See SHIP.

A sworn statement as to the truthfulness of what is said or that a person will or will not do a certain thing; it frequently involves an appeal to a superior, especially to God.

In the Hebrew Scriptures two words are used to denote what we understand as an oath. Shevu·ʽahʹ means “an oath or a sworn statement.” (Ge 24:8; Le 5:4) The related Hebrew verb sha·vaʽʹ, meaning “swear,” or take an oath, comes from the same root as the Hebrew word for “seven.” Thus “swear” originally meant “come under the influence of 7 things.” (Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by G. Friedrich; translator and editor, G. Bromiley, 1970, Vol. V, p. 459) Abraham and Abimelech swore over seven female lambs in making the covenant at the well of Beer-sheba, meaning “Well of the Oath; or, Well of Seven.” (Ge 21:27-32; see also Ge 26:28-33.) Shevu·ʽahʹ has reference to a sworn statement on the part of a person that he will do or will not do a certain thing. The word itself carries no connotation of a curse upon the one swearing if he fails to fulfill the oath. This is the word used for the oath, or sworn statement, to Abraham by Jehovah, who never fails to fulfill his word and upon whom no curse can come.​—Ge 26:3.

The other Hebrew word used is ʼa·lahʹ, meaning “oath, cursing.” (Ge 24:41, ftn) It may also be translated “oath of obligation.” (Ge 26:28) A Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon by Koehler and Baumgartner (p. 49) defines the term as a “curse (threat of calamity in case of misdeed), laid on a p[erson] by himself or by others.” In ancient Hebrew times it was considered the gravest matter to make an oath. An oath was to be kept, even to the oath taker’s hurt. (Ps 15:4; Mt 5:33) A person was held guilty before Jehovah if he spoke thoughtlessly in a sworn statement. (Le 5:4) Violation of an oath would bring the most severe consequences of punishment from God. Among the earliest nations and particularly among the Hebrews an oath was in a sense a religious act, involving God. The use of the term ʼa·lahʹ by the Hebrews by implication made God a party to the oath and professed a readiness to incur any judgment he might be pleased to inflict in event of the oath maker’s infidelity. This term is never used by God with reference to his own oaths.

The corresponding Greek terms are horʹkos (oath) and o·mnyʹo (swear), which both occur in James 5:12. The verb hor·kiʹzo means “put under oath” or “solemnly charge.” (Mr 5:7; Ac 19:13) Other terms related to horʹkos mean “sworn oath” (Heb 7:20), “put under solemn obligation or oath” (1Th 5:27), “false swearer or oath-breaker” (1Ti 1:10), and “swear without performing or make an oath falsely” (Mt 5:33). The Greek word a·na·the·ma·tiʹzo is rendered ‘bind with a curse’ in Acts 23:12, 14, and 21.

Expressions Used in Making Oaths. Often an oath was made by swearing by God or in the name of God. (Ge 14:22; 31:53; De 6:13; Jg 21:7; Jer 12:16) Jehovah swore by himself, or by his own life. (Ge 22:16; Eze 17:16; Zep 2:9) Expressions of a formal nature were sometimes employed by men, such as, “May Jehovah do so to me [or, to you] and add to it if . . . ” I (or you) fail to do as sworn. (Ru 1:17; 1Sa 3:17; 2Sa 19:13) The assertion might be made more emphatic by the individual’s pronouncing his own name.​—1Sa 20:13; 25:22; 2Sa 3:9.

Pagans made similar appeals to their false gods. Jezebel the Baal worshiper appealed, not to Jehovah, but to “gods” (ʼelo·himʹ, with a plural verb), as did Ben-hadad II, king of Syria. (1Ki 19:2; 20:10) In fact, because such expressions were universally prevalent, idolatry came to be represented in the Bible as a ‘swearing by some false god,’ or by what was “no God.”​—Jos 23:7; Jer 5:7; 12:16; Am 8:14.

In a few, very serious cases or when strong emotional feeling attended the solemn declaration, the curses or punishments that would attend failure to fulfill the oath were specifically named. (Nu 5:19-23; Ps 7:4, 5; 137:5, 6) Job, in contending for his uprightness, reviews his life and declares himself willing to undergo the direst punishments if he is found to have violated Jehovah’s laws of loyalty, righteousness, justice, and morality.​—Job 31.

In the trial resulting from a husband’s jealousy, the wife, by answering “Amen! Amen!” to the priest’s reading of the oath and the curse, thereby swore an oath as to her innocence.​—Nu 5:21, 22.

What amounted practically to an oath was often voiced by affirming not only by Jehovah’s name but additionally by the life of the king or of a superior. (1Sa 25:26; 2Sa 15:21; 2Ki 2:2) “As Jehovah lives” was a common assertion adding gravity to one’s attestation of determination or of truthfulness of a statement. (Jg 8:19; 1Sa 14:39, 45; 19:6; 20:3, 21; 25:26, 34) A less forceful expression that may not have been intended to be considered an oath but that conveyed a very serious intent and that was given for the assurance of the hearer was a swearing by the life of the person addressed, as in Hannah’s words to Eli (1Sa 1:26) and in Uriah’s statement to King David.​—2Sa 11:11; also 1Sa 17:55.

Forms or Actions Employed. The most frequent gesture used in taking an oath seems to have been the raising of the right hand toward heaven. Jehovah himself is mentioned as uttering an oath in this manner, symbolically. (Ge 14:22; Ex 6:8; De 32:40; Isa 62:8; Eze 20:5) An angel in one of Daniel’s visions raised both hands to the heavens in voicing an oath. (Da 12:7) Of false swearers, it is said that their “right hand is a right hand of falsehood.”​—Ps 144:8.

One requesting an oath from another might ask him to place his hand under his thigh or hip. When Abraham sent his steward to get a wife for Isaac he said to the steward: “Put your hand, please, under my thigh,” after doing which the steward swore that he would get the girl from among Abraham’s relatives. (Ge 24:2-4, 9) In the same way Jacob exacted an oath from Joseph that he not bury him in Egypt. (Ge 47:29-31) Regarding the significance of this practice, see ATTITUDES AND GESTURES.

Frequently an oath was connected with the making of a covenant. A common expression in such cases was: “God is a witness between me and you.” (Ge 31:44, 50, 53) Such an expression was also made to strengthen a statement of fact or truth. Moses calls on the heavens and the earth as witnesses when discussing Israel’s relationship in their oath-bound covenant with Jehovah. (De 4:26) Often a person or persons, a written document, a pillar, or an altar stood as a witness and reminder of an oath or a covenant.​—Ge 31:45-52; De 31:26; Jos 22:26-28; 24:22, 24-27; see COVENANT.

Under the Law. Instances in which oaths were required of certain persons under the Mosaic Law were: of a wife in the trial of jealousy (Nu 5:21, 22), of a bailee when property left in his care was missing (Ex 22:10, 11), of the older men of a city in the case of an unsolved murder (De 21:1-9). Voluntary oaths of abstinence were allowed. (Nu 30:3, 4, 10, 11) Servants of God were sometimes adjured by one in authority, and they told the truth. Likewise a Christian under oath would not lie but would tell the whole truth called for, or he may refuse to answer if it jeopardizes the righteous interests of God or of fellow Christians, in which case he must be ready to suffer any consequences that might result from his refusal to testify.​—1Ki 22:15-18; Mt 26:63, 64; 27:11-14.

Vows were regarded in Israel as having the strength of an oath, as sacred and to be fulfilled even though they resulted in loss to the vower. God was viewed as watching to see that vows were carried out, and as bringing punishment for failure. (Nu 30:2; De 23:21-23; Jg 11:30, 31, 35, 36, 39; Ec 5:4-6) The vows of wives and unmarried daughters were subject to affirmation or cancellation by the husband or father, but widows and divorced women were bound by their vows.​—Nu 30:3-15.

Jesus Christ, in his Sermon on the Mount, corrected the Jews in their practice of light, loose, and indiscriminate making of oaths. It had become common among them to swear by heaven, by the earth, by Jerusalem, and even by their own heads. But since heaven was “God’s throne,” earth his “footstool,” Jerusalem his kingly city, and one’s head (or life) was dependent on God, making such oaths was the same as taking oaths in the name of God. It was not to be treated lightly. So Jesus said: “Just let your word Yes mean Yes, your No, No; for what is in excess of these is from the wicked one.”​—Mt 5:33-37.

Jesus Christ did not hereby prohibit the making of all oaths, for he himself was under the Law of Moses, which required oaths under certain circumstances. In fact, when Jesus himself was on trial he was put under oath by the high priest, yet he did not object to this, but gave an answer. (Mt 26:63, 64) Rather, Jesus was showing that a person should not have two standards. The keeping of one’s word, once given, should be viewed as a sacred duty and should be fulfilled just as an oath would be; the person should sincerely mean what he says. He shed further light on the meaning of his words when he exposed the hypocrisy of the scribes and Pharisees by saying to them: “Woe to you, blind guides, who say, ‘If anyone swears by the temple, it is nothing; but if anyone swears by the gold of the temple, he is under obligation.’ Fools and blind ones! Which, in fact, is greater, the gold or the temple that has sanctified the gold?” He went on to say: “He that swears by heaven is swearing by the throne of God and by him that is sitting on it.”​—Mt 23:16-22.

By the false reasoning and hairsplitting casuistry of these scribes and Pharisees, as here pointed out by Jesus, they justified themselves in failing to carry out certain oaths, but Jesus showed that such swearing on their part was being dishonest with God and was actually reproaching his name (for the Jews were a people dedicated to Jehovah). Jehovah plainly states that he hates a false oath.​—Zec 8:17.

James corroborates Jesus’ words. (Jas 5:12) But these statements of Jesus and James against such indiscriminate practices do not prevent the Christian from taking an oath when necessary to assure others of the seriousness of his intentions or of the truthfulness of what he says. For instance, as Jesus illustrated by example before the Jewish high priest, a Christian would not object to taking an oath in court, for he is going to speak the truth whether under oath or not. (Mt 26:63, 64) Even the Christian resolve to serve God is an oath or a swearing to Jehovah, putting the Christian into a sacred relationship. Jesus put swearing and vows in the same category.​—Mt 5:33.

Also, the apostle Paul, in order to strengthen his testimony before his readers, makes what is tantamount to an oath at 2 Corinthians 1:23 and Galatians 1:20. He further refers to an oath as a customary and proper way of putting an end to a dispute and calls attention to the fact that God, “when he purposed to demonstrate more abundantly to the heirs of the promise the unchangeableness of his counsel, stepped in with an oath,” swearing by himself, since he could not swear by anyone greater. This added to his promise a legal guarantee and gave double assurance by means of “two unchangeable things in which it is impossible for God to lie,” namely, God’s word of promise and his oath. (Heb 6:13-18) Furthermore, Paul points out that Christ was made High Priest by oath of Jehovah and has been given in pledge of a better covenant. (Heb 7:21, 22) The Scriptures make upwards of 50 references to Jehovah himself as making oaths.

On the night of Jesus’ arrest, the apostle Peter three times denied knowing Jesus, finally giving way to cursing and swearing. We read concerning the third denial: “Then [Peter] started to curse and swear: ‘I do not know the man [Jesus]!’” (Mt 26:74) Peter was fearfully trying to convince those around him that his denials were truthful. By swearing to the matter, he was taking an oath that his words were true and that a calamity might befall him if they were not.​—See also CURSE.

