other perfection relative. Perfection of any other person or thing, then, is relative, not absolute. (Compare Ps 119:96.) That is, a thing is “perfect” according to, or in relation to, the purpose or end for which it is appointed by its designer or producer, or the use to which it is to be put by its receiver or user. The very meaning of perfection requires that there be someone who decides when “completion” has been reached, what the standards of excellence are, what requirements are to be satisfied, and what details are essential. Ultimately, God the Creator is the final Arbiter of perfection, the Standard-Setter, in accord with his own righteous purposes and interests.​—Ro 12:2; see JEHOVAH (A God of moral standards).

As an illustration, the planet Earth was one of God’s creations, and at the end of six creative ‘days’ of work toward it, God pronounced the results “very good.” (Ge 1:31) It met his supreme standards of excellence, hence it was perfect. Yet he thereafter assigned man to “subdue it,” evidently in the sense of cultivating the earth and making the whole planet, and not just Eden, a garden of God.​—Ge 1:28; 2:8.

The tent, or tabernacle, built in the wilderness at God’s command and according to his specifications served as a type or small-scale prophetic model of a “greater and more perfect tent,” the Most Holy of which is Jehovah’s heavenly residence into which Christ Jesus entered as High Priest. (Heb 9:11-14, 23, 24) The earthly tent was perfect in that it satisfied God’s requirements, served its appointed end. Yet when God’s purpose concerning it was accomplished, it ceased to be used and passed out of existence. The perfection of that which it represented was of a far higher type.

The city of Jerusalem with its hill of Zion was called “the perfection of prettiness.” (La 2:15; Ps 50:2) This does not mean that every minute aspect of the city’s physical appearance was supremely attractive, but rather, it relates to its use by God, the city’s beauty resulting from the splendor that he conferred upon it, making it the capital of his anointed kings and the site of his temple. (Eze 16:14) The wealthy commercial city of Tyre is portrayed as a ship whose builders, those working in behalf of the city’s material interests, had ‘perfected its prettiness,’ filling it with luxury products of many lands.​—Eze 27:3-25.

Thus, in each case the context must be considered to determine in what sense or relation perfection is meant.

Perfection of the Mosaic Law. The Law given to Israel through Moses included among its provisions the establishment of a priesthood and the offering of various animal sacrifices. Though from God, and hence perfect, neither the Law, its priesthood, nor the sacrifices brought perfection to those under the Law, as the inspired apostle shows. (Heb 7:11, 19; 10:1) Rather than bring freedom from sin and death, it actually made sin more evident. (Ro 3:20; 7:7-13) All these divine provisions, nevertheless, served the purpose assigned them by God; the Law acted as a “tutor” to lead men to Christ, forming a perfect “shadow of the good things to come.” (Ga 3:19-25; Heb 10:1) Hence, when Paul speaks of “an incapability on the part of the Law, while it was weak through the flesh” (Ro 8:3), he is evidently referring to the inability of the fleshly Jewish high priest (who was appointed by the Law to be in charge of the sacrificial arrangements and who entered the Most Holy on Atonement Day with sacrificial blood) to “save completely” those whom he served, as Hebrews 7:11, 18-28 explains. Although the offering of sacrifices through the Aaronic priesthood maintained a right standing for the people before God, it did not completely or perfectly relieve them of consciousness of sin. The apostle refers to this in saying that the atonement sacrifices could not “make those who approach perfect,” that is, as regards their conscience. (Heb 10:1-4; compare Heb 9:9.) The high priest was unable to provide the ransom price needed for a true redemption from sin. Only Christ’s enduring priestly service and effective sacrifice do accomplish this.​—Heb 9:14; 10:12-22.

The Law was “holy,” “good,” “fine” (Ro 7:12, 16), and anyone who could fully live up to this perfect Law would prove himself a perfect man, worthy of life. (Le 18:5; Ro 10:5; Ga 3:12) For this very reason the Law brought condemnation, rather than life, not because the Law was not good but because of the imperfect, sinful nature of those under it. (Ro 7:13-16; Ga 3:10-12, 19-22) The perfect Law made their imperfection and sinfulness especially evident. (Ro 3:19, 20; Ga 3:19, 22) The Law in this respect also served to identify Jesus as the Messiah, for he alone was able to keep the Law in every respect, proving himself a perfect man.​—Joh 8:46; 2Co 5:21; Heb 7:26.

The Bible’s Perfection. The Sacred Scriptures constitute a perfect message from God, refined, pure, and true. (Ps 12:6; 119:140, 160; Pr 30:5; Joh 17:17) Though thousands of years of copying have evidently brought some variations from the original writings, these variations are admittedly very minor, so that, even if our present copies and translations are not absolutely flawless, the divine message conveyed is.

Individuals may find the Bible a more difficult book to read than many, one requiring greater effort and concentration; they may find much they do not understand. Some critical persons may insist that, to be perfect, the Bible should be free of even superficial differences or what appear, according to their standards, to be inconsistencies. None of these things, however, detract from the perfection of the Sacred Scriptures. For the real gauge of its perfection is its measuring up to the standards of excellence set by Jehovah God, its accomplishing the end or purpose that he, as its true Author, appointed for it, as well as its being free from falsehood, as the published Word of the God of truth. The apostle Paul points up the perfection of “the holy writings” in saying: “All Scripture is inspired of God and beneficial for teaching, for reproving, for setting things straight, for disciplining in righteousness, that the man of God may be fully competent, completely equipped for every good work.” (2Ti 3:15-17) What the Hebrew Scriptures did for the nation of Israel when they observed them, what the completed Scriptures did for the Christian congregation in the first century, and what the Bible can do for persons in the present, is convincing proof of its qualities as an ideal instrument of God to accomplish his purpose.​—Compare 1Co 1:18.

The whole tenor of the Scriptures, including the teachings of God’s Son, is to the effect that the gaining of understanding of God’s purposes, the doing of his will, and the attaining of salvation to life are dependent primarily upon the individual’s heart. (1Sa 16:7; 1Ch 28:9; Pr 4:23; 21:2; Mt 15:8; Lu 8:5-15; Ro 10:10) The Bible is unique in its ability to “discern thoughts and intentions of the heart,” revealing what the person really is. (Heb 4:12, 13) It is clear from the Scriptures that God has not made knowledge of himself something to be acquired without effort. (Compare Pr 2:1-14; 8:32-36; Isa 55:6-11; Mt 7:7, 8.) It is also evident that God has caused his purposes to be revealed to humble ones and hidden from haughty ones, because ‘to do thus came to be the way approved by him.’ (Mt 11:25-27; 13:10-15; 1Co 2:6-16; Jas 4:6) So, the fact that individuals whose hearts do not respond to the Bible’s message can find things in the Scriptures that, in their opinion, justify their rejection of its message, its reproof, and its discipline does not show any imperfection on the part of the Bible. Rather, it illustrates the Scriptural points just made and hence demonstrates the perfection of the Bible in the view of its Author, whose view alone is decisive. (Isa 29:13, 14; Joh 9:39; Ac 28:23-27; Ro 1:28) The things relating to God’s Word and way that the worldly-wise deem “foolish” or “weak” are proved by time and test to be of superior wisdom and strength compared to the theories, philosophies, and reasonings of human detractors.​—1Co 1:22-25; 1Pe 1:24, 25.

Faith remains an essential requirement for the understanding and appreciation of God’s perfect Word. The individual may feel that certain details and explanations should be in the Bible, revealing why, in specific cases, God gave approval or disapproval or why he took a particular course of action; the individual also may feel that other details found in the Bible are superfluous. Yet he should realize that if the Bible conformed to human standards or criteria, such as his own, this would not prove it divinely perfect. Exposing the falsity of such an attitude, Jehovah declares the superiority of his thoughts and ways to those of humans, and he assures that his word will “have certain success” in the fulfillment of his purpose. (Isa 55:8-11; Ps 119:89) That is what perfection means, as the definitions in the initial portion of this article show.

Perfection and Free Will. The foregoing information aids in understanding how perfect creatures of God could become disobedient. To view this as incompatible with perfection is to ignore the meaning of the term, substituting a personal concept that goes contrary to fact. God’s intelligent creatures are granted free moral agency, the privilege and responsibility of making a personal decision as to the course they will take. (De 30:19, 20; Jos 24:15) It is evident that this was the case with the first human pair, so that their devotion to God could be subject to test. (Ge 2:15-17; 3:2, 3) As their Maker, Jehovah knew what he wanted of them, and from the Scriptures it is clear that he wanted, not an automatic, virtually mechanical obedience, but worship and service that sprang from hearts and minds motivated by genuine love. (Compare De 30:15, 16; 1Ch 28:9; 29:17; Joh 4:23, 24.) If Adam and his wife had lacked the ability to choose in this matter, they would not have met God’s requirements; they would not have been complete, perfect, according to his standards.

It must be remembered that perfection as it relates to humans is a relative perfection, limited to the human sphere. Though created perfect, Adam could not go beyond the limits assigned him by his Creator; he could not eat dirt, gravel, or wood without suffering ill effects; if he tried to breathe water instead of air, he would drown. Similarly, if he allowed his mind and heart to feed on wrong thoughts, this would lead to entertaining wrong desires and finally bring sin and death.​—Jas 1:14, 15; compare Ge 1:29; Mt 4:4.

That the creature’s individual will and choice are determining factors readily becomes evident. If we were to insist that a perfect man could not take a wrong course where a moral issue was involved, should we not also logically argue that an imperfect creature could not take a right course where such moral issue was involved? Yet some imperfect creatures do take a right course on moral issues involving obedience to God, even choosing to suffer persecution rather than change from such a course; while at the same time others deliberately engage in doing what they know is wrong. Thus not all wrong actions can be excused by human imperfection. The individual’s will and choice are deciding factors. In the same way, it was not human perfection alone that would guarantee right action by the first man but, rather, the exercise of his own free will and choice as motivated by love for his God and for what was right.​—Pr 4:23.

The first sinner and the king of Tyre. Human sin and imperfection were, of course, preceded by sin and imperfection in the spirit realm, as Jesus’ words at John 8:44 and the account in chapter 3 of Genesis reveal. The dirge recorded at Ezekiel 28:12-19, though directed to the human “king of Tyre,” evidently parallels the course taken by the spirit son of God who first sinned. The pride of “the king of Tyre,” his making himself ‘a god,’ his being called a “cherub,” and the reference to “Eden, the garden of God,” certainly correspond to Biblical information concerning Satan the Devil, who became puffed up with pride, is linked to the serpent in Eden, and is called “the god of this system of things.”​—1Ti 3:6; Ge 3:1-5, 14, 15; Re 12:9; 2Co 4:4.

The anonymous king of Tyre, residing in the city claiming to be “perfect in prettiness,” was himself “full of wisdom and perfect [adjective related to Heb. ka·lalʹ] in beauty,” and “faultless [Heb., ta·mimʹ]” in his ways from his creation onward until unrighteousness was found in him. (Eze 27:3; 28:12, 15) The first or direct application of the dirge in Ezekiel may be to the line of Tyrian rulers rather than to any one specific king. (Compare the prophecy directed against the anonymous “king of Babylon” at Isa 14:4-20.) In that case, the reference may be to the early course of friendship and cooperation followed by the Tyrian rulership during the reigns of Kings David and Solomon, when Tyre even contributed toward the building of Jehovah’s temple on Mount Moriah. At first, therefore, there was no fault to be found in the official Tyrian attitude toward Jehovah’s people Israel. (1Ki 5:1-18; 9:10, 11, 14; 2Ch 2:3-16) Later kings, however, departed from this “faultless” course, and Tyre came in for condemnation by God’s prophets Joel and Amos, as well as Ezekiel. (Joe 3:4-8; Am 1:9, 10) Aside from the evident similarity of the course of “the king of Tyre” with that of God’s principal Adversary, the prophecy illustrates again how “perfection” and “faultlessness” can be used in limited senses.

How could imperfect servants of God be termed “faultless”?

Righteous Noah proved himself “faultless among his contemporaries.” (Ge 6:9) Job was “blameless and upright.” (Job 1:8) Similar expressions are made regarding other servants of God. Since all were descendants of the sinner Adam and hence sinners, it is clear that such men were “faultless” and “blameless” in the sense of measuring up fully to God’s requirements for them, requirements that took into account their imperfection and disability. (Compare Mic 6:8.) Even as a potter would not expect the same quality when molding a vase from common clay as he would when forming one from special refined clay, so Jehovah’s requirements take into consideration the weakness of imperfect humans. (Ps 103:10-14; Isa 64:8) Though committing errors and wrongs because of their fleshly imperfection, such faithful men nevertheless manifested “a complete [Heb., sha·lemʹ] heart” toward Jehovah. (1Ki 11:4; 15:14; 2Ki 20:3; 2Ch 16:9) Thus, within the limits possible for them to attain, their devotion was complete, sound, satisfying the divine requirements in their case. Since God the Judge was pleased with their worship, no human or spirit creature could rightly find fault with their service to Him.​—Compare Lu 1:6; Heb 11:4-16; Ro 14:4; see JEHOVAH (Why he can deal with imperfect humans).

The Christian Greek Scriptures recognize the inherent imperfection of mankind descended from Adam. James 3:2 shows that a person would be “a perfect man, able to bridle . . . his whole body,” if he could bridle his tongue and not stumble in word; but in this “we all stumble many times.” (Compare Jas 3:8.) Nevertheless, certain relative perfections are set forth as attainable by sinful humans. Jesus told his followers: “You must accordingly be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect.” (Mt 5:48) Here his reference was to the matter of love and generosity. He showed that merely to “love those loving you” constituted an incomplete, defective love; hence his followers should perfect their love or bring it to full measure by loving their enemies also, thereby following God’s example. (Mt 5:43-47) Similarly, the young man who questioned Jesus on the way to gain everlasting life was shown that his worship, which already included obedience to the Law’s commandments, was still lacking in vital points. If he ‘wanted to be perfect’ he must bring his worship to full development (compare Lu 8:14; Isa 18:5) by fulfilling these aspects.​—Mt 19:21; compare Ro 12:2.

The apostle John shows that God’s love is made perfect in Christians who remain in union with Him, observing the word of his Son and loving one another. (1Jo 2:5; 4:11-18) Such perfect love casts out fear, grants “freeness of speech.” Here the context shows that John is speaking of “freeness of speech toward God,” as in prayer. (1Jo 3:19-22; compare Heb 4:16; 10:19-22.) The one in whom God’s love reaches full expression can approach his heavenly Father in confidence, not feeling condemned in his heart as if hypocritical or disapproved. He knows he is observing God’s commandments and that he is doing what pleases his Father, and he is therefore free in his expressions and petitions to Jehovah. He does not feel as if under restriction by God as to what he is privileged to say or to ask for. (Compare Nu 12:10-15; Job 40:1-5; La 3:40-44; 1Pe 3:7.) No morbid fear inhibits him; he does not come to “the day of judgment” conscious of some ‘black mark’ against him or desirous of hiding certain things. (Compare Heb 10:27, 31.) As a child does not fear to ask his loving parents for anything, so the Christian in whom love is fully developed is sure that “no matter what it is that we ask according to his will, he hears us. Further, if we know he hears us respecting whatever we are asking, we know we are to have the things asked since we have asked them of him.”​—1Jo 5:14, 15.

Thus, this “perfect love” does not cast out fear of every kind. It does not eliminate the reverential and filial fear of God, born of deep respect for his position, power, and justice. (Ps 111:9, 10; Heb 11:7) Neither does it do away with the normal fear that causes a person, where possible, to avoid danger or to protect his life, nor with the fear caused by sudden alarm.​—Compare 1Sa 21:10-15; 2Co 11:32, 33; Job 37:1-5; Hab 3:16, 18.

Also, full unity is achieved through the “perfect bond” of love, causing true Christians to be “perfected into one.” (Col 3:14; Joh 17:23) Obviously the perfection of this unity is also relative and does not mean that all differences of personality, such as individual abilities, habits, and conscience, are eliminated. When attained, however, its fullness does lead to unified action, belief, and teaching.​—Ro 15:5, 6; 1Co 1:10; Eph 4:3; Php 1:27.

The Perfection of Christ Jesus. Jesus was born as a perfect human​—holy, sinless. (Lu 1:30-35; Heb 7:26) His physical perfection, of course, was not infinite but was within the human sphere; he experienced human limitations; he became tired, thirsty, and hungry; he was mortal. (Mr 4:36-39; Joh 4:6, 7; Mt 4:2; Mr 15:37, 44, 45) Jehovah God’s purpose was to use his Son as his High Priest in behalf of mankind. Though a perfect man, Jesus had to be ‘made perfect’ (Gr., te·lei·oʹo) for such a position, completely filling the requirements his Father set, being brought to the appointed end or goal. The requirements called for his becoming “like his ‘brothers’ in all respects,” enduring suffering, learning obedience under test, even as his “brothers” or footstep followers would. Thus he would be able to “sympathize with our weaknesses, [as] one who has been tested in all respects like ourselves, but without sin.” (Heb 2:10-18; 4:15, 16; 5:7-10) Additionally, following his death as a perfect sacrifice and his resurrection, he would have to receive immortal spirit life in the heavens, thus being “perfected forever” for his priestly office. (Heb 7:15–8:4; 9:11-14, 24) In a similar way, all those who will serve with Christ as underpriests will be ‘made perfect,’ that is, be brought to the heavenly goal they seek and to which they are called.​—Php 3:8-14; Heb 12:22, 23; Re 20:6.