(O·ba·diʹah) [Servant of Jehovah].

1. A family head in the tribe of Issachar; son of Izrahiah and descendant of Tola.​—1Ch 7:1-3.

2. A Zebulunite whose son was a prince of that tribe during David’s rule.​—1Ch 27:19, 22.

3. A mighty Gadite warrior who crossed the Jordan at flood stage and supported David when he lived as a fugitive from Saul’s wrath.​—1Ch 12:8, 9, 14, 15.

4. The household steward of King Ahab. Even though King Ahab and Jezebel practiced wickedness, Obadiah greatly feared Jehovah, hiding 100 prophets of Jehovah “by fifties in a cave” when Jezebel had ordered them all slaughtered. During the divinely imposed drought foretold by Elijah, Obadiah’s master Ahab divided certain territory with him, and each was searching for grass to feed the livestock when Elijah met up with Obadiah. Elijah had not been seen by Ahab during the drought, a period of some three years. Upon being told to inform Ahab that Elijah had returned, Obadiah, out of great fear, hesitated to go until given assurance that the prophet would not leave, for Ahab would surely kill his servant if this report proved false.​—1Ki 18:1-16.

5. A prince sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the law of Jehovah in the cities of Judah.​—2Ch 17:7, 9.

6. A distant descendant of Saul and Jonathan in the tribe of Benjamin.​—1Ch 8:33-38; 9:44.

7. A Merarite Levite, one of the overseers of the temple repairs that King Josiah ordered to be made.​—2Ch 34:8, 12.

8. A prophet of Jehovah and writer of the fourth of the so-called minor prophetic books. (Ob 1) Nothing personal is known of this prophet of the seventh century B.C.E.​—See OBADIAH, BOOK OF.

9. A Levite who returned from Babylon and lived in Jerusalem. (1Ch 9:2, 3, 14, 16) He is evidently called Abda at Nehemiah 11:17. Possibly the same as No. 13.

10. A postexilic descendant of David.​—1Ch 3:5, 9, 10, 21.

11. Head of the paternal house of Joab who led 218 males of this family back to Jerusalem with Ezra in 468 B.C.E.; son of Jehiel.​—Ezr 8:1, 9.

12. One of the priests (or his descendant) who subscribed to the covenant of faithfulness made by the returned exiles under Nehemiah’s governorship.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 5, 8.

13. A Levite gatekeeper in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra. (Ne 12:25, 26) Possibly the same as No. 9.

The shortest prophetic book of the Hebrew Scriptures. Written by Obadiah (concerning whom nothing but the name is known), this book contains a proclamation of Jehovah’s judgment against Edom, presents the reason for that judgment, and points forward to restoration for “the house of Jacob.” The extinction of the Edomites as a people and the restoration of the Israelites to their land confirm the accurate fulfillment of Obadiah’s prophecy.​—Ob 17, 18; see EDOM, EDOMITES.

The occasion for the prophecy was the ‘unbrotherly’ treatment that the Edomites rendered to “the sons of Judah” when the latter suffered defeat. The Edomites, through their ancestor Esau, were related to the Israelites. The Edomites rejoiced over Judah’s calamity, shared in taking spoil from the Jews, prevented them from escaping out of the land, and even handed them over to the enemy. (Ob 12-14) As is evident from a comparison of Obadiah’s prophecy with the words of Jeremiah (25:15-17, 21, 27-29; 49:7-22) and Ezekiel (25:12-14; 35:1-15), this must have happened in connection with the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonian armies and would, therefore, place the book’s composition about the year 607 B.C.E.

Since many of the things foretold in Obadiah’s prophecy were also foretold in the book of Jeremiah, this made the fulfillment of Jehovah’s word regarding Edom doubly certain.​—Compare Ge 41:32.

[Box on page 519]

HIGHLIGHTS OF OBADIAH

Jehovah’s judgment against Edom and the promise of restoration for Jehovah’s people

Written about 607 B.C.E., the year the Babylonians desolated Jerusalem

Edom’s share in the violence done to the descendants of Jacob

When Jerusalem was conquered and her people were led into captivity, Edom stood off on the side (vss 10, 11)

She should not have rejoiced maliciously over Judah’s calamity, sharing in plundering God’s people and handing survivors over to the enemy (vss 12-14)

Calamity will come upon Edom

Jehovah calls upon the nations to rise up against her in battle (vs 1)

Despite her seemingly secure position, Edom will be brought down (vss 2-4)

Thieves or harvesters would take only what they wanted and leave something behind; when Edom falls, she will be completely plundered; she will be deceived by those with whom she entered into a covenant, and her wise and mighty ones will suffer destruction (vss 5-9)

The house of Esau will receive the same sort of treatment that it gave to Judah; the house of Esau will cease to exist (vss 15, 18)

The house of Jacob will be restored

Zion will become holy; the house of Jacob will be the fire that consumes the house of Esau like stubble (vss 17, 18)

Jehovah’s restored people will take possession of “the things for them to possess,” including “the mountainous region of Esau” (vss 19, 20)

The kingship will become Jehovah’s (vs 21)

(Oʹbal).

The 8th listed of Joktan’s 13 sons, each of whom founded one of the 70 post-Flood families; descendant of Shem. Exactly where the tribe of Obal settled is uncertain, but similar names occur in Yemenite SW Arabia.​—Ge 10:21, 25-30; 1Ch 1:20, 22.

(Oʹbed) [Servant; One Serving].

1. A descendant of Judah; the father of Jehu and the son of Ephlal of the family of Jerahmeel.​—1Ch 2:3, 25, 37, 38.

2. Father of Jesse, King David’s father. Obed was the son of Boaz by his wife Ruth and was an ancestor of Jesus Christ.​—Ru 4:13-17, 21, 22; 1Ch 2:12; Mt 1:5; Lu 3:32.

3. One of the mighty men of David’s military forces.​—1Ch 11:26, 47.

4. A Levite of the family of Korah; the grandson of Obed-edom and the son of Shemaiah. He served as a gatekeeper “at the house of Jehovah.”​—1Ch 26:1, 4, 7, 12.

5. Father of a certain Azariah, one of “the chiefs of hundreds” who helped High Priest Jehoiada to overthrow Queen Athaliah so that Jehoash could be installed as king.​—2Ch 23:1, 12-15, 20; 24:1.

(Oʹbed-eʹdom) [meaning “Servant of Edom”].

1. A Gittite at whose home the ark of the covenant was kept for three months after its near upset and the accompanying death of Uzzah. For the duration of its stay there, Obed-edom and his household were blessed by Jehovah, and when David learned of this he took it as an indication that Jehovah favored bringing the sacred chest on to Jerusalem.​—2Sa 6:10-12; 1Ch 13:13, 14; 15:25.

Obed-edom was a “Gittite.” Normally this term designated a Philistine of Gath, but it can also refer to someone from Gath-rimmon, a Levite city in Dan assigned to the Kohathites. (Jos 21:20, 23, 24) Entrusted as he was with the care of the Ark, he had to be a Levite and hence must have been a Gittite from Gath-rimmon rather than a Philistine Gittite from Gath.

The name Obed-edom is found a number of times among Levite musicians and gatekeepers of the Davidic period. There are at least two such individuals referred to (1Ch 15:21, 24; 16:38), but beyond this it is impossible to determine whether the several other texts refer to either of these, or to still other contemporary individuals. Thus, Obed-edom, the Gittite, may possibly be the same as either No. 2 or No. 3.

2. A musician and gatekeeper in the procession that brought the Ark to Jerusalem. (1Ch 15:18, 21) He was likely the musician who continued to serve before the tent of the Ark in Jerusalem. (1Ch 16:4, 5, 37, 38a) Possibly the same as No. 1.

3. A gatekeeper in the same procession. (1Ch 15:24) He may also have been “the son of Jeduthun.” (1Ch 16:38b) Possibly the same as No. 1 or No. 4.

4. A Korahite in the permanent division of gatekeepers who, together with 62 relatives, was assigned to guard the S side of the sanctuary grounds in Jerusalem.​—1Ch 26:1, 4-8, 13, 15; see No. 3.

5. Caretaker of the gold, silver, and other articles in the house of Jehovah during the reign of King Amaziah. When Jehoash of Israel invaded Jerusalem sometime between 858 and 844 B.C.E., these goods, and possibly Obed-edom himself, were all taken off to Samaria.​—2Ch 25:23, 24.

The submitting to authority, the doing of what is commanded, the complying with what is required, or the abstaining from what is forbidden.

In the Hebrew Scriptures the thought of obedience is expressed by sha·maʽʹ, meaning, basically, “hear” or “listen.” Thus, at times sha·maʽʹ refers to simple hearing, becoming aware of something through the auditory senses. (Ge 3:10; 21:26; 34:5) But when what is spoken expresses will, desire, instruction, or command, then the sense of the Hebrew term is that of paying heed to or obeying the one speaking. Adam “listened” to his wife’s voice, that is, acceded to her desire that he join her in eating the forbidden fruit. (Ge 3:17; compare 21:12.) Joseph refused to “listen” to the importunities of Potiphar’s wife. (Ge 39:10) King Saul feared the people and “so obeyed [listened to] their voice,” overstepping God’s order in doing so. (1Sa 15:24) Jehovah’s promise to Abraham concerning a seed was granted because Abraham “listened to,” or obeyed, Jehovah’s voice, keeping his commands.​—Ge 22:18; 26:4, 5; compare Heb 11:8; see EAR.

The same Hebrew term is used with reference to God in ‘hearing’ or ‘listening’ to men. Here the English term “obedience” is not suitable, since humans cannot command God but can only petition or supplicate him. Hence, when God told Abraham that “as regards Ishmael I have heard you,” he was telling Abraham that he had given regard to his request, would act upon it. (Ge 17:20) In a similar way God ‘heard’ or responded to the appeal of persons in times of difficulty or affliction, answering their pleas where he saw fit to show mercy.​—Ge 16:11; 29:33; 21:17; Ex 3:7-9; compare De 1:45.

Similar to sha·maʽʹ, one Greek verb expressing the idea of obeying (hy·pa·kouʹo; noun form hy·pa·ko·eʹ) literally means “hear under,” that is, to hear submissively or to attend (as at Ac 12:13). Another term conveying the sense of obedience is peiʹtho, which means “persuade.” (Mt 27:20) In the passive and middle voices it means not only to be persuaded (Lu 16:31), to trust (Mt 27:43), to believe (Ac 17:4) but also to give heed (Ac 5:40), to obey (Ac 5:36, 37). From this term comes the negative form a·pei·theʹo (meaning to disbelieve [Ac 14:2; 19:9] or disobey [Joh 3:36]), as well as other related terms.

From this it can be seen that obedience, as expressed in the original languages of the Scriptures, depends first upon hearing, that is, receiving information or knowledge (compare Lu 12:47, 48; 1Ti 1:13), and then upon one’s submitting to the will or desire of the one who speaks or otherwise expresses such will or desire. Submission, in turn, is dependent upon recognition of that one’s authority or right to ask or require the response indicated, as also upon the hearer’s desire or willingness to satisfy the will of such one. As indicated by the Greek peiʹtho and a·pei·theʹo, belief, trust, and confidence also enter in.