The “Perfecter of our faith.” Jesus is called “the Chief Agent [Chief Leader] and Perfecter of our faith.” (Heb 12:2) True, long before the coming of Jesus Christ, Abraham’s faith was “perfected” by his works of faith and obedience, so that he gained God’s approval and became party with God in an oath-bound covenant. (Jas 2:21-23; Ge 22:15-18) But the faith of all those men of faith living prior to Jesus’ earthly ministry was incomplete, or imperfect, in the sense of their not understanding the then unfulfilled prophecies regarding him as God’s Seed and Messiah. (1Pe 1:10-12) By his birth, ministry, death, and resurrection to heavenly life, these prophecies came to fulfillment, and the faith about Christ had a strengthened foundation, one filled out with historical facts. Thus, faith in this perfected sense “arrived” through Christ Jesus (Ga 3:24, 25), who thereby proved to be the “leader” (AT), “pioneer” (Mo), or Chief Agent of our faith. He continued to be the Perfecter of the faith of his followers from his heavenly position, by pouring down holy spirit on them at Pentecost and by imparting revelations that progressively filled out and developed their faith.​—Ac 2:32, 33; Heb 2:4; Re 1:1, 2; 22:16; Ro 10:17.

“Not Made Perfect Apart From Us.” After reviewing the record of faithful men of the pre-Christian period from Abel onward, the apostle says none of these got “the fulfillment of the promise, as God foresaw something better for us, in order that they might not be made perfect apart from us.” (Heb 11:39, 40) The “us” here clearly refers to anointed Christians (Heb 1:2; 2:1-4), “partakers of the heavenly calling” (Heb 3:1) for whom Christ “inaugurated . . . a new and living way” into the holy place of God’s heavenly presence. (Heb 10:19, 20) That heavenly calling includes service as heavenly priests of God and of Christ during Christ’s Thousand Year Reign. “Power of judging” is also granted them. (Re 20:4-6) Logically, then, the heavenly life and privileges that the called ones receive is the “something better” that God foresaw for such anointed Christians. (Heb 11:40) The revealing of them as they go into action from heaven with Christ to destroy the wicked system, however, is to open the way for bringing liberation from enslavement to corruption for those of creation reaching out for “the glorious freedom of the children of God.” (Ro 8:19-22) Hebrews 11:35 shows that faithful men of pre-Christian times maintained integrity under suffering “in order that they might attain a better resurrection,” evidently one better than that of the “dead” referred to at the start of the verse, persons who were resurrected only to die again. (Compare 1Ki 17:17-23; 2Ki 4:17-20, 32-37.) For these faithful men of pre-Christian times, therefore, their being “made perfect” must relate to their resurrection, or restoration to life, and thereafter their being “set free from enslavement to corruption” by the services of the priesthood of Christ Jesus and his underpriests during the Millennial Rule.

Mankind’s Return to Perfection on Earth. According to the prayer, “Let your will take place, as in heaven, also upon earth,” this planet is due to experience the full force and effect of the execution of God’s purposes. (Mt 6:10) The wicked system under the control of Satan will be destroyed. All faults and defects will be removed from survivors who continue obediently to demonstrate faith, so that what remains meets God’s standards of excellence, completeness, and soundness. That this will include perfection of earthly conditions and of human creatures is evident from Revelation 5:9, 10. There it is stated that persons ‘bought for God’ (compare Re 14:1, 3) become “a kingdom and priests to our God, and they are to rule as kings over the earth.” Under the Law covenant not only did the priests have the duty to represent persons before God in the offering of sacrifices but they also were charged with guarding the physical health of the nation, officiating in the cleansing of those who were defiled, and judging when healing had taken place in cases of leprosy. (Le 13-15) More than this, the priesthood was responsible to aid in the mental and spiritual uplift and health of the people. (De 17:8-13; Mal 2:7) Since the Law had “a shadow of the good things to come,” it is to be expected that the heavenly priesthood under Christ Jesus functioning during his Thousand Year Reign (Re 20:4-6) will perform similar work.​—Heb 10:1.

That redeemed mankind will experience the removal of tears, mourning, outcry, pain, and death is guaranteed by the prophetic picture at Revelation 21:1-5. Through Adam, sin, and consequent suffering and death, entered the human race (Ro 5:12), and these are certainly among “the former things” due to pass away. Death is the wages of sin, and as “the last enemy, death is to be brought to nothing” through Christ’s Kingdom rule. (Ro 6:23; 1Co 15:25, 26, 56) For obedient mankind this means a return to the perfect state enjoyed by man at the beginning of human history in Eden. Thus, humans will be able to enjoy not only perfection as to faith and love but perfection as to sinlessness; they will measure up fully and faultlessly to God’s righteous standards for humans. The prophecy at Revelation 21:1-5 likewise relates to the Thousand Year Reign of Christ, since the “New Jerusalem,” whose “coming down out of heaven” is linked with the removal of mankind’s afflictions, is shown to be Christ’s “bride,” or glorified congregation, hence those composing the royal priesthood of Christ’s Millennial Rule.​—Re 21:9, 10; Eph 5:25-32; 1Pe 2:9; Re 20:4-6.

Mankind’s perfection will be relative, limited to the human sphere. Yet it will certainly afford those gaining it the ability to enjoy earthly life to the fullest degree possible. “Rejoicing to satisfaction [to the full] is with [Jehovah’s] face,” and God’s ‘tenting with mankind’ shows that obedient mankind is meant, those toward whom Jehovah’s face turns with approval. (Ps 16:11; Re 21:3; compare Ps 15:1-3; 27:4, 5; 61:4; Isa 66:23.) Perfection does not mean an end to variety, however, as persons often assume. The animal kingdom, which is the product of Jehovah’s ‘perfect activity’ (Ge 1:20-24; De 32:4), contains enormous variety. Perfection of the planet Earth is likewise not incompatible with variety, change, or contrast; it allows for the simple and the complex, the plain and the fancy, the sour and the sweet, the rough and the smooth, the meadows and the woods, the mountains and the valleys. It embraces the stimulating freshness of early spring, the warmth of summer with its azure-blue skies, the loveliness of autumn colors, the pure beauty of freshly fallen snow. (Ge 8:22) Perfect humans will thus not be stereotypes of identical personality, talents, and abilities. As the initial definitions have shown, this is not a necessary meaning of perfection.

See OINTMENT AND PERFUMES.

(Perʹga).

A prominent city in the Roman province of Pamphylia. The ruins of ancient Perga are believed to be near the modern village of Murtana, about 13 km (8 mi) inland from the S coast of Asia Minor and some 8 km (5 mi) W of the Cestrus (Aksu) River. It appears that anciently, according to the Greek geographer Strabo, this river was navigable as far N as Perga. (Geography, 14, IV, 2) However, nearby Attalia on the coast of Pamphylia seems to have served as Perga’s harbor and, in time, even displaced Perga in importance.​—Compare Ac 14:24-26.

It was to this city that the apostle Paul and his associates came early in the course of his first missionary journey. (Ac 13:13) Toward its close they ‘spoke the word in Perga,’ but whether any of the populace accepted Christianity is not known.​—Ac 14:24, 25.

(Perʹga·mum) [Citadel; Acropolis].

A Mysian city in the NW part of Asiatic Turkey (Asia Minor) and the location of one of the seven congregations to which the apostle John addressed letters as recorded in Revelation. (Re 1:11; 2:12-17) The city was about 80 km (50 mi) N of Smyrna (modern Izmir) and about 25 km (15 mi) from the coast of the Aegean Sea. Close to the site of ancient Pergamum lies modern Bergama. Pergamum was originally a fortress on a steep, isolated hill between two rivers. In time the city spread into the valley below, and the hill became the acropolis.

History. There is uncertainty as to the origin of the people of Pergamum, but some evidence points to Achaia in Greece. By 420 B.C.E. the city was striking coins, and in the next century Xenophon made mention of the city. After the death of Alexander the Great, it became part of Lysimachus’ territory. Lysimachus’ lieutenant Philetaerus became ruler of the city and surrounding territory, beginning the reign of the Attalids under whom Pergamum became a wealthy and important city. King Attalus I (241-197 B.C.E.) sided with the Romans against the Macedonians. His successor, Eumenes II, built up an immense library that rivaled the famous library in Alexandria. Supposedly at this time writing parchment (pergamena charta) was invented in the city. Also, by this period the kingdom of Pergamum controlled most of W Asia Minor. In 133 B.C.E. Attalus III, on his deathbed, willed Pergamum to Rome, whereupon the city became the capital of the Roman province of Asia. (See ASIA.) Even when it ceased to be the capital, Pergamum continued to hold great importance as an official administrative center.

Religion of Pergamum. Pagan religion was greatly stressed in Pergamum. It seems that Chaldean Magi (astrologers) fled from Babylon to Pergamum, setting up their central college there. Eumenes II built a huge marble altar to the god Zeus to celebrate his defeat of the Gauls. The remains of it have been unearthed and show that it was decorated with an enormous relief depicting gods battling giants. (PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 945) The sick from all parts of Asia flocked to Pergamum because of its temple of Asclepius, the god of healing and medicine.

An especially noteworthy aspect of religion in Pergamum was its worship of political rulers. The city built a magnificent temple for the worship of Caesar Augustus. Thus it was the first city to have a temple dedicated to the imperial cult. During the days of Emperors Trajan and Severus, two more such temples were constructed there, so that the Encyclopædia Britannica calls Pergamum “the chief centre of the imperial cult under the early empire.” (1959, Vol. 17, p. 507) Such worship of the Roman emperor doubtless served politically to weld all the various conquered countries of the empire together under a common god; they could each worship their local or national gods, but all must also worship the emperor.

“Where the Throne of Satan Is.” In the apostle John’s letter to the congregation in Pergamum, he mentioned that the city was “where Satan is dwelling” and that the Christians were thus living “where the throne of Satan is.” (Re 2:13) “The phrase has been referred to the complex of pagan cults, . . . but the main allusion is probably to emperor worship. This was where the worship of the divine emperor had been made the touchstone of civic loyalty under Domitian.” (New Bible Dictionary, edited by J. Douglas, 1985, p. 912) Since the martyrdom of Antipas is mentioned in the same verse as “the throne of Satan,” Antipas may have been killed for refusing to worship Caesar.

Perhaps an additional factor bearing on the identification of “where the throne of Satan is” was the prominent worship of Zeus, or Jupiter, the chief god among all the pagan gods and goddesses. Legend said that from the hill where Pergamum was built certain gods had witnessed the birth of Zeus, and the immense altar later located on the acropolis is considered one of the marvels of the age. Persons worshiping Zeus could have other gods but were to view them as subordinate to him. The Christians in Pergamum were commended, though, because they held fast to their exclusive devotion to the true God, Jehovah, and did not deny the faith despite dwelling ‘where the throne of Satan was.’

“Teaching of Balaam.” However, in the congregation there was the undermining influence of those “holding fast the teaching of Balaam.” (Re 2:14) This expression calls to mind the Mesopotamian prophet Balaam, who, after unsuccessful attempts to curse Israel, suggested using pagan women to draw male Israelites into the lewd worship of false gods. As a consequence of the resulting sexual immorality and idolatry, 24,000 Israelites died. (Nu 25:1-18; 1Co 10:8; see BALAAM.) Evidently some in the Pergamum congregation, those “holding fast the teaching of Balaam,” were condoning fornication.​—Jude 4, 11; 2Pe 2:14, 15.

Some in the congregation had also been influenced by the teaching of “the sect of Nicolaus,” and they were urged to repent of that.​—Re 2:15, 16.

(Pe·riʹda) [Separated].

Forefather of a family of Solomon’s servants, some of whom returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel. (Ne 7:6, 7, 57) The name is spelled Peruda at Ezra 2:55.

(Perʹiz·zites).

One of the tribes that inhabited the land of Canaan before the Israelites occupied it. (Ge 13:3-7; 34:30; Ex 3:8, 17) They are not mentioned in the list of 70 families after the Flood, which names “the families of the Canaanite.” (Ge 10:15-18) Their ancestry is unknown.

The Perizzites were one of the tribes whose land God promised to Abraham’s seed. (Ge 15:18-21; Ne 9:7, 8) At the time of the Israelite conquest of the Promised Land, Perizzites lived in the mountainous region of Canaan. (Jos 11:3) When the tribe of Judah moved into its assigned territory, it defeated the Perizzites and the Canaanites at Bezek, which appears to have been W of Jerusalem. (Jg 1:4, 5; Jos 24:11) After the land of Canaan was divided by the Israelites, some Perizzites remained in the territory of Ephraim and Manasseh.​—Jos 17:15-18.

The Perizzites were one of the seven populous and mighty nations that Jehovah repeatedly commanded Israel to exterminate upon entering the Promised Land. No covenant or marriage alliance was to be made with them, nor was favor to be granted them. (Ex 23:23, 24; 33:2; 34:11-13; De 7:1-3; Jos 3:10) However, the Israelites failed to exterminate them, and as foretold, the Perizzites became a snare to Israel.​—De 7:4; 20:17, 18; Jg 3:5, 6.

In Solomon’s time some remaining Perizzites were conscripted for forced labor. (1Ki 9:20, 21; 2Ch 8:7, 8) Ezra found that the Jews who had returned from Babylonian exile had entered into marriage alliances with them. However, on his counsel they put away such foreign wives. (Ezr 9:1, 2; 10:11, 12, 44) The Perizzites are not mentioned in later Bible history.

Harassment or injury that is deliberately inflicted on persons because of social status, racial origin, or religious faith and beliefs, the purpose in the latter instance being to stamp out such beliefs and prevent their spread among new converts. The Hebrew verb ra·dhaphʹ and the Greek di·oʹko, which mean “persecute,” can also be rendered “pursue, chase.”​—Ex 15:9; De 1:44; Ro 14:19; Lu 17:23.

Persecution takes various forms. It may be limited to verbal abuse, ridicule, and insults (2Ch 36:16; Ac 19:9), or it may include economic pressures (Re 13:16, 17), bodily injury (Mt 27:29, 30; Ac 5:40), imprisonment (Lu 21:12; Ac 16:22-24), hatred, and even death. (Mt 24:9; Ac 12:2) It may be promoted by religious authorities (Mr 3:6; Ac 24:1, 27), or it may be carried out by uninformed persons (Ge 21:8, 9; Ga 4:29) and ignorant ones (1Ti 1:13) or by unreasoning, fanatical mobs. (Lu 4:28, 29; Ac 14:19; 17:5) But often these parties are only the agents of more powerful and sinister instigators​—unseen wicked spirit forces.​—Eph 6:11, 12.

In the original prophecy at Genesis 3:14, 15, Jehovah God foretold enmity between “the serpent” and “the woman” and between their respective ‘seeds.’ The Bible as a whole bears witness to the fulfillment of this prophecy. Jesus clearly identified the serpent as Satan the Devil and at the same time told those persecuting him that they were ‘from their father the Devil,’ hence of his “seed.” (Joh 8:37-59) The book of Revelation shows that such persecution continues down to the time of Christ’s taking power to reign and even thereafter for a period, for when Satan and his angels are cast down to the earth, the dragon ‘persecutes the woman, waging war with the remaining ones of her seed who obey God and bear witness to Jesus.’ (Re 12:7-17) A prominent agent used throughout history by Satan is the “wild beast,” a symbolic figure explained in the article BEASTS, SYMBOLIC (Re 13:1, 7); another is “Babylon the Great,” discussed under the article bearing that heading. (Re 17:5, 6) The Satanic enmity toward those seeking to do God’s will in righteousness and his use of the above-mentioned agencies can be traced throughout all Biblical periods, as the following history shows.

History. Religious persecution has a history, according to Jesus, running all the way back to Adam’s son Cain. (Ge 4:3-8; Mt 23:34, 35) Cain killed his brother Abel because he was motivated by “the wicked one,” Satan the Devil. (1Jo 3:12) The issue involved in Abel’s death centered around faithful worship of Jehovah. (Heb 11:4) Job, a man of God whose name means “Object of Hostility,” in time became a target of wicked persecution instigated by Satan. Job’s wife and three friends were only tools used wittingly or unwittingly by this archenemy of God and man.​—Job 1:8–2:9; 19:22, 28.

From time to time rulers of Judah and Israel inflicted much suffering on God’s special representatives. King Saul, for example, made David (‘the man agreeable to God’s heart’; Ac 13:22) the principal target of his hatred. (1Sa 20:31-33; 23:15, 26; Ps 142:6) During the rule of Ahab and Jezebel, many prophets of Jehovah were forced into hiding as fugitives or were killed. (1Ki 18:13, 14; 19:10) King Manasseh shed innocent blood “in very great quantity.” (2Ki 21:16) King Jehoiakim put to death Urijah, “a man prophesying in the name of Jehovah.” (Jer 26:20-23) Jeremiah suffered much persecution at the hands of government officials. (Jer 15:15; 17:18; 20:11; 37:15, 16; 38:4-6) Because of the unfaithfulness of his people Israel, Jehovah allowed other nations to persecute them at times, even to the point of taking them into exile.​—De 30:7; La 1:3.

There are other instances where violent persecution, legalized by government decree, was turned loose on those maintaining integrity to Jehovah, as when the three Hebrews were thrown into the fiery furnace and when Daniel was cast to the lions. (Da 3:13-20; 6:4-17) During the reign of Persian King Ahasuerus, assault and persecution flared up against the Jews in general, and against Mordecai in particular, at the instance of wicked Haman the Agagite.​—Es 3:1-12; 5:14.

Other sources of persecution may be former associates (1Pe 4:4) or friends and neighbors of one’s hometown. (Jer 1:1; 11:21) Jesus said that close blood relatives, members of one’s own household, would sometimes become rabid persecutors of those believing in him.​—Mt 10:21, 35, 36.