Obedience to God Essential for Life. God has first claim to the obedience of all his creatures. They rightly owe him implicit obedience as their Maker, the Source from whom life derives and on whom life depends. (Ps 95:6-8) Because he is the All-wise and Almighty God, what he says merits the utmost respect and attention. A human father properly expects his word to be carried out by his children, and if a child is slow to respond, the parent may say emphatically, “Did you hear me?” Far more so does the heavenly Father rightly require receptive attention and response to his expressions.​—Compare De 21:18-21; Pr 4:1; Isa 64:8; 1Pe 1:14.

There is no substitute for obedience, no gaining of God’s favor without it. As Samuel told King Saul: “Does Jehovah have as much delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as in obeying [form of sha·maʽʹ] the voice of Jehovah? Look! To obey [literally, to listen] is better than a sacrifice, to pay attention than the fat of rams.” (1Sa 15:22) To fail to obey is to reject the word of Jehovah, to demonstrate that one really does not believe, trust, or have faith in that word and its Source. Hence the one failing to obey is no different from the one practicing divination or using idols. (1Sa 15:23; compare Ro 6:16.) Verbal expressions of assent mean nothing if the required action does not follow; the lack of response proves a lack of belief or respect for the source of instructions. (Mt 21:28-32) Those satisfying themselves with only hearing and giving mental acceptance to God’s truth, but not doing what it calls for, are deceiving themselves with false reasoning and receive no blessing. (Jas 1:22-25) God’s Son made clear that even those doing things similar to those commanded, but evidently in a wrong way or with a wrong motive, would never gain entrance into the Kingdom but would be completely rejected.​—Mt 7:15-23.

Counteracting disobedience due to inborn sin. At the outset God informed man that obedience was basic, a life-and-death matter. (Ge 2:16, 17) The same rule applies to God’s spirit sons. (1Pe 3:19, 20; Jude 6; Mt 25:41) The willful disobedience of the perfect man Adam, as the responsible head over Eve and as the male progenitor or life source of the human family, brought sin and death to all his offspring. (Ro 5:12, 19) By nature, then, men are “sons of disobedience” and “children of wrath,” meriting God’s disfavor because of their violation of his righteous standards. Failure to resist this inherent inclination to disobedience is the course of ultimate destruction.​—Eph 2:2, 3; 5:6-11; compare Ga 6:7-9.

Jehovah God has mercifully provided the means for combating sin in the flesh and for gaining forgiveness of wrongdoing resulting from imperfection rather than from willful disobedience. By his holy spirit, God supplies the force for righteousness that enables sinful men to produce good fruitage. (Ga 5:16-24; Tit 3:3-7) Forgiveness for sins comes through faith in Christ’s ransom sacrifice, and such faith in itself is a deterrent to wrongdoing and a stimulus to obedience. (1Pe 1:2) Thus Paul refers to “obedience [hearing submissively] by faith.” (Ro 16:26; 1:16; compare Ac 6:7.) At Romans 10:16-21 he shows that hearing coupled with faith produces obedience and that the disobeying (disbelieving [from a·pei·theʹo]) of the Israelites was due to lack of faith. (Compare Heb 3:18, 19.) Since true faith is “the assured expectation of things hoped for” and “the evident demonstration of realities though not beheld,” and since it requires believing that God is “and that he becomes the rewarder of those earnestly seeking him,” those having faith are moved to obey, having confidence and assurance as to the blessings that obedience will bring.​—Heb 11:1, 6.

In harmony with this, God’s communication to men is not simply a series of terse commands like those of an unfeeling dictator. God does not desire the kind of obedience one obtains from a beast with a bridle and bit. (Compare Jas 3:3; Ps 32:8, 9.) Not a perfunctory or a begrudging obedience, such as even the demons rendered to Christ and his disciples (Mr 1:27; Lu 10:17, 20), but obedience motivated by an appreciative heart is called for. (Ps 112:1; 119:11, 112; Ro 6:17-19) Jehovah therefore accompanies his expressions of will and purpose with helpful information appealing to one’s sense of justice and righteousness, to love and goodness, intelligence, reason, and wisdom. (De 10:12, 13; Lu 1:17; Ro 12:1, 2) Those with the right heart attitude obey out of love. (1Jo 5:2, 3; 2Jo 6) Also, the truthfulness and rightness of the message given through God’s servants persuades the hearers to obey, and hence the apostle Peter speaks of “obedience to the truth with unhypocritical brotherly affection as the result.”​—1Pe 1:22; compare Ro 2:8, 9; Ga 5:7, 8.

Jehovah showed great patience with Israel and speaks of himself as “daily getting up early” and sending his prophets to exhort and admonish them, ‘all day long spreading out his hands toward a people that is disobedient and talks back,’ but they continued to harden their hearts like emery stone, stubbornly refusing discipline. (Jer 7:23-28; 11:7, 8; Zec 7:12; Ro 10:21) Even after the coming of Messiah, they endeavored to establish their righteousness in their own way, by works of the Law. Their lack of faith and obedience to God’s instructions through his Son cost the majority of them a place in the Kingdom government, opening the way for many non-Jews to become part of the chosen nation of spiritual Israel.​—Ro 10:1-4; 11:13-23, 30-32.

A healthy fear of God also plays its part in obedience, because one recognizes God’s all-powerfulness and that God is not to be trifled with nor can he be mocked, for he renders to each one according to that one’s deeds. (Compare Php 2:12, 13; Ga 6:7, 8; Heb 5:7.) Willful disobedience or disregard for God’s revealed will brings “a certain fearful expectation of judgment.”​—Heb 10:26-31.

The Scriptures set forth many encouraging examples of faithful obedience in all manner of circumstances and situations and in the face of all types of opposition. Supreme among these is the example of God’s own Son, who “humbled himself and became obedient as far as death, yes, death on a torture stake.” (Php 2:8; Heb 5:8) By his obedient course he was justified, proved righteous on his own merit, and hence could provide a perfect sacrifice that would redeem mankind from sin and death.​—Ro 5:18-21.

Obedience to Other Superiors. The Son’s position as God’s appointed King requires that all others obey him. (Da 7:13, 14) He is “Shiloh” of the tribe of Judah, the one ‘to whom the obedience of the people belongs’ (Ge 49:10), the prophet like Moses to whom every soul must listen or suffer destruction (Ac 3:22, 23), “a leader and commander to the national groups” (Isa 55:3, 4), placed “far above every government and authority and power and lordship” (Eph 1:20, 21), to whom “every knee should bend” in recognition of his God-given authority (Php 2:9-11). He is the High Priest whose instructions lead to healing and life everlasting for those hearing him submissively. (Heb 5:9, 10; Joh 3:36) Since he was God’s Chief Spokesman, Jesus could rightly make known that obedience to his sayings constituted the only solid foundation on which persons could build their hopes for the future. (Mt 7:24-27) Obedience is proof of and springs from the love his followers have for him. (Joh 14:23, 24; 15:10) Because God has made his Son the key figure in the outworking of all his purposes (Ro 16:25-27), life depends upon obedience to “the good news about our Lord Jesus,” and this obedience includes making public declaration of one’s faith in him.​—2Th 1:8; Ro 10:8-10, 16; 1Pe 4:17.

As head of the Christian congregation, Christ Jesus delegates authority to others, as he did to the apostles. (2Co 10:8) These persons convey the instructions of the congregation’s Head, and therefore obedience to them is right and necessary (2Co 10:2-6; Php 2:12; 2Th 3:4, 9-15), for such spiritual shepherds are “keeping watch over your souls as those who will render an account.” (Heb 13:17; 1Pe 5:2-6; compare 1Ki 3:9.) Willing response and obedience, like that of the Roman and Philippian Christians and like that of Philemon, to whom Paul could say, “I am writing you, knowing you will even do more than the things I say,” bring rejoicing to such responsible ones.​—Ro 16:19; Php 2:12, 17; Phm 21.

Obedience to parents and husbands. Parents have a God-given natural right to the obedience of their children. (Pr 23:22) Jacob’s obedience to his parents was doubtless one of the reasons Jehovah ‘loved Jacob but hated Esau.’ (Mal 1:2, 3; Ge 28:7) As a child, Jesus showed submission to his earthly parents. (Lu 2:51) The apostle Paul admonishes children to “be obedient to your parents in everything.” It must be remembered that his letter was addressed to Christians, and hence “everything” cannot allow for obedience to commands that would result in disobedience to the word of the heavenly Father, Jehovah God, for this could not be “well-pleasing” to the Lord. (Col 3:20; Eph 6:1) Disobedience to parents is not viewed lightly in the Scriptures, and under the Law a continued course of disobedience required the son’s being put to death.​—De 21:18-21; Pr 30:17; Ro 1:30, 32; 2Ti 3:2.

The headship of the man also calls for obedience of wives to their husbands “in everything,” Sarah being cited as an example to be emulated. (Eph 5:21-33; 1Pe 3:1-6) Here, again, it holds true that the headship and authority of the husband is not supreme, but ranks below that of God and Christ.​—1Co 11:3.

To masters and to governments. Similarly slaves were exhorted to render obedience to their masters “in everything,” not with eye-service but as Christ’s slaves, with fear of Jehovah. (Col 3:22-25; Eph 6:5-8) Those slaves who must endure suffering could take as their example Christ Jesus, even as could Christian wives under similar circumstances. (1Pe 2:18-25; 3:1) The authority of their masters was relative, not absolute; hence Christian slaves would obey in “everything” that was not in conflict with God’s will and commands.

Finally, obedience is due earthly governments, authorities, and rulers (Tit 3:1), since God has allowed them to function and even to render certain services to his people. So it is required that Christians “pay back Caesar’s things to Caesar.” (Mr 12:14-17) The compelling reason for Christian obedience to Caesar’s laws and the payment of taxes is not primarily proper fear of Caesar’s “sword” of punishment but is the Christian conscience. (Ro 13:1-7) Since conscience is the decisive factor, Christian submission to human governments obviously is limited to those things not out of harmony with God’s law. For this reason, to rulers who ordered them to stop carrying out their God-given commission to preach, the apostles firmly stated: “We must obey God as ruler rather than men.”​—Ac 5:27-29, 32; 4:18-20.

The act of bowing, kneeling, prostrating the body, or making some other gesture to betoken submission; or simply the paying of respect. It adequately translates the Hebrew hish·ta·chawahʹ and the Greek pro·sky·neʹo in many cases.

Hish·ta·chawahʹ means, basically, “bow down.” (Ge 18:2) Such bowing might be done as an act of respect or deference toward another human, as to a king (1Sa 24:8; 2Sa 24:20; Ps 45:11), the high priest (1Sa 2:36), a prophet (2Ki 2:15), or other person of authority (Ge 37:9, 10; 42:6; Ru 2:8-10), to an elder relative (Ge 33:1-6; 48:11, 12; Ex 18:7; 1Ki 2:19), or even to strangers as an expression of courteous regard (Ge 19:1, 2). Abraham bowed down to the Canaanite sons of Heth from whom he sought to buy a burial place. (Ge 23:7) Isaac’s blessing on Jacob called for national groups and Jacob’s own “brothers” to bow down to him. (Ge 27:29; compare 49:8.) When men started to bow down before David’s son Absalom, he grabbed them and kissed them, evidently to further his political ambitions by making a show of putting himself on a level with them. (2Sa 15:5, 6) Mordecai refused to prostrate himself before Haman, not because he viewed the practice as wrong in itself, but doubtless because this high Persian official was an accursed Amalekite by descent.​—Es 3:1-6.