The principal human instigators of religious persecution, however, have been the promoters of false religion. This was true in Jeremiah’s case. (Jer 26:11) It was also the experience of the apostle Paul. (Ac 13:6-8; 19:23-29) In the case of Jesus we read that “the chief priests and the Pharisees gathered the Sanhedrin together and . . . Caiaphas, who was high priest that year, said to them: ‘ . . . you do not reason out that it is to your benefit for one man to die in behalf of the people and not for the whole nation to be destroyed.’ . . . Therefore from that day on they took counsel to kill him [Jesus].” (Joh 11:47-53) Before Jesus finally died on the torture stake, he suffered severe persecution in other ways at the hands of ungodly men​—supporters of the religious leaders bent on doing away with him.​—Mt 26:67; 27:1, 2, 26-31, 38-44.

Persecution of Christians. With the death of Jesus, persecution of faithful servants of Jehovah would not end. This great Prophet had foretold this when, three days before his impalement, he declared to unfaithful Jerusalem: “I am sending forth to you prophets and wise men and public instructors. Some of them you will kill and impale, and some of them you will scourge in your synagogues and persecute from city to city; that there may come upon you all the righteous blood spilled on earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered between the sanctuary and the altar.”​—Mt 23:34, 35.

Privately, Jesus had also repeatedly warned his disciples, saying, “You will be objects of hatred by all people on account of my name . . . When they persecute you in one city, flee to another.” “A slave is not greater than his master. If they have persecuted me, they will persecute you also.” “Men will expel you from the synagogue. In fact, the hour is coming when everyone that kills you will imagine he has rendered a sacred service to God.”​—Mt 10:22, 23; Joh 15:20; 16:2.

Soon after Pentecost 33 C.E., there were arrests, threats, and beatings. (Ac 4:1-3, 21; 5:17, 18) Then Stephen was seized and stoned to death, but not before he bore witness against his persecutors, saying, “Which one of the prophets did your forefathers not persecute? Yes, they killed those who made announcement in advance concerning the coming of the righteous One, whose betrayers and murderers you have now become.” (Ac 7:52-60; see also Heb 11:36, 37.) The murder of Stephen was followed by a great siege of persecution led in part by Saul of Tarsus, the results of which scattered the Jerusalem congregation far and wide, but thereby extended the activity of preaching the good news. (Ac 8:1-4; 9:1, 2) Later, Herod Agrippa I had James the brother of John slain with the sword and probably would have done the same thing to Peter had not the angel of Jehovah miraculously rescued him in the dead of night.​—Ac 12:1-11.

With his conversion to Christianity, Saul the persecutor became Paul the persecuted, as he says, by Jehovah’s undeserved kindness. This occurred when he finally came to appreciate that he was fighting against the Lord himself. (Ac 9:4, 5; 22:4, 7, 8; 26:11, 14, 15; 1Co 15:9; Ga 1:13, 23; Php 3:6) The account of his ministry and travels thereafter tells how Paul, in turn, experienced much persecution at the hands of Christianity’s enemies.​—Ac 13:50; 2Co 6:3-5; 11:23-25; Ga 5:11; 2Ti 3:10, 11.

Persecution of Christians by the authorities of the Roman Empire from and after the days of Nero is a matter of secular history. (See CHRISTIAN.) The charges varied, but the objectives always seemed to be the same, namely, the suppression of Christianity.

Proper Attitude Toward Persecution. If one keeps God’s commandments as a Christian, it is impossible to escape persecution, for “all those desiring to live with godly devotion in association with Christ Jesus will also be persecuted.” (2Ti 3:12) Yet true Christians are able to endure all manner of wicked persecution and still maintain a happy attitude free of malice and hatred of the persecutors. This is because they understand the issues involved​—the source of the persecution and why it is permitted. Instead of being puzzled and worried over such experiences, they rejoice to share with Christ in the test of loyalty under persecution.​—1Pe 4:12-14.

The Christian, however, must be certain that what he suffers is really for a righteous cause. The Bible account and pattern allow for no mixing in politics, plotting of conspiracies, nor any type of criminal activities as the basis for one’s being persecuted. Giving particular stress to this, the apostle urges: “Maintain your conduct fine among the nations, that, in the thing in which they are speaking against you as evildoers, they may as a result of your fine works of which they are eyewitnesses glorify God in the day for his inspection.” (1Pe 2:11, 12) He followed this up with counsel as to subjection to government officials, to slave owners, to husbands, citing the example of Christ Jesus as the model to be followed. (1Pe 2:13-25; 3:1-6) A Christian could be happy if suffering for the sake of righteousness (1Pe 3:13, 14) but should never suffer “as a murderer or a thief or an evildoer or as a busybody in other people’s matters.”​—1Pe 4:15, 16.

Christians also appreciate the prize awaiting those who endure. Concerning this reward, Jesus declared: “Happy are those who have been persecuted for righteousness’ sake, since the kingdom of the heavens belongs to them.” (Mt 5:10) Knowledge of the resurrection hope coupled with knowledge of the One who is the Source of that provision strengthens them. It fortifies them to be loyal to God even if threatened by death at the hands of violent persecutors. As a result of their faith in what Jesus’ death accomplished, they have been emancipated from the fear of such a violent death. (Heb 2:14, 15) The Christian’s mental attitude is important if he is to maintain faithfulness under the pressure of opposition. “Keep this mental attitude in you that was also in Christ Jesus, who . . . became obedient as far as death, yes, death on a torture stake.” (Php 2:5-8) “For the joy that was set before [Jesus] he endured a torture stake, despising shame.”​—Heb 12:2; see also 2Co 12:10; 2Th 1:4; 1Pe 2:21-23.

The Christian’s attitude toward the persecutors themselves is also an important factor. Loving one’s enemies and blessing those opposed enables a person to endure. (Mt 5:44; Ro 12:14; 1Co 4:12, 13) This too the Christian knows: Anyone forsaking home and relatives for the sake of the Kingdom of heaven is promised a hundredfold more, but “with persecutions” also. (Mr 10:29, 30) It is true that not everyone who hears the good news of the Kingdom will endure the heat of persecution, and some may attempt to sidestep the issues to avoid trouble. (Mt 13:21; Ga 6:12) But it is better to rely on Jehovah’s strength, praying as David did for deliverance from the persecutors, knowing he will not leave his servants in the lurch. Then one will be able to say with the apostle: “We are coming off completely victorious through him that loved us.”​—Ps 7:1; 2Co 4:9, 10; Ro 8:35-37.

A land and a people regularly mentioned in association with the Medes, both in the Bible and in secular history. The Medes and Persians evidently were related peoples of the ancient Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes, and this would make the Persians descendants of Japheth, perhaps through Madai, the common ancestor of the Medes. (Ge 10:2) In an inscription, Darius the Great calls himself “a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, of Aryan seed.”​—History of the Persian Empire, by A. Olmstead, 1948, p. 123.

Assyrian inscriptions relating to the time of Shalmaneser III (evidently a contemporary of Jehu of Israel) mention an invasion of Media and the receiving of tribute from kings of “Parsua,” a region apparently situated to the W of Lake Urmia and bordering on Assyria. Many scholars consider “Parsua” to be the name then applied to the land of the Persians, though others would associate it with the Parthians. At any rate, in later inscriptions the Persians are placed considerably more to the S, being settled in “Parsa” to the SE of Elam in what is now the province of Fars in modern Iran. Anshan, a district or city bordering Elam and once within its domain, was also occupied by the Persians.

Thus, in their earlier history the Persians seem to have held only the southwestern portion of the extensive Iranian plateau, their boundaries being Elam and Media on the NW, Parthia on the N, Carmania on the E, and the Persian Gulf on the S and SW. With the exception of the hot, humid coastlands of the Persian Gulf, the land mainly consisted of the southern portion of the rugged Zagros Mountain range, broken by long and quite fertile valleys having well-wooded slopes. The climate in the valleys is temperate, but on the higher plateau regions the arid, windswept lands experience severe cold in the winter months. Like the Medes, the Persians appear to have done much stock raising, along with necessary agriculture, and Persian King Darius the Great proudly described his native land as “beautiful and rich in horses and men.”​—Encyclopædia Britannica, 1959, Vol. 17, p. 603.

Originally leading a somewhat austere, often nomadic life, the Persians manifested a great love for luxury and luxurious surroundings during the period of the empire. (Compare Es 1:3-7; also the clothing given to Mordecai, 8:15.) Sculptures at Persepolis represent the Persians as dressing with flowing, ankle-length robes, girded at the waist, and wearing low-laced shoes. By contrast, the Medes are depicted as wearing a tight, long-sleeved coat ending near the knee. (PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 328) Both Persians and Medes apparently made use of trousers; Persian soldiers are shown wearing trousers and sleeved tunics over iron-scaled armor. They were expert horsemen, and the cavalry played an important role in their war strategy.

The Persian language is classed within the Indo-European family and gives evidence of being related to the Indian Sanskrit. At some time in their history the Persians began to make use of the cuneiform style of writing, with, however, a greatly reduced number of signs when compared with the hundreds of signs used in Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform writing. Whereas during the rule of the Persian Empire some inscriptions are found in Old Persian with translations in Akkadian and in a language generally denominated “Elamite” or “Susian,” official documents used in the administration of the imperial territories were recorded primarily in Aramaic as an international language.​—Ezr 4:7.

Development of the Medo-Persian Empire. (MAP, Vol. 2, p. 327) Like the Medes, the Persians seem to have been ruled by several noble families. One of these families produced the Achaemenian dynasty of kings, the royal line from which came the founder of the Persian Empire, Cyrus the Great. Cyrus, who, according to Herodotus and Xenophon, was born of a Persian father and a Median mother, united the Persians under his leadership. (Herodotus, I, 107, 108; Cyropaedia, I, ii, 1) Till then the Medes had been dominant over the Persians, but Cyrus gained a swift victory over Median King Astyages and captured his capital city of Ecbatana (550 B.C.E.). (Compare Da 8:3, 20.) The Median Empire thus came under the control of the Persians.

Although the Medes continued subservient to the Persians during the remainder of the Achaemenian dynasty, there can be no doubt as to the dual nature of the empire that resulted. Thus, the book History of the Persian Empire (p. 37) says: “The close relationship between Persians and Medes was never forgotten. Plundered Ecbatana remained a favorite royal residence. Medes were honored equally with Persians; they were employed in high office and were chosen to lead Persian armies. Foreigners spoke regularly of the Medes and Persians; when they used a single term, it was ‘the Mede.’”

Under Cyrus, the Medo-Persian Empire expanded farther W, reaching to the Aegean Sea as a result of the Persian victory over King Croesus of Lydia and the subjugation of certain Greek coastal cities. His major conquest, however, came in 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus, at the head of a combined force of Medes, Persians, and Elamites, took mighty Babylon, in fulfillment of the Biblical prophecies. (Isa 21:2, 9; 44:26–45:7; Da 5:28) With Babylon’s fall came the end of a long period of Semitic supremacy, now superseded by the first dominant world power of Aryan (Japhetic) descent. It also brought the land of Judah (as well as Syria and Phoenicia) within the Medo-Persian domain. By Cyrus’ decree, in 537 B.C.E. the exiled Jews were allowed to return to their homeland, which had lain desolate for exactly 70 years.​—2Ch 36:20-23; see CYRUS.

Persian capitals. In keeping with the dual nature of the empire, a Mede named Darius became the ruler of the defeated Chaldean kingdom, though likely not independent from Cyrus’ suzerainty. (Da 5:31; 9:1; see DARIUS No. 1.) Babylon continued as a royal city of the Medo-Persian Empire, as well as a religious and commercial center. However, the torrid summers there generally seem to have been more than the Persian emperors wanted to endure, so Babylon seldom served as more than a winter location for them. There is archaeological evidence that, following the conquest of Babylon, Cyrus soon returned to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan), situated over 1,900 m (6,200 ft) above sea level at the foot of Mount Alwand, where winters of heavy snow and bitter cold are balanced by delightful summers. It was at Ecbatana that Cyrus’ memorandum concerning the reconstruction of Jerusalem’s temple was found several years after it had been issued. (Ezr 6:2-5) The earlier Persian capital was at Pasargadae, about 650 km (400 mi) to the SE of Ecbatana, but at about the same altitude. Near Pasargadae, Persian emperors Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes Longimanus later built the royal city of Persepolis, equipping it with a large network of underground tunnels, evidently to supply fresh water. Another capital was Susa (Shushan) located near the Choaspes (Karkheh) River in ancient Elam, occupying a strategic central location between Babylon, Ecbatana, and Persepolis. Here Darius the Great built a magnificent palace that served generally as a winter residence, for, as at Babylon, the summer heat at Susa was extreme. However, as time progressed Susa became more and more the real administrative center of the empire.​—See ECBATANA; SHUSHAN.

Religion and Law. The Persian rulers, while as capable of cruelty as the Semitic kings of Assyria and Babylonia, initially at least seem to have endeavored to manifest a degree of fairness and legality in their dealings with the conquered peoples. Their religion apparently contained some concept of ethics. Following their chief god Ahura Mazda, a principal deity was Mithra, who became known not only as a god of war but also as the god of contracts, the one whose eyes and ears were ever alert to spy out any violator of an agreement. (See GODS AND GODDESSES.) Greek historian Herodotus (I, 136, 138) wrote of the Persians: “They educate their boys from five to twenty years old, and teach them three things only, riding and archery and truthtelling. . . . They hold lying to be foulest of all.” While the history of the Persian rulers shows them to be not above duplicity and intrigue, yet a basic adherence to some tribal creed of ‘keeping one’s word’ may be reflected in their insistence on the inviolability of “the law of the Medes and the Persians.” (Da 6:8, 15; Es 1:19; 8:8) Thus, when Cyrus’ decree was found some 18 years after its date of issuance, King Darius recognized the legality of the Jews’ position as regards the building of the temple and gave orders that full cooperation be extended to them.​—Ezr 6:1-12.

Considerable administrative ability is evidenced in the Persian imperial organization. In addition to the king’s own privy council, or advisory board, composed of “seven princes of Persia and Media” (Es 1:14; Ezr 7:14), there were satraps appointed over major regions or countries, such as Media, Elam, Parthia, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Lydia, Ionia, and, as the empire expanded, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Libya. These satraps were granted a measure of autonomy in the government of the satrapy, including the administration of judicial and financial affairs within their territory. (See SATRAP.) Within the satrapy there appear to have been subordinate governors of jurisdictional districts (numbering 127 in King Ahasuerus’ day), and within the jurisdictional districts there were princes of the particular peoples composing the district’s population. (Ezr 8:36; Es 3:12; 8:9) Likely to overcome the disadvantage of the imperial capital’s being somewhat in a corner of the far-flung domain, a speedy system of communication was developed by means of a royal mail service employing couriers riding post-horses, thereby connecting the throne with all the jurisdictional districts. (Es 8:10, 14) Royal highways were maintained; one ran from Shushan all the way to Sardis in Asia Minor.

From Cyrus’ Death to Darius’ Death. The reign of Cyrus the Great ended in 530 B.C.E. when he died while on a warring campaign. His son Cambyses succeeded him to the throne and was successful in conquering Egypt. Though not referred to by the name Cambyses in the Bible, he is evidently the “Ahasuerus” to whom the opposers of the temple work sent false accusations against the Jews, as stated at Ezra 4:6.

The circumstances involving the end of Cambyses’ rule are confused. One account, set forth by Darius the Great in his Behistun Inscription, and recounted by Herodotus and others with certain variations, is that Cambyses had his brother Bardiya (called Smerdis by Herodotus) secretly put to death. Then, during Cambyses’ absence in Egypt, a Magian named Gaumata (also called Smerdis by Herodotus), posing as Bardiya (Smerdis), usurped the throne and was able to gain recognition as king. While returning from Egypt, Cambyses died, and thus the usurper became secure on the throne. (Herodotus, III, 61-67) The other version, favored by some historians, is that Bardiya had not been killed and that he, not some impostor, usurped the throne during Cambyses’ absence.

Whatever the case, the reign of Cambyses ended in 522 B.C.E., and the rule that followed lasted seven months, ending also in 522 B.C.E. with the assassination of the usurper (either Bardiya or Gaumata the pseudo Smerdis). Yet during this brief rule apparently a second charge against the Jews was directed to the Persian throne, the king then being designated in the Bible as “Artaxerxes” (perhaps a throne name or title), and this time the accusations were successful in producing a royal ban against further construction on the temple. (Ezr 4:7-23) The temple work then lay idle “until the second year of the reign of Darius the king of Persia.”​—Ezr 4:24.

Darius I (called Darius Hystaspis or Darius the Great) evidently engineered or instigated the slaying of the one occupying the Persian throne and gained the throne for himself. During his rule the temple work at Jerusalem was renewed with royal approval, and the temple was completed during his sixth year of rule (early in 515 B.C.E.). (Ezr 6:1-15) Darius’ reign was one of imperial expansion. He extended Persian dominion as far E as India and as far W as Thrace and Macedonia.

At least by this time the Persian rulers had fulfilled the prophetic symbolisms of Daniel 7:5 and 8:4, where, under the symbols of a bear and also a ram, the Medo-Persian Empire is represented as seizing territories in three principal directions: to the N, the W, and the S. In a campaign against Greece, however, Darius’ forces suffered defeat at Marathon in 490 B.C.E. Darius died in 486 B.C.E.​—See DARIUS No. 2.