From the above examples it is clear that this Hebrew term of itself does not necessarily have a religious sense or signify worship. Nevertheless, in a large number of cases it is used in connection with worship, either of the true God (Ex 24:1; Ps 95:6; Isa 27:13; 66:23) or of false gods. (De 4:19; 8:19; 11:16) Persons might bow down in prayer to God (Ex 34:8; Job 1:20, 21) and often prostrated themselves upon receiving some revelation from God or some expression or evidence of his favor, thereby showing their gratitude, reverence, and humble submission to his will.​—Ge 24:23-26, 50-52; Ex 4:31; 12:27, 28; 2Ch 7:3; 20:14-19; compare 1Co 14:25; Re 19:1-4.

Bowing down to humans as an act of respect was admissible, but bowing to anyone other than Jehovah as a deity was prohibited by God. (Ex 23:24; 34:14) Similarly, the worshipful bowing down to religious images or to any created thing was positively condemned. (Ex 20:4, 5; Le 26:1; De 4:15-19; Isa 2:8, 9, 20, 21) Thus, in the Hebrew Scriptures, when certain of Jehovah’s servants prostrated themselves before angels, they only did so to show they recognized that these were God’s representatives, not to render obeisance to them as deities.​—Jos 5:13-15; Ge 18:1-3.

Obeisance in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The Greek pro·sky·neʹo corresponds closely to the Hebrew hish·ta·chawahʹ as to conveying the thought of both obeisance to creatures and worship to God or a deity. The manner of expressing the obeisance is perhaps not so prominent in pro·sky·neʹo as in hish·ta·chawahʹ, where the Hebrew term graphically conveys the thought of prostration or bowing down. Scholars derive the Greek term from the verb ky·neʹo, “kiss.” The usage of the word in the Christian Greek Scriptures (as also in the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures) shows that persons to whose actions the term is applied prostrated themselves or bowed down.​—Mt 2:11; 18:26; 28:9.

As with the Hebrew term, the context must be considered to determine whether pro·sky·neʹo refers to obeisance solely in the form of deep respect or obeisance in the form of religious worship. Where reference is directly to God (Joh 4:20-24; 1Co 14:25; Re 4:10) or to false gods and their idols (Ac 7:43; Re 9:20), it is evident that the obeisance goes beyond that acceptably or customarily rendered to men and enters the field of worship. So, too, where the object of the obeisance is left unstated, its being directed to God is understood. (Joh 12:20; Ac 8:27; 24:11; Heb 11:21; Re 11:1) On the other hand, the action of those of “the synagogue of Satan” who are made to “come and do obeisance” before the feet of Christians is clearly not worship.​—Re 3:9.

Obeisance to a human king is found in Jesus’ illustration at Matthew 18:26. It is evident that this was the kind of obeisance that the astrologers rendered to the child Jesus, “born king of the Jews,” that Herod professed interest in expressing, and that the soldiers mockingly rendered to Jesus before his impalement. They clearly did not view Jesus as God or as a deity. (Mt 2:2, 8; Mr 15:19) While some translators use the word “worship” in the majority of cases where pro·sky·neʹo describes persons’ actions toward Jesus, the evidence does not warrant one’s reading too much into this rendering. Rather, the circumstances that evoked the obeisance correspond very closely to those producing obeisance to the earlier prophets and kings. (Compare Mt 8:2; 9:18; 15:25; 20:20 with 1Sa 25:23, 24; 2Sa 14:4-7; 1Ki 1:16; 2Ki 4:36, 37.) The very expressions of those involved often reveal that, while they clearly recognized Jesus as God’s representative, they rendered obeisance to him, not as to God or a deity, but as “God’s Son,” the foretold “Son of man,” the Messiah with divine authority. On many occasions their obeisance expressed a gratitude for divine revelation or evidence of favor like that expressed in earlier times.​—Mt 14:32, 33; 28:5-10, 16-18; Lu 24:50-52; Joh 9:35, 38.

While earlier prophets and also angels had accepted obeisance, Peter stopped Cornelius from rendering such to him, and the angel or angels of John’s vision twice stopped John from doing so, referring to himself as “a fellow slave” and concluding with the exhortation to “worship God [toi The·oiʹ pro·skyʹne·son].” (Ac 10:25, 26; Re 19:10; 22:8, 9) Evidently Christ’s coming had brought in new relationships affecting standards of conduct toward others of God’s servants. He taught his disciples that “one is your teacher, whereas all you are brothers . . . your Leader is one, the Christ” (Mt 23:8-12), for it was in him that the prophetic figures and types found their fulfillment, even as the angel told John that “the bearing witness to Jesus is what inspires prophesying.” (Re 19:10) Jesus was David’s Lord, the greater than Solomon, the prophet greater than Moses. (Lu 20:41-43; Mt 12:42; Ac 3:19-24) Peter therefore rightly refused to let Cornelius make too much of him.

So, too, John, by virtue of having been declared righteous or justified by God as an anointed Christian, called to be a heavenly son of God and a member of the Kingdom, was in a different relationship to the angel(s) of Revelation than were the Israelites to the angels that had earlier appeared to them. The angel(s) evidently recognized this change of relationship when rejecting John’s obeisance.​—Compare 1Co 6:3; see DECLARE RIGHTEOUS.

Obeisance to the glorified Jesus Christ. On the other hand, Christ Jesus has been exalted by his Father to a position second only to God, so that “in the name of Jesus every knee should bend of those in heaven and those on earth and those under the ground, and every tongue should openly acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father.” (Php 2:9-11; compare Da 7:13, 14, 27.) Hebrews 1:6 also shows that even the angels render obeisance to the resurrected Jesus Christ. Many translations of this text here render pro·sky·neʹo as “worship,” while some render it by such expressions as “bow before” (AT; Yg) and ‘pay homage’ (NE). No matter what English term is used, the original Greek remains the same and the understanding of what it is that the angels render to Christ must accord with the rest of the Scriptures. Jesus himself emphatically stated to Satan that “it is Jehovah your God you must worship [form of pro·sky·neʹo], and it is to him alone you must render sacred service.” (Mt 4:8-10; Lu 4:7, 8) Similarly, the angel(s) told John to “worship God” (Re 19:10; 22:9), and this injunction came after Jesus’ resurrection and exaltation, showing that matters had not changed in this regard. True, Psalm 97, which the apostle evidently quotes at Hebrews 1:6, refers to Jehovah God as the object of the ‘bowing down,’ and still this text was applied to Christ Jesus. (Ps 97:1, 7) However, the apostle previously had shown that the resurrected Christ is “the reflection of [God’s] glory and the exact representation of his very being.” (Heb 1:1-3) Hence, if what we understand as “worship” is apparently directed to the Son by angels, it is in reality being directed through him to Jehovah God, the Sovereign Ruler, “the One who made the heaven and the earth and sea and fountains of waters.” (Re 14:7; 4:10, 11; 7:11, 12; 11:16, 17; compare 1Ch 29:20; Re 5:13, 14; 21:22.) On the other hand, the renderings “bow before” and ‘pay homage’ (instead of “worship”) are in no way out of harmony with the original language, either the Hebrew of Psalm 97:7 or the Greek of Hebrews 1:6, for such translations convey the basic sense of both hish·ta·chawahʹ and pro·sky·neʹo.

(Oʹbil).

An Ishmaelite caretaker of David’s camels.​—1Ch 27:30.

(Oʹboth).

An Israelite encampment between Punon and Iye-abarim. Its location is today unknown.​—Nu 21:10, 11; 33:43, 44.

(Ochʹran) [from a root meaning “bring ostracism (trouble)”].

An Asherite whose son Pagiel was appointed chieftain of the tribe of Asher after the Exodus from Egypt.​—Nu 1:13, 16; 2:27; 7:72, 77; 10:26.

(Oʹded) [[God] Has Relieved].

1. Father of the prophet Azariah. (2Ch 15:1) Second Chronicles 15:8 describes Oded himself as being a prophet: “As soon as Asa heard these words and the prophecy of Oded the prophet.” Some scholars would drop the words “of Oded the prophet” as a copyist’s error, but this would not explain why the writer says Asa heard “these words and the prophecy.” Others would make an addition so as to read, “Asa heard these words and the prophecy of Azariah the son of Oded,” to agree with the Greek Septuagint (Alexandrine Codex), Syriac Peshitta, and Latin Vulgate (Clementine recension), but this still leaves the above difficulty unexplained. The third solution is to accept the Masoretic text as it is, with the understanding that Oded himself gave a prophecy that has not been preserved in the record. Asa heeded the words of Azariah (2Ch 15:2-7) and those of his father Oded.

2. A prophet of Samaria during the overlapping reigns of Pekah of Israel and Ahaz of Judah (762-c. 759 B.C.E.). After Israel and Syria delivered a smashing defeat to Judah, 200,000 captives from the southern kingdom were brought toward Samaria. Oded, however, intercepted the victorious army and warned them of God’s wrath if they enslaved their brothers. ‘After all,’ he explained, ‘it was only because of Judah’s wickedness that Jehovah permitted you to defeat them. Now do not make servants out of them and bring Jehovah’s rage upon yourselves; return the captives!’ Four Ephraimite leaders supported Oded, and the captives were cared for and repatriated.​—2Ch 28:5-15.

From early times men have presented offerings to God. In the first recorded instance, Adam’s oldest son Cain presented some fruits of the ground, and Adam’s younger son Abel, the firstlings of his flock. Evidently the attitudes and motives of the two brothers were different, for God approved Abel’s offering but looked with disfavor on Cain’s. (Later, the Law covenant provided for both animal and grain offerings.) Abel must have had faith in God’s promise of liberation through the promised Seed. The reality of the fulfillment of Jehovah’s pronouncement against his parents in Eden gave him an “evident demonstration” on which to build his faith. “Through which [faith],” he “offered God a sacrifice of greater worth than Cain.” Though both brothers made offerings in recognition of their alienated states, it was on the basis of Abel’s faith that God approved his gifts.​—Ge 4:1-4; Heb 11:1, 4.

In Patriarchal Society. The family head Noah, on coming out of the ark, offered a thanksgiving sacrifice to Jehovah that was “restful” (soothing, tranquilizing), after which Jehovah made the “rainbow” covenant with Noah and his offspring. (Ge 8:18-22; 9:8-16) We read later of the faithful patriarchs’ presenting offerings to Jehovah. (Ge 31:54; 46:1) Job, as family head, acted as priest for his family, sacrificing burnt offerings to God in their behalf. (Job 1:5) The most notable and significant of ancient sacrifices was Abraham’s attempt to offer up Isaac, at Jehovah’s direction. Jehovah, after observing Abraham’s faith and obedience, kindly provided a ram as substitute. This act of Abraham foreshadowed Jehovah’s offering of his own only-begotten Son, Jesus Christ.​—Ge 22:1-14; Heb 11:17-19.

Under the Law. The sacrifices commanded under the Law covenant all pointed forward to Jesus Christ and his sacrifice or to benefits that flow from that sacrifice. (Heb 8:3-5; 9:9; 10:5-10) As Jesus Christ was a perfect man, so all animal sacrifices were to be sound, unblemished specimens. (Le 1:3, 10; 3:1) Both the Israelite and the alien resident who worshiped Jehovah were included in presenting the various offerings.​—Nu 15:26, 29.