The Reigns of Xerxes and of Artaxerxes. Xerxes, Darius’ son, is evidently the king called Ahasuerus in the book of Esther. His actions also fit the description of the fourth Persian king, who would “rouse up everything against the kingdom of Greece.” (Da 11:2) Endeavoring to retaliate for the Persian defeat at Marathon, Xerxes launched massive forces against the Greek mainland in 480 B.C.E. Following a costly victory at Thermopylae and the destruction of Athens, his forces met defeat at Salamis and later at Plataea, causing Xerxes to return to Persia.

Xerxes’ reign was marked by certain administrative reforms and the completion of much of the construction work his father had initiated at Persepolis. (Compare Es 10:1, 2.) The Greek stories of the end of Xerxes’ reign revolve around marital difficulties, disorders in the harem, and a supposed dominance of Xerxes by certain of his courtiers. These accounts may reflect, though in a very confused and twisted way, some of the basic facts of the book of Esther, including the deposing of Queen Vashti and her replacement by Esther, as well as the ascension of Mordecai to a position of great authority in the realm. (Es 2:17; 10:3) According to secular accounts, Xerxes was assassinated by one of his courtiers.

Artaxerxes Longimanus, Xerxes’ successor, is notable for his authorization of Ezra’s return to Jerusalem with a large contribution for the support of the temple there. This occurred in Artaxerxes’ seventh year (468 B.C.E.). (Ezr 7:1-26; 8:24-36) During the 20th year of Artaxerxes (455 B.C.E.), Nehemiah was granted permission to go to Jerusalem to rebuild the city. (Ne 1:3; 2:1, 5-8) Nehemiah later returned for a time to the court of Artaxerxes in that king’s 32nd year (443 B.C.E.).​—Ne 13:6.

There is some disagreement in historical writings with regard to the reigns of Xerxes and of Artaxerxes. Reference works place Artaxerxes’ accession year in 465 B.C.E. Certain documents give to his father, Xerxes, a reign that continued into the 21st year. Xerxes’ rule is customarily counted from 486 B.C.E., when Darius, his father, died. His own first regnal year is viewed as having started in 485 B.C.E., and his 21st year and the accession year of Artaxerxes are often said to have been 465 B.C.E. As for Artaxerxes, scholars usually say that his last year of rule began in 424 B.C.E. Some documents present that as year 41 of Artaxerxes’ reign. If that were correct, it would mean that his accession year was in 465 B.C.E. and that his first regnal year began in 464 B.C.E.

However, there is strong evidence for calculating the last year of Xerxes and the accession year of Artaxerxes as being 475 B.C.E. This evidence is threefold: from Greek sources, from Persian sources, and from Babylonian sources.

Evidence from Greek sources. An event in Greek history can help us determine when Artaxerxes began ruling. Greek statesman and military hero Themistocles fell into disfavor with his countrymen and fled for safety to Persia. According to Greek historian Thucydides (I, CXXXVII, 3), who has gained fame for his accuracy, at that time Themistocles “sent on a letter to King Artaxerxes son of Xerxes, who had lately come to the throne.” Plutarch’s Lives (Themistocles, XXVII, 1) gives the information that “Thucydides and Charon of Lampsacus relate that Xerxes was dead, and that it was his son Artaxerxes with whom Themistocles had his interview.” Charon was a Persian subject who lived through the change of rulership from Xerxes to Artaxerxes. From the testimonies of Thucydides and of Charon of Lampsacus, we can see that when Themistocles arrived in Persia, Artaxerxes had recently begun ruling.

We can establish the time when Artaxerxes began ruling by calculating back from when Themistocles died. Not all reference books give the same date for his death. However, historian Diodorus Siculus (Diodorus of Sicily, XI, 54, 1; XI, 58, 3) relates his death in an account of things that happened “when Praxiergus was archon in Athens.” Praxiergus was archon in Athens in 471/470 B.C.E. (Greek and Roman Chronology, by Alan E. Samuel, Munich, 1972, p. 206) According to Thucydides, Themistocles’ arrival in Persia was followed by a year of language study in preparation for an audience with Artaxerxes. Thereafter the king granted him settlement in Persia with many honors. If Themistocles died in 471/470 B.C.E., his settlement in Persia must have been not later than 472 B.C.E. and his arrival a year earlier, in 473 B.C.E. At that time Artaxerxes “had lately come to the throne.”

Concerning the time when Xerxes died and Artaxerxes ascended the throne, M. de Koutorga wrote: “We have seen that, according to the chronology of Thucydides, Xerxes died towards the end of the year 475 B.C.E., and that, according to the same historian, Themistocles arrived in Asia Minor shortly after the coming to the throne of Artaxerxes Longimanus.”​—Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres de l’Institut Impérial de France, first series, Vol. VI, second part, Paris, 1864, p. 147.

As further support of this, E. Levesque noted the following: “Therefore it is necessary, according to the Alexandrian Chronicle, to place Xerxes’ death in 475 B.C.E., after eleven years of reign. The historian Justin, III, 1, confirms this chronicle and the assertions of Thucydides. According to him, at the time of Xerxes’ murder, Artaxerxes, his son, was but a child, puer [a boy], which is true if Xerxes died in 475. Artaxerxes was then 16 years old, whereas in 465 he would have been twenty-six years old, which would not justify anymore Justin’s expression. According to this chronology, since Artaxerxes began to reign in 475, the 20th year of his reign proves to be in 455 and not in 445 as it is said quite commonly.”​—Revue apologétique, Paris, Vol. 68, 1939, p. 94.

If Darius died in 486 B.C.E. and Xerxes died in 475 B.C.E., how could it be explained that some ancient documents allot to Xerxes a reign of 21 years? It is well known that a king and his son might rule together in a double kingship, or coregency. If this was the case with Darius and Xerxes, historians could count the years of Xerxes’ reign either from the start of a coregency with his father or from his father’s death. If Xerxes ruled 10 years with his father and 11 years by himself, some sources could attribute to him 21 years of rulership, while others might give him 11 years.

There is solid evidence for a coregency of Xerxes with his father Darius. The Greek historian Herodotus (VII, 3) says: “Darius judged his [Xerxes’] plea [for kingship] to be just and declared him king. But to my thinking Xerxes would have been made king even without this advice.” This indicates that Xerxes was made king during the reign of his father Darius.

Evidence from Persian sources. A coregency of Xerxes with Darius can be seen especially from Persian bas-reliefs that have come to light. In Persepolis several bas-reliefs have been found that represent Xerxes standing behind his father’s throne, dressed in clothing identical to his father’s and with his head on the same level. This is unusual, since ordinarily the king’s head would be higher than all others. In A New Inscription of Xerxes From Persepolis (by Ernst E. Herzfeld, 1932) it is noted that both inscriptions and buildings found in Persepolis imply a coregency of Xerxes with his father Darius. On page 8 of his work Herzfeld wrote: “The peculiar tenor of Xerxes’ inscriptions at Persepolis, most of which do not distinguish between his own activity and that of his father, and the relation, just as peculiar, of their buildings, which it is impossible to allocate to either Darius or Xerxes individually, have always implied a kind of coregency of Xerxes. Moreover, two sculptures at Persepolis illustrate that relation.” With reference to one of these sculptures, Herzfeld pointed out: “Darius is represented, wearing all the royal attributes, enthroned on a high couch-platform supported by representatives of the various nations of his empire. Behind him in the relief, that is, in reality at his right, stands Xerxes with the same royal attributes, his left hand resting on the high back of the throne. That is a gesture that speaks clearly of more than mere successorship; it means coregency.”

As to a date for reliefs depicting Darius and Xerxes in that way, in Achaemenid Sculpture (Istanbul, 1974, p. 53), Ann Farkas states that “the reliefs might have been installed in the Treasury sometime during the building of the first addition, 494/493–492/491 B.C.; this certainly would have been the most convenient time to move such unwieldy pieces of stone. But whatever their date of removal to the Treasury, the sculptures were perhaps carved in the 490’s.”

Evidence from Babylonian sources. Evidence for Xerxes beginning a coregency with his father during the 490’s B.C.E. has been found at Babylon. Excavations there have unearthed a palace for Xerxes completed in 496 B.C.E. In this regard, A. T. Olmstead wrote in History of the Persian Empire (p. 215): “By October 23, 498, we learn that the house of the king’s son [that is, of Darius’ son, Xerxes] was in process of erection at Babylon; no doubt this is the Darius palace in the central section that we have already described. Two years later [in 496 B.C.E.], in a business document from near-by Borsippa, we have reference to the ‘new palace’ as already completed.”

Two unusual clay tablets may bear additional testimony to the coregency of Xerxes with Darius. One is a business text about hire of a building in the accession year of Xerxes. The tablet is dated in the first month of the year, Nisan. (A Catalogue of the Late Babylonian Tablets in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, by R. Campbell Thompson, London, 1927, p. 13, tablet designated A. 124) Another tablet bears the date “month of Ab(?), accession year of Xerxes.” Remarkably, this latter tablet does not attribute to Xerxes the title “king of Babylon, king of lands,” which was usual at that time.​—Neubabylonische Rechts- und Verwaltungsurkunden übersetzt und erläutert, by M. San Nicolò and A. Ungnad, Leipzig, 1934, Vol. I, part 4, p. 544, tablet No. 634, designated VAT 4397.