Burnt offerings. Burnt offerings were presented in their entirety to God; no part of the animal being retained by the worshiper. (Compare Jg 11:30, 31, 39, 40.) They constituted an appeal to Jehovah to accept, or to signify acceptance of, the sin offering that sometimes accompanied them. As a “burnt offering” Jesus Christ gave himself wholly, fully.

Occasions for burnt offerings, and their features:

(1) Regular times offered: Every morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Le 6:8-13; Nu 28:3-8); every Sabbath day (Nu 28:9, 10); first day of month (Nu 10:10); Passover and seven days of Festival of Unfermented Cakes (Le 23:6-8; Nu 28:16-19, 24); Day of Atonement (Le 16:3, 5, 29, 30; Nu 29:7-11); Pentecost (Le 23:16-18; Nu 28:26-31); each day of Festival of Booths.​—Nu 29:12-39.

(2) Other occasions: At consecration of priesthood (Le 8:18-21; see INSTALLATION); at installation of Levites (Nu 8:6, 11, 12); in connection with making covenants (Ex 24:5; see COVENANT); with communion offerings as well as certain guilt and sin offerings (Le 5:6, 7, 10; 16:3, 5); in performing vows (Nu 15:3, 8); in connection with purifications (Le 12:6-8; 14:2, 30, 31; 15:13-15, 30).

(3) Animals offered and procedure: Bull, ram, male goat, turtledove, or young pigeon. (Le 1:3, 5, 10, 14) If it was an animal, the offerer laid his hand on the animal’s head (acknowledging the offering as his offering, and for him, in his behalf). (Le 1:4) The animal was slaughtered, the blood was sprinkled round about upon the altar of burnt offering (Le 1:5, 11), the animal was skinned and cut up into its parts, its intestines (no offal was burned on altar) and shanks were washed, the head and other body parts were all put on altar (the officiating priest received the skin; Le 7:8). (Le 1:6-9, 12, 13) If it was a bird, the crop and feathers were removed, and the head and body were burned on the altar. (Le 1:14-17)

Communion offerings (or peace offerings). Communion offerings acceptable to Jehovah denoted peace with him. The worshiper and his household partook (in the courtyard of the tabernacle; according to tradition, booths were set up around the inside of the curtain surrounding the courtyard; in the temple, dining rooms were provided). The officiating priest received a portion, and the priests on duty, another portion. Jehovah, in effect, received the pleasing smoke of the burning fat. The blood, representing the life, was given to God as his. Therefore the priests, the worshipers, and Jehovah were as if together at the meal, signifying peaceful relationships. The person partaking while in a state of uncleanness (any of the uncleannesses mentioned in the Law) or who ate the flesh after it had been kept beyond the prescribed time (in the warm climate it would begin to putrefy) was to be cut off from his people. He defiled or desecrated the meal, because of either being unclean himself or eating that which was foul before Jehovah God, showing disrespect for sacred things.​—Le 7:16-21; 19:5-8.

The Lord’s Evening Meal (Memorial or Last Supper) is a communion meal. (1Co 10:16) Those in “the new covenant by virtue of [Jesus’] blood” share with one another in faith, partaking of the emblems representing Jesus’ body and blood. They share also with Jehovah as Author of the arrangement. These are seeking Jehovah’s approval and are at peace not only with one another but also with Jehovah through Jesus Christ. In line with the requirement of cleanness for sharers in a communion meal, Paul warns that the Christian should examine himself before the Memorial meal. To treat the occasion or the emblems of wine and unleavened bread lightly or with contempt would be desecration of sacred things, meriting adverse judgment.​—1Co 11:25, 27-29; see LORD’S EVENING MEAL.

In the thanksgiving offering, which was a communion offering praising God for his provisions and loving-kindnesses, flesh and both leavened and unleavened bread were eaten. The worshiper therefore celebrated the occasion using what might be termed “daily food.” (However, no leavened bread was at any time put upon the altar as being offered to God.) And, in this expression of thanks and praise to God, the flesh had to be enjoyed that day, not the next. (In other communion offerings, the flesh could be eaten the second day.) (Le 7:11-15) This brings to mind the prayer Jesus Christ taught his followers: “Give us today our bread for this day.”​—Mt 6:11.

Occasions for communion offerings, and their features:

(1) Occasions: Making covenants (Ex 24:5); celebrating festal seasons and commencement of months (Nu 10:10; Ex 12:2-14; Le 23:15-19; Nu 29:39), and other occasions.

(2) Purposes: To gain approval of God; entreaty or supplication to God in times of misfortune. (Le 19:5; Jg 20:26; 21:4; 1Sa 13:9; 2Sa 24:25)

(3) Animals used, and procedure: Male or female cattle, sheep, goats (no birds, since they were not deemed sufficient to constitute a sacrificial meal). (Le 3:1, 6, 12) The offerer laid his hand on the animal’s head; the animal was slaughtered; the priest sprinkled its blood round about upon the altar of burnt offering (Le 3:2, 8, 13); the fat (including the fat tail of the sheep) was put upon the altar of burnt offering (Le 3:3-5, 9); the breast went to the priests, the right leg to the officiating priest (Ex 29:26, 28; Le 7:28-36).

(4) Types: Thanksgiving or praise; vow (see Nu 6:13, 14, 17); voluntary.

Sin offerings. These were all for unintentional sin, committed because of weakness of the imperfect flesh, not “with uplifted hand,” that is, not openly, proudly, purposely. (Nu 15:30, 31, ftn) Various animal sacrifices, from bull to pigeon, were used, according to the position and circumstances of the one(s) whose sin was being atoned for. It is to be noted that those involved in the sins dealt with in Leviticus chapter 4 were persons who had done “one of the things that Jehovah commands should not be done” and so had become guilty. (Le 4:2, 13, 22, 27) For Atonement Day sin offerings, see ATONEMENT DAY.

Occasions requiring sin offerings, and their features:

(1) For sin of the high priest bringing guilt upon the people (Le 4:3): The high priest brought a bull and laid his hand on the bull’s head; the bull was slaughtered; its blood was taken into the Holy Place and sprinkled before the curtain; some of the blood was smeared on the horns of the altar of incense, the rest being poured out at the base of the altar of burnt offering; the fat (as in communion offerings) was burned on the altar of burnt offering (Le 4:4-10); and the carcass (including the skin) was burned in a clean place outside the city, where altar ashes were put. (Le 4:11, 12)

(2) For sin of the entire assembly (some sin made by the assembly, of which the leaders were not aware until later) (Le 4:13): The congregation brought a bull; the older men laid their hands on the bull’s head; one slaughtered it; the remainder of the procedure was the same as for a sin of the high priest. (Le 4:14-21)

A sin of the high priest committed in his official position and capacity as representative of the entire nation before Jehovah brought guilt upon the entire assembly. This might be an error such as a mistake in judgment, in application of the Law, or in dealing with a question of national importance. For this, and for the sin of the entire assembly, the most valuable of sacrifices, namely, a bull, was required.​—Le 4:3, 13-15.

With sin offerings for individuals, the blood was taken no farther than the altar. However, in cases of sin of the high priest and of the entire assembly, the blood was also taken into the Holy Place, the first compartment of the sanctuary, and was sprinkled before the curtain, on the other side of which Jehovah ‘resided,’ as represented by a miraculous light above the ark of the covenant in the Most Holy. (Only in the sin offerings regularly made on Atonement Day was blood taken into the Most Holy, the second compartment; Le 16.) No priest could eat any portion of offerings from which blood was taken into the Holy Place.​—Le 6:30.

(3) Sin of a chieftain: The procedure was similar, except a male goat was used, and blood was not taken into the Holy Place. The blood was put on the horns of the altar of burnt offering; the rest was poured out at its base; the fat was made to smoke on the altar (Le 4:22-26); the priests evidently received a portion to eat, as in other sin offerings (Le 6:24-26, 29); vessels in which meat was boiled had to be scoured (or broken, if earthenware), so that none of the “most holy thing” would be desecrated, which would happen if any of the sacrifice clung to the vessel and the vessel was later used for ordinary purposes. (Le 6:27, 28)

(4) Sin of an individual Israelite: A female kid of the goats or a female lamb was used; the procedure was the same as for the sin of a chieftain. (Le 4:27-35)

In the following, the sins differ from the foregoing in that the persons involved committed an error and did “not do all [God’s] commandments,” hence a sin of omission.​—Nu 15:22.

(5) For the entire assembly, a kid of the goats was used (Nu 15:22-26); for an individual, a female goat in its first year. (Nu 15:27-29)

In cases where priests were to eat part of the sin offering, it appears that, in partaking, they were considered to be ‘answering for the error’ of those making the sin offering “so as to make atonement for them before Jehovah,” by virtue of their holy office.​—Le 10:16-18; 9:3, 15.

Guilt offerings. Guilt offerings were also offerings because of sin, for guilt of any sort involves sin. They were for special sins by which a person had contracted guilt, and they differed slightly from other sin offerings in that they appear to have been to satisfy or restore a right. Either a right of Jehovah or a right of his holy nation had been violated. The guilt offering was to satisfy Jehovah on the right that had been violated, or to restore or recover certain covenant rights for the repentant wrongdoer and to get relief from the penalty for his sin.​—Compare Isa 53:10.

In the cases covered in Leviticus 5:1-6, 17-19, the individuals had sinned unwittingly, thoughtlessly, or carelessly, and when the matter was brought to their attention, they desired to right the matter. On the other hand, the sins dealt with at Leviticus 6:1-7 were not unwitting or careless sins but, nevertheless, were sins due to fleshly weaknesses and desires, not deliberate, high-handed, and purposely in rebellion against God. The person had come to be stricken in conscience, so repented voluntarily, confessing his sin, and after making restoration, sought mercy and forgiveness.​—Mt 5:23, 24.

These laws highlight the fact that, while the Law was strict for the deliberate, unrepentant sinner, there was room for consideration of motives, circumstances, and attitudes, so that mercy could be extended under the Law, even as is the case in the Christian congregation. (Compare Le 6:1-7; Ex 21:29-31; Nu 35:22-25; 2Co 2:5-11; 7:8-12; 1Ti 1:2-16.) But note that none of these wrongs could be done with impunity; compensation had to be made to the individual harmed, and a guilt offering was to be made to Jehovah. The guilt offerings were, with a few variations, handled in the same way as the sin offerings, the priests getting a portion to eat.​—Le 7:1, 5-7.

Occasions requiring guilt offerings, and their features:

(1) A witness to a matter who failed to testify or report after hearing public adjuration; one who had unwittingly become unclean by reason of a dead body or another unclean person; one who rashly or thoughtlessly made an oath to do or not to do something (Le 5:1-4): He had to make confession concerning the way in which he had sinned. (Le 5:5) The guilt offerings varied according to financial circumstances. (Le 5:6-10) If it was a grain offering, no oil or frankincense was included because it was a sin offering and was a required grain offering, not a voluntary one; a voluntary grain offering was a joyful offering of one in good standing with God. (Le 5:11-13)

(2) One who sinned unintentionally against holy things of Jehovah (for example, one who unwittingly appropriated grain set aside as tithe to the sanctuary, and used it for himself or his household [for a common use, profaning the sanctified thing]) (Le 5:15a; compare Le 22:14-16): Compensation plus one fifth was to be given to the sanctuary. (Le 5:16) A ram was presented as a guilt offering. (Le 5:15)

(3) A person who unwittingly did something (probably through negligence) that Jehovah commanded not to be done: A ram “according to the estimated value” was to be offered. (Le 5:17-19)

(4) A person who deceived his associate by taking valuables committed to his care, robbery, defrauding, keeping something found and lying about it (Le 6:2, 3; compare Ex 22:7-13, and note that this does not include testifying falsely against one’s fellowman, as at De 5:20): First, confession of the wrong was to be made. Then he must make full compensation, plus one fifth, to the injured person. (Le 6:4, 5; Nu 5:6, 7) If the wronged person had died, the nearest male relative got the compensation; if there was no near relative, the priest received it. (Nu 5:8) Then he was to offer a ram for his guilt offering.

Grain offerings. Grain offerings were made along with communion offerings, burnt offerings, and sin offerings, and also as firstfruits; at other times they were made independently. (Ex 29:40-42; Le 23:10-13, 15-18; Nu 15:8, 9, 22-24; 28:9, 10, 20, 26-28; chap 29) These were in recognition of God’s bounty in supplying blessings and prosperity. They were often accompanied by oil and frankincense. Grain offerings could be in the form of fine flour, roasted grain, or ring-shaped cakes or wafers that were baked, griddle cooked, or from the deep-fat kettle. Some of the grain offering was put on the altar of burnt offering, some was eaten by the priests, and in communion offerings the worshiper partook. (Le 6:14-23; 7:11-13; Nu 18:8-11) None of the grain offerings presented on the altar could contain leaven or “honey” (apparently referring to the syrup of figs or juice of fruits) that might ferment.​—Le 2:1-16.

Drink offerings. Drink offerings were presented along with most of the other offerings, especially after the Israelites had settled in the Promised Land. (Nu 15:2, 5, 8-10) This consisted of wine (“intoxicating liquor”) and was poured out on the altar. (Nu 28:7, 14; compare Ex 30:9; Nu 15:10.) The apostle Paul wrote to the Christians at Philippi: “If I am being poured out like a drink offering upon the sacrifice and public service to which faith has led you, I am glad.” Here he used the figure of a drink offering, expressing his willingness to expend himself in behalf of fellow Christians. (Php 2:17) Shortly before his death, he wrote to Timothy: “I am already being poured out like a drink offering, and the due time for my releasing is imminent.”​—2Ti 4:6.

Wave offerings. In the wave offerings the priest evidently put his hands under the hands of the worshiper, who was holding the sacrifice to be presented, and waved them to and fro; or the thing offered was waved by the priest himself. (Le 23:11a) It seems that Moses, as mediator of the Law covenant, did this for Aaron and his sons when consecrating them to the priesthood. (Le 8:28, 29) This action represented a presenting of the sacrificial things to Jehovah. Certain wave offerings went to the priests as their portion.​—Ex 29:27.

The presentation of a sheaf (or omer measure) of the firstfruits of the barley harvest on Nisan 16 was a wave offering carried out by the high priest. It was on this date in the year 33 C.E. that Jesus Christ was resurrected, “the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep in death.” (1Co 15:20; Le 23:11b; Joh 20:1) On the day of Pentecost two leavened loaves of the firstfruits of wheat were waved. (Le 23:15-17) This is the day that Jesus, as High Priest in the heavens, was able to present to Jehovah the first of his spiritual brothers of the Christian congregation, taken from among sinful mankind and anointed by the pouring out of the holy spirit.​—Ac 2:1-4, 32, 33; compare Jas 1:18.

Sacred portions (heave offerings). The Hebrew word teru·mahʹ is sometimes translated “sacred portion” when referring to the part of the sacrifice that was lifted up, or heaved, off the sacrifice as the portion belonging to the priests. (Ex 29:27, 28; Le 7:14, 32; 10:14, 15) The word is also frequently rendered “contribution,” when referring to the things given to the sanctuary, which, with the exception of that which was sacrificed on the altar, also went to the priests for their sustenance.​—Nu 18:8-13, 19, 24, 26-29; 31:29; De 12:6, 11.

The Hebrew word ʼad·deʹreth describes that which is “majestic” (Eze 17:8; Zec 11:3) and, in its references to a garment, evidently refers to a wide cloak or robe, perhaps worn over the shoulders and made of skins or of cloth woven from hair or wool.

Evidence that the term describes a hairy garment is seen in the description of Isaac’s firstborn Esau. At birth, he “came out red all over like an official garment of hair; so they called his name Esau.” (Ge 25:25) His resemblance to an official garment was likely not his reddish color but his hairiness.

When translating ʼad·deʹreth, for the official garment used by Elijah and Elisha, the Septuagint uses the Greek word me·lo·teʹ (meaning sheepskin or any rough woolly skin). (1Ki 19:13) This suggests that the garment was made of skins with the hair left on, similar to the garb worn by certain Bedouin. Paul’s description of persecuted servants of God who “went about in sheepskins, in goatskins,” may refer to the dress of such prophets of Jehovah. (Heb 11:37) John the Baptizer wore clothing of camel hair, though it is not stated that this was his official garment as a prophet.​—Mr 1:6.

However designed, these official garments of hair appear to have been an identifying mark of certain prophets. When King Ahaziah heard the description of “a man possessing a hair garment, with a leather belt girded about his loins,” he immediately recognized that it was the prophet Elijah. (2Ki 1:8) This official garment served as the anointing instrument that was thrown upon Elisha when he was ‘called’ to leave the plow and follow Elijah. (1Ki 19:19-21) Later, at the time Elijah went up in the windstorm, this garment was left for his successor, who soon used it in dividing the Jordan River, just as his master had done. (2Ki 2:3, 8, 13, 14) False prophets, it appears, sometimes wore similar garments of hair to deceive the people into accepting them as reputable prophets of Jehovah, thus making their messages seem more credible.​—Zec 13:4.

The term ʼad·deʹreth was also used in reference to costly and royal garments, like the one stolen by Achan, “an official garment from Shinar, a good-looking one.” (Jos 7:21, 24) Ancient Babylon, or Shinar, was noted for its beautiful robes. The king of Nineveh “put off his official garment,” undoubtedly a splendid robe, and clothed himself with sackcloth to show his repentance.​—Jon 3:6.

The powerful Amorite king of Bashan (1Ki 4:19) whom the Israelites defeated before crossing into the Promised Land. Og was one of the giant Rephaim. In fact, his immense iron bier (perhaps a sarcophagus of black basalt) measured 4 by 1.8 m (13.1 by 5.8 ft). (De 3:11, ftn) He and Sihon ruled the Amorites E of the Jordan. (De 3:13; 4:46, 47) The domain of Og extended from Mount Hermon to the Jabbok, territory E of the Jordan that included 60 fortified cities and numerous rural towns. (De 3:3-5, 8-10; Jos 12:4, 5; compare Nu 21:23, 24.) His two principal cities were Edrei and Ashtaroth.​—De 1:4; Jos 13:12.

The defeat of Og at the hands of Israel came toward the end of Israel’s 40-year wandering, just before they encamped on the Plains of Moab. After defeating Sihon, Israel clashed with Og’s forces at Edrei and, in an overwhelming God-given victory, killed off Og and all his army and took possession of his cities and towns. (Nu 21:33–22:1; De 3:1-13) Og’s territory became part of Manasseh’s inheritance. (Nu 32:33; De 3:13; Jos 13:29-31) The victory brought fright to the inhabitants of Canaan and was a contributing factor prompting Rahab and the Gibeonites to seek peace with Israel so that they too were not exterminated. (Jos 2:10, 11; 9:9, 10) The victory was a great encouragement to Israel and was remembered even many centuries later.​—De 31:4; Ne 9:22; Ps 135:10-12; 136:17-22.

(Oʹhad).

The third-listed son of Simeon. (Ge 46:10; Ex 6:15) His name does not appear as founder of a family in the later registration list.​—Nu 26:12-14.

(Oʹhel) [Tent].

A son of Governor Zerubbabel and descendant of David.​—1Ch 3:19, 20.

(O·hoʹlah) [Her Tent [of Worship]].

Ezekiel chapter 23 depicts Samaria (representing the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel) as the prostitute Oholah, the older sister of Oholibah, representing Jerusalem (the kingdom of Judah). The fact that the ten-tribe kingdom established its own centers of worship may be alluded to by the name Oholah, “Her Tent [of Worship].” Her spiritual prostitution began in Egypt and continued in the Promised Land. In later times it involved her currying the favor of the Assyrians and engaging in degrading idolatrous practices, including child sacrifice. For her unfaithfulness to him, Jehovah delivered Oholah (the northern kingdom) into the hands of the Assyrians, her lovers.

(O·hoʹli·ab) [Father’s Tent; possibly, Father Is My Tent [that is, protection]].

Chief assistant of Bezalel in constructing the tabernacle; of the tribe of Dan, son of Ahisamach. Oholiab was “a craftsman and embroiderer and weaver in the blue thread and the wool dyed reddish purple and coccus scarlet material and fine linen.”​—Ex 31:6; 35:34; 36:1, 2; 38:23.

(O·holʹi·bah) [My Tent [of Worship] Is in Her].

In Ezekiel chapter 23, Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness to Jehovah is portrayed under the allegory of the prostitute Oholibah. The meaning of the name Oholibah seems to allude to the fact that Jehovah’s tent, or sanctuary, was in her territory. (Compare OHOLAH.) However, instead of appreciating this and taking to heart the punishment that came upon her sister Oholah (Samaria) for unfaithfulness, Oholibah not only continued the record of infidelity begun in Egypt but conducted herself even worse than her sister. She practiced idolatry on a large scale and became politically involved with the Assyrians and the Babylonians. Consequently her former lovers, the Babylonians, were foretold to come against her and make her “a frightful object.”

(O·hol·i·baʹmah) [Tent of the High Place].

1. A Canaanite wife of Esau. She bore him three sons, Jeush, Jalam, and Korah, all of whom became sheiks of Edom. Oholibamah was a daughter of Anah and granddaughter of Hivite Zibeon.​—Ge 36:2, 5-8, 14, 18, 25; see ANAH.

2. The designation of an Edomite sheik; some scholars would apply these listed names to places, believing they should read, “the sheik of Oholibamah,” and so forth.​—Ge 36:40, 41; 1Ch 1:51, 52.

The fatty liquid most familiar to the Hebrews was that obtained from olives. Fully ripened black olives gave the most oil, but those yet green, though beginning to change in color, produced the oil of finest quality. After the fruit was carefully removed from the trees, and the twigs and leaves were cleaned from the olives, they were carried to the oil press.

The pulp of the ripe olive berry is about half oil, which varies in grade according to the method of processing the pulp. The very best, called “pure, beaten olive oil,” was produced by a simple process before the olives were put into the press. (Le 24:2) First, the olives were placed in a mortar and beaten until they were well bruised, or they were sometimes trodden by foot. (Mic 6:15) Next, the bruised fruit was transferred to strainer baskets in which it “bled” oil until the “virgin” oil was released. The pure, beaten oil was stored in earthenware jars, and the pulp was moved to the olive press.

A common grade of oil was prepared by thoroughly crushing the olives in a mortar or hand mill. After the oil ran off from the pulp, it was allowed to clarify in clay jars or vats.