These two tablets are puzzling. Ordinarily a king’s accession year begins after the death of his predecessor. However, there is evidence that Xerxes’ predecessor (Darius) lived until the seventh month of his final year, whereas these two documents from the accession year of Xerxes bear dates prior to the seventh month (one has the first month, the other the fifth). Therefore these documents do not relate to an accession period of Xerxes following the death of his father but indicate an accession year during his coregency with Darius. If that accession year was in 496 B.C.E., when the palace at Babylon for Xerxes had been completed, his first year as coregent would begin the following Nisan, in 495 B.C.E., and his 21st and final year would start in 475 B.C.E. In that case, Xerxes’ reign included 10 years of rule with Darius (from 496 to 486 B.C.E.) and 11 years of kingship by himself (from 486 to 475 B.C.E.).

On the other hand, historians are unanimous that the first regnal year of Darius II began in spring of 423 B.C.E. One Babylonian tablet indicates that in his accession year Darius II was already on the throne by the 4th day of the 11th month, that is, February 13, 423 B.C.E. (Babylonian Chronology, 626 B.C.–A.D. 75, by R. Parker and W. H. Dubberstein, 1971, p. 18) However, two tablets show that Artaxerxes continued to rule after the 11th month, the 4th day, of his 41st year. One is dated to the 11th month, the 17th day, of his 41st year. (p. 18) The other one is dated to the 12th month of his 41st year. (Old Testament and Semitic Studies, edited by Harper, Brown, and Moore, 1908, Vol. 1, p. 304, tablet No. 12, designated CBM, 5505) Therefore Artaxerxes was not succeeded in his 41st regnal year but ruled through its entirety. This indicates that Artaxerxes must have ruled more than 41 years and that his first regnal year therefore should not be counted as beginning in 464 B.C.E.

Evidence that Artaxerxes Longimanus ruled beyond his 41st year is found in a business document from Borsippa that is dated to the 50th year of Artaxerxes. (Catalogue of the Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, Vol. VII: Tablets From Sippar 2, by E. Leichty and A. K. Grayson, 1987, p. 153; tablet designated B. M. 65494) One of the tablets connecting the end of Artaxerxes’ reign and the beginning of the reign of Darius II has the following date: “51st year, accession year, 12th month, day 20, Darius, king of lands.” (The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Series A: Cuneiform Texts, Vol. VIII, Part I, by Albert T. Clay, 1908, pp. 34, 83, and Plate 57, Tablet No. 127, designated CBM 12803) Since the first regnal year of Darius II was in 423 B.C.E., it means that the 51st year of Artaxerxes was in 424 B.C.E. and his first regnal year was in 474 B.C.E.

Therefore, testimonies from Greek, Persian, and Babylonian sources agree that Artaxerxes’ accession year was 475 B.C.E. and his first regnal year was 474 B.C.E. That places the 20th year of Artaxerxes, when the 70 weeks of Daniel 9:24 begin to count, in 455 B.C.E. If on the basis of Daniel 9:25 we reckon 69 weeks of years (483 years) from 455 B.C.E., we come to a significant year for the arrival of Messiah the Leader.

Counting from 455 B.C.E. to 1 C.E. is a full 455 years. Adding the remaining 28 years (to make up 483 years) brings us to 29 C.E., the exact year when Jesus of Nazareth was baptized in water, anointed with holy spirit, and began his public ministry as Messiah, or Christ.​—Lu 3:1, 2, 21, 22.

Down to the Fall and Division of the Empire. Regarding the successors of Artaxerxes Longimanus on the throne of Persia, Diodorus Siculus gives the following information: “In Asia King Xerxes died after a reign of one year, or, as some record, two months; and his brother Sogdianus succeeded to the throne and ruled for seven months. He was slain by Darius, who reigned nineteen years.” (Diodorus of Sicily, XII, 71, 1) The original name of this Darius (known as Darius II) was Ochus, but he adopted the name Darius upon becoming king. He appears to be the “Darius” referred to at Nehemiah 12:22.

Following Darius II came Artaxerxes II (called Mnemon), during whose reign Egypt revolted and relations with Greece deteriorated. His reign (dated as from 404 to 359 B.C.E.) was followed by that of his son Artaxerxes III (also called Ochus), who is credited with some 21 years of rule (358-338 B.C.E.) and is said to have been the most bloodthirsty of all the Persian rulers. His major feat was the reconquest of Egypt. Secular history then gives a two-year rule for Arses and a five-year rule for Darius III (Codommanus), during whose reign Philip of Macedonia was murdered (336 B.C.E.) and was succeeded by his son Alexander. In 334 B.C.E. Alexander began his attack on the Persian Empire, defeating the Persian forces first at Granicus in the NW corner of Asia Minor and again at Issus at the opposite corner of Asia Minor (333 B.C.E.). Finally, after the Greeks had conquered Phoenicia and Egypt, the Persians’ last stand, at Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E., was crushed, and the Persian Empire came to its end.

Following Alexander’s death and the subsequent division of the empire, Seleucus Nicator obtained control of the major portion of the Asiatic territories with Persia as its central part. The Seleucid dynasty of kings, thus begun, continued until 64 B.C.E. Seleucus Nicator seems to be the one with whom the prophetic figure of the “king of the north” of Daniel’s prophecy first begins to manifest itself, opposing the Ptolemaic line of kings in Egypt, who initially appear to fill the role of the symbolic “king of the south.”​—Da 11:4-6.

The Seleucid kings were restricted to the western part of their domain by the incursions of the Parthians, who conquered the territory of Persia proper during the third and second centuries B.C.E. They were defeated by the Sassanians in the third century C.E., and the Sassanian rule continued until the Arab conquest in the seventh century.

The prophecy of Ezekiel (27:10) includes Persians among the men of war who served in the military force of wealthy Tyre, and who contributed to its splendor. Persia is also listed among those nations forming part of the hordes directed by the symbolic “Gog of the land of Magog” against Jehovah’s covenant people.​—Eze 38:2, 4, 5, 8, 9.

(Perʹsis) [Persian Woman].

A beloved Christian in Rome whom Paul greets and commends for her many Christian works.​—Ro 16:12.

(Pe·ruʹda) [from a root meaning “separate”].

Forefather of a family of Solomon’s servants; also called Perida.​—Ezr 2:55; Ne 7:57.

Any rapidly spreading infectious disease capable of attaining epidemic proportions and of causing death. The Hebrew word for pestilence (deʹver) comes from a root meaning “destroy.” (2Ch 22:10) In numerous texts pestilence is related to the execution of divine judgment, as regards both God’s name people and their opposers.​—Ex 9:15; Nu 14:12; Eze 38:2, 14-16, 22, 23; Am 4:10; see PLAGUE.

Brought by Abandonment of God’s Law. The nation of Israel was warned that refusal to keep God’s covenant with them would result in his ‘sending pestilence into their midst.’ (Le 26:14-16, 23-25; De 28:15, 21, 22) Throughout the Scriptures, health, either in a physical or in a spiritual sense, is associated with God’s blessing (De 7:12, 15; Ps 103:1-3; Pr 3:1, 2, 7, 8; 4:21, 22; Re 21:1-4), whereas disease is associated with sin and imperfection. (Ex 15:26; De 28:58-61; Isa 53:4, 5; Mt 9:2-6, 12; Joh 5:14) So, while it is true that in certain cases Jehovah God directly and instantaneously brought some affliction on persons, such as the leprosy of Miriam, of Uzziah, and of Gehazi (Nu 12:10; 2Ch 26:16-21; 2Ki 5:25-27), it appears that in many cases the diseases and pestilence that came were the natural and inexorable results of the sinful course followed by persons or nations. They simply reaped what they had sown; their fleshly bodies suffered the effects of their wrong ways. (Ga 6:7, 8) Concerning those who turned to obscene sexual immorality, the apostle says that God “gave them up to uncleanness, that their bodies might be dishonored among them . . . receiving in themselves the full recompense, which was due for their error.”​—Ro 1:24-27.

Israel affected. Thus, God’s warning to Israel in effect told them of the many ailments that a course of disobedience to his will would inevitably produce among them. His Law given to them served as a deterrent to and a protection against disease, because of its high moral and hygienic standards (see DISEASES AND TREATMENT [Accuracy of Scriptural Concepts]), also because of its healthful effect on their mental and emotional state. (Ps 19:7-11; 119:102, 103, 111, 112, 165) Not an occasional infraction of that Law but outright abandonment and rejection of its standards is what Leviticus 26:14-16 describes, and this would certainly make the nation vulnerable to all manner of disease and contagion. History, both past and present, bears testimony to the truthfulness of this.