The lowest grade of oil was that pressed from the pulp refuse in an olive press after the crushing process. The pulverized mass of pulp was packed into baskets and stacked between the two vertical pillars of the olive press. A weighted lever was applied to the stack of baskets to press out the oil, which was then channeled into large reservoirs for clearing. There, the oil would rise to the surface, separating from the bits of pulp and the water below before it was drawn off into large earthenware jars or special cisterns for storage.​—Compare 2Ch 32:27, 28; see PRESS.

A Symbol of Prosperity. Great prosperity was signified when reference was made to the ‘press vats overflowing with oil.’ (Joe 2:24) Suffering Job longed for his previous days of plenty when “the rock kept pouring out streams of oil” for him. (Job 29:1, 2, 6) Jehovah caused “Jacob,” or the Israelites, figuratively to suck “oil out of a flinty rock,” apparently from olive trees growing in rocky terrain. (De 32:9, 13) Moses declared that Asher would become “one dipping his foot in oil,” indicating that this tribe would enjoy material blessings.​—De 33:24.

An Important Trade and Food Commodity. Olive oil became an important trade commodity in Palestine because of its abundance there. Yearly, Solomon gave King Hiram of Tyre “twenty cor measures [4,400 L; 1,160 gal] of beaten-out oil” as part of a payment for temple construction materials. (1Ki 5:10, 11) Judah and Israel were once Tyre’s “traders” for oil. (Eze 27:2, 17) Perfumed oil and olive oil are also among the items purchased by mystic Babylon the Great from “the traveling merchants” of the earth.​—Re 18:11-13.

Olive oil, a high-energy food and one of the most digestible fats, was a principal food in the Israelite diet, probably in many cases taking the place of butter for table use and for cooking purposes. (De 7:13; Jer 41:8; Eze 16:13) It was a common lamp fuel (Mt 25:1-9), and “pure, beaten olive oil” was burned in the lamps of the golden lampstand in the tent of meeting. (Ex 27:20, 21; 25:31, 37) Oil was used in connection with grain offerings presented to Jehovah. (Le 2:1-7) As a cosmetic it was applied to the body after bathing. (Ru 3:3; 2Sa 12:20) It was considered an act of hospitality to grease the head of a guest with oil. (Lu 7:44-46) Oil was also employed to soften and to soothe bruises and wounds (Isa 1:6), sometimes along with wine.​—Lu 10:33, 34.

Religious Use and Significance. Jehovah commanded Moses to prepare “a holy anointing oil” that contained olive oil and other ingredients. With it, Moses anointed the tabernacle, the ark of the testimony, the various sanctuary utensils, and its furniture. Moses also used it in anointing Aaron and his sons, to sanctify them as priests to Jehovah. (Ex 30:22-33; Le 8:10-12) Kings were anointed with oil, as when Samuel, anointing Saul, “took the flask of oil and poured it out upon his head.” (1Sa 10:1) A horn of oil was used when Solomon was anointed.​—1Ki 1:39.

Foretelling the joy-producing effects of Jesus Christ’s earthly ministry, it was said that he would give “those mourning over Zion . . . the oil of exultation instead of mourning.” (Isa 61:1-3; Lu 4:16-21) It was also prophesied that Jesus would be anointed personally by Jehovah with “the oil of exultation” more than his partners, indicating that he would experience greater joy than his predecessors of the Davidic dynasty.​—Ps 45:7; Heb 1:8, 9; see ANOINTED, ANOINTING.

As the applying of literal oil to one’s head is soothing and refreshing, so also is the application of God’s Word to a spiritually sick person to soothe, correct, comfort, and heal him. Thus, the older men of the Christian congregation are admonished to pray over such a man, figuratively “greasing him with oil in the name of Jehovah,” an essential measure in effecting his spiritual recovery.​—Jas 5:13-15; compare Ps 141:5.

[Heb., ʽets sheʹmen].

The identification of this tree is doubtful. The Hebrew expression indicates a “fatwood” tree, rich in oil or similar substance. It has long been considered to be the oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia), which is a small tree or shrub common in Palestine, bearing gray-green leaves similar to those of the olive tree and producing a fruit from which an oil is obtained, much inferior to the oil of the olive. While its wood is hard and fine-grained, making it suitable for carving, it hardly seems to fit the description given of the ‘oil tree’ at 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33. There it is stated that, in the temple construction, the two cherubs, each standing 4.5 m (14.6 ft) tall, as well as the doors to the Most Holy and the “foursquare” doorposts for the main entrance to the temple, were made of the wood of the ‘oil tree.’ The oleaster seems much too small a plant to fit these requirements adequately.

The King James Version and Revised Standard Version refer to wood of the olive tree at 1 Kings 6:23, and it is suggested that the cherubs may have been constructed of several pieces joined together, since the olive’s short trunk does not provide timbers of great lengths. Still, the fact that the olive tree is alluded to as distinct from the oil tree at Nehemiah 8:15 would seem to rule out this suggestion.

For this reason some scholars recommend the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), which they believe could have been called the oil tree because of its producing tar and turpentine. This lofty pine is one of the most common evergreens in Palestine, and there is evidence to show that the region around Jerusalem once had a sizable forest of it. It grows up to 20 m (66 ft) tall, with smooth gray bark, light-green needles, and reddish-brown cones. Its wood is said to be of a quality approaching that of the cedar. This tree could, therefore, fit the requirements for the temple building; however, in view of the lack of positive evidence, the New World Translation renders the Hebrew expression simply as “oil tree.”

Branches of the oil tree, along with those of the olive, myrtle, and palm, were used in Jerusalem at the Festival of Booths. (Ne 8:15) The oil tree is also one of the trees foretold to grace the wilderness, in Isaiah’s restoration prophecy.​—Isa 41:19.

The Hebrew terms relating to ointments may apply not only to salvelike preparations that liquefy when rubbed on the skin but also to compounded oil preparations that remain liquid at normal temperatures.​—Ex 30:25; Ps 133:2.

In the past as now, ointments were used chiefly as cosmetic and medicinal preparations, their advantage being mainly due to their oil content. The property that fats and oils possess, of absorbing and retaining odors, made it possible for the ointment maker to produce perfumed preparations that were highly prized for their fragrance. (Ca 1:3) The cleansing power and skin-softening characteristic of the oil, plus the fragrance of the additives, made such ointments very useful for the prevention of chafing and skin irritation, and for a body “deodorant” in hot countries where water was often very scarce. Offering guests such a preparation upon their arrival at one’s home was certainly an act of hospitality, as noted by what Jesus said when someone greased his feet with perfumed oil.​—Lu 7:37-46.

When perfumed ointments of special make were used in preparing a corpse for burial, they no doubt served primarily as disinfectants and deodorants. (2Ch 16:14; Lu 23:56) With such usage in mind, Jesus explained that the anointing he received in the house of Simon the leper, which consisted of very costly perfumed oil the scent of which filled the whole house, was in a figurative sense “for the preparation of me for burial.” (Mt 26:6-12; Joh 12:3) Precious perfumes, such as the spikenard used on this occasion, were usually sealed in beautiful alabaster cases or vials.​—Mr 14:3; see ALABASTER.

Holy Anointing Oil and Incense. The first ointment mentioned in the Bible was the holy anointing oil used to sanctify the dedicated articles of the tabernacle and its priesthood. (Ex 30:25-30) Personal use of this special ointment was prohibited, under penalty of death. This law shows the sacredness attached to the tabernacle and its personnel.​—Ex 30:31-33.

Jehovah gave Moses the formula for the holy anointing oil. Only “the choicest perfumes” were to be used: myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, cassia, and the purest olive oil, and each in specified amounts. (Ex 30:22-24) Likewise, Jehovah gave the formula for the holy incense. It was not just a substance that would smolder and smoke; it was a special perfumed incense. (Ex 30:7; 40:27; Le 16:12; 2Ch 2:4; 13:10, 11) To make it, specific amounts of stacte drops, onycha, perfumed galbanum, and pure frankincense were used, God further describing it as “a spice mixture, the work of an ointment maker, salted, pure, something holy.” Some of the incense was finely powdered and was probably sifted to obtain a uniform product, suitable for its special use. Private use was a capital crime.​—Ex 30:34-38.

In making both the anointing oil and holy incense, fragrant balsam oil was used. (Ex 25:6; 35:8, 28) It seems reasonable to assume that the perfume agencies used in making the holy ointment were powdered and then cooked in the oil (compare Job 41:31), after which it was allowed to settle before the oil was drawn off and filtered.

Making the anointing oil and perfumed incense was not a matter of trial and error, for at the outset Jehovah said: “In the heart of everyone wise of heart I do put wisdom, that they may indeed make . . . the anointing oil and the perfumed incense for the sanctuary.” (Ex 31:6-11; 35:10-15; 37:29; 39:33, 38) Thereafter certain ones of the priests were delegated to be ointment makers for the compounding of these materials and also to take the oversight of the supply of such items. (1Ch 9:30; Nu 4:16) However, when Israel fell away from pure worship, Jehovah ceased to take pleasure in the making or using of these special ointments and incenses.​—Isa 1:13.

Economic Value of Ointments and Perfumes. Ointments, perfumes, and incense were not limited to the holy products used in the sanctuary. By Solomon’s day there were “all sorts of perfume” and fragrant powders available for scenting houses, garments, beds, and bodies of royalty and others who could afford them. (Es 2:12; Ps 45:8; Pr 7:17; Ca 3:6, 7; 4:10) Nor was the making of these preparations restricted to the Levitical priesthood. Even women were sometimes skilled ointment makers, and in Nehemiah’s day there was a trade group to which members of the ointment mixers belonged.​—1Sa 8:13; Ne 3:8.

In the ancient world the public interest in perfumed products created commerce and trade not only in such consumer items but also in the raw materials needed to make the same. Besides myrrh especially for ointments, and frankincense for incense, other materials including spikenard, saffron, cane, cinnamon, aloes, cassia, as well as various spices, gums, and aromatic plants, were often transported long distances before reaching the pots and perfumeries of the ointment makers.​—Ca 4:14; Re 18:11, 13.

The Hebrew word za·qenʹ and the Greek word pre·sbyʹte·ros, both meaning “older man,” or “elder,” are used not only to refer to persons of advanced age (Ge 18:11; De 28:50; 1Sa 2:22; 1Ti 5:1, 2) or to the older of two persons (Lu 15:25) but also to apply in a special way to those holding a position of authority and responsibility in a community or nation. The latter sense is the predominant one in both the Hebrew and the Christian Greek Scriptures.

The elderly man customarily was held in esteem from ancient times forward, respected for his experience and knowledge and for the wisdom and sound judgment that such may bring. In many nations people submitted themselves to the direction of their older men, either those who were the elder members of family lines or those who were notable for their qualities of knowledge and wisdom. As a result the expression “older man” had a double sense, applying either in a physical sense or as a designation of position or office. The references to the “older men [“dignitaries,” JB] of the land of Egypt” and to “the older men of Moab and the older men of Midian” do not embrace every aged male of those nations but apply to those serving as a council for directing and guiding national affairs; they were the “princes [Heb., sa·rimʹ; “chieftains,” AT]” of those nations.​—Ge 50:7; Nu 22:4, 7, 8, 13-15; Ps 105:17, 21, 22.

In the same way the expressions “older men of Israel,” “older men of the assembly,” “older men of my people,” “older men of the land,” are used in this official sense, not applying to every aged man of the nation of Israel. (Nu 16:25; Le 4:15; 1Sa 15:30; 1Ki 20:7, 8) In the relatively few cases where zeqe·nimʹ (older men) appears without some qualifying words, the context must be relied on to determine whether the application is merely to aged males or to those in the official capacity of headmen.

Older Men (Elders) of Israel. Already prior to the Exodus, the Israelites had their “older men,” who presented matters to the people, acted as their spokesmen, and reached decisions. When returning to Egypt, Moses was instructed to present his commission to these older men, and these, or at least the principal ones among them, accompanied him when he went in before Pharaoh.​—Ex 3:16, 18.

When Moses, as God’s representative, presented the Law covenant to the nation, it was the official “older men” who represented the people in entering that covenant relationship with Jehovah. (Ex 19:3-8) Some time later, when the Israelites complained about the conditions in the wilderness, Moses, feeling that the administrative burden of the nation was now too great for him, confessed the problem to Jehovah. Then God commanded Moses: “Gather for me seventy men of the older men of Israel, whom you do know that they are older men of the people and officers of theirs, . . . and I shall have to take away some of the spirit that is upon you and place it upon them, and they will have to help you in carrying the load.” (Nu 11:16, 17) These “older men” were appointed theocratically to this service. (Nu 11:24, 25) Jehovah now used them to share the responsibility of leadership and administration with Moses.

In time, the nomadic Israelites conquered the Promised Land and went back to fixed dwellings in towns and cities, as had been their way of life in Egypt. The older men now became responsible for the people on a community level. They acted as a body of overseers for their respective communities, providing judges and officers for the administration of justice and the maintenance of peace, good order, and spiritual health.​—De 16:18-20; 25:7-9; Jos 20:4; Ru 4:1-12.

References to “all Israel, its older men and its heads and its judges and its officers” (Jos 23:2; 24:1), “the older men of Israel and all the heads of the tribes, the chieftains of the paternal houses” (2Ch 5:2), do not mean that the “heads,” “judges,” “officers,” and “chieftains” were distinct from the “older men” but, rather, indicate that those named in such a specific way held singular offices within the body of older men.​—Compare 2Ki 19:2; Mr 15:1.

Those serving as “older men” on a national level are designated by the expressions “older men of Israel” (1Sa 4:3; 8:4), “older men of the land” (1Ki 20:7), “older men of the assembly” (Jg 21:16), or, after the division of the kingdom, “older men of Judah and Jerusalem,” for the southern kingdom.​—2Ki 23:1.

Like many of Israel’s kings and priests, the “older men” on the whole proved unfaithful in their responsibility to God and the people. (1Ki 21:8-14; Eze 7:26; 14:1-3) Because of losing God’s support, ‘boys would become their princes,’ and the ‘lightly esteemed one would storm against the one to be honored.’ (Isa 3:1-5) Thus, the Hebrew Scriptures emphasize that age alone is not sufficient, that “gray-headedness is a crown of beauty” only when “found in the way of righteousness.” (Pr 16:31) It is not “those merely abundant in days that prove wise, nor those just old that understand judgment,” but those who, along with their experience, are guided by God’s spirit and who have gained understanding of his Word.​—Job 32:8, 9; Ps 119:100; Pr 3:5-7; Ec 4:13.

Direction by the body of “older men” continued throughout the history of the nation, even during the Babylonian exile and after the restoration to Judah. (Jer 29:1; Ezr 6:7; 10:7, 8, 14) When Jesus was on earth, “older men” (Gr., pre·sbyʹte·roi) were active in public affairs, both on a community level (Lu 7:3-5) and on a national level. “The assembly of older men” (Gr., pre·sby·teʹri·on) at Jerusalem constituted a major source of opposition to Jesus and his disciples.​—Lu 22:66; Ac 22:5.

Elders in Christian Congregation. Viewed against this background, it is not difficult to understand the references to “older men” (pre·sbyʹte·roi) of the Christian congregation. As in fleshly Israel, so in spiritual Israel, the “older men,” or elders, were those responsible for the direction of the congregation.

On the day of Pentecost, the apostles acted as a body, with Peter serving as spokesman by the operation of God’s outpoured spirit. (Ac 2:14, 37-42) They were clearly “older men” in the spiritual sense by virtue of their early and intimate association with Jesus and their having been personally commissioned by him to teach. (Mt 28:18-20; Eph 4:11, 12; compare Ac 2:42.) The attitude of those becoming believers shows that they acknowledged that the apostles had governing authority in the new nation under Christ (Ac 2:42; 4:32-37; 5:1-11) and had authority to make appointments to service, either directly as a body or through representatives, the apostle Paul being a notable example. (Ac 6:1-6; 14:19-23) When the issue of circumcision came to the fore, “older men” along with the apostles met in assembly to consider the matter. Their decision was made known to congregations in all places and was accepted as authoritative. (Ac 15:1-31; 16:1-5) Thus, even as some “older men” served Israel on a national basis, so it is evident that these “older men” with the apostles formed a governing body for the entire Christian congregation in all lands. At a later date, Paul went to Jerusalem and met with James and “all the older men,” relating to them the results of his work and receiving their counsel on certain matters.​—Ac 21:15-26.

In a few cases the term “older men” is used in contrast with younger men or in parallel with older women with no indication of congregational responsibility being involved. In such cases, the term refers simply to men of mature age. (Ac 2:17, 18; 1Ti 5:1, 2) It is also used to refer to “men of old times.” (Heb 11:2) However, in most cases in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the “older men” were those responsible for the direction of the congregation. In a few texts the “older men” are called “overseers” (Gr., e·piʹsko·poi; ‘bishops,’ KJ). Paul used this term in speaking to the “older men” from the one congregation of Ephesus, and he applied it to such ones in his letter to Titus. (Ac 20:17, 28; Tit 1:5, 7) Both terms, therefore, refer to the same role, pre·sbyʹte·ros indicating the mature qualities of the one so appointed, and e·piʹsko·pos the duties inherent with the appointment.

Regarding the Greek word pre·sbyʹte·ros, Manuel Guerra y Gomez noted: “The precise translation of the term [pre·sbyʹte·ros] in almost the majority of the Hellenistic texts, that have survived until now, is that of older man synonym of mature man. Maturity of judgment and guiding criterion is its distinctive note. . . . Whether or not it has a technical sense the term [pre·sbyʹte·ros] both in the Hellenistic and the Israelite worlds designates, not the ailing elderly, but rather the mature man, suitable by his experience and prudence for the ruling of his family or of his people.”​—Episcopos y Presbyteros, Burgos, Spain, 1962, pp. 117, 257.

That age, in the physical sense of years lived, was a factor for qualifying to serve as an “older man” in ancient Israel is evident. (1Ki 12:6-13) So, too, the “older men,” or overseers, in the Christian congregation were not young men, as is evidenced by the apostle’s reference to their having wives and children. (Tit 1:5, 6; 1Ti 3:2, 4, 5) Nevertheless, physical age was not the sole or primary factor, as is seen by the other qualifications set forth (1Ti 3:2-7; Tit 1:6-9), nor is any specific age level stipulated. Timothy, who had to do with appointing “older men,” was obviously also recognized as one himself, though relatively young.​—1Ti 4:12.

The requirements for the responsibility as an “older man” in the Christian congregation included a high standard of conduct and spirituality. The ability to teach, to exhort, and to reprove played a major part in one’s being accredited as an “older man.” (1Ti 3:2; Tit 1:9) Paul solemnly charged Timothy to “preach the word, be at it urgently in favorable season, in troublesome season, reprove, reprimand, exhort, with all long-suffering and art of teaching.” (2Ti 4:2) As “shepherds,” the “older men” are responsible for the spiritual feeding of the flock, as well as for caring for those spiritually ill and for protecting the flock against wolfish elements. (Ac 20:28-35; Jas 5:14, 15; 1Pe 5:2-4) Additionally, Paul, who had himself been zealous in teaching “publicly and from house to house,” reminded Timothy of his responsibility to “do the work of an evangelizer, fully accomplish your ministry.”​—Ac 20:20; 2Ti 4:5.

Each Christian congregation had its body of “older men,” or “overseers,” these regularly being mentioned in the plural, as at Jerusalem (Ac 11:30; 15:4, 6; 21:18), at Ephesus (Ac 20:17, 28), at Philippi (Php 1:1). “The body of older men” (Gr., pre·sby·teʹri·on) is mentioned with regard to the ‘laying of hands’ on Timothy. (1Ti 4:14) “The older men,” as the overseers of the congregation, ‘presided’ over their brothers.​—Ro 12:8; 1Th 5:12-15; 1Ti 3:4, 5; 5:17.

Paul and Peter, as “older men” with apostolic authority, at times exercised oversight over other “older men” in certain congregations (compare 1Co 4:18-21; 5:1-5, 9-13; Php 1:1; 2:12; 1Pe 1:1; 5:1-5), as did the apostle John and the disciples James and Jude​—all writers of letters to congregations. Paul assigned Timothy and Titus to represent him in certain places. (1Co 4:17; Php 2:19, 20; 1Ti 1:3, 4; 5:1-21; Tit 1:5) In many cases, these men were dealing with newly established congregations of believers; Titus’ commission was to “correct the things that were defective [or wanting, lacking]” in the congregations in Crete.

Paul, Barnabas, Titus, and evidently Timothy are recorded as appointing persons as “older men” in the congregations. (Ac 14:21-23; 1Ti 5:22; Tit 1:5) There is no record of such appointments by the congregations independently. In relating Paul and Barnabas’ revisiting of Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch, Acts 14:23 states that “they appointed older men [Gr., khei·ro·to·neʹsan·tes] for them in each congregation” (“in each of these churches they appointed elders,” JB; “they had appointed elders for them in every church,” RS). Regarding the meaning of the Greek verb khei·ro·to·neʹo, the following remark is found in The Acts of the Apostles, by F. F. Bruce (1970, p. 286): “Although the etymological sense of [khei·ro·to·neʹo] is ‘to elect by show of hands’, it came to be used in the sense ‘designate’, ‘appoint’: cf. the same word with prefix [pro, “before”] in x. 41.” Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon, after first giving common definitions to khei·ro·to·neʹo, says: “later, generally, appoint, . . . appoint to an office in the Church.” (Revised by H. Jones, Oxford, 1968, p. 1986) Likewise, Parkhurst’s Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament (London, 1845, p. 673) says: “With an accusative following, to appoint or constitute to an office, though without suffrages or votes.” The role to which these Christian men were appointed was that of “older man,” or elder, without any supporting votes by others stretching forth their hands.

When writing to Timothy, Paul said: “Let the older men who preside in a fine way be reckoned worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard in speaking and teaching.” (1Ti 5:17) In view of the following verse (18) and also the preceding discussion of honoring widows in a material way (vss 3-16), this “double honor” evidently included material aid.

Who are the “twenty-four elders” on heavenly thrones?

In the book of Revelation, the term pre·sbyʹte·roi occurs 12 times and is applied to spirit creatures. Their surroundings, dress, and actions give a clue as to their identity.

The apostle John had a vision of Jehovah’s throne in heaven, surrounded by 24 lesser thrones upon which were seated 24 elders dressed in white outer garments and having golden crowns upon their heads. (Re 4:1-4) As the vision continued, John saw the 24 elders not only repeatedly falling down in worship before Jehovah’s throne but also taking part in the various features of the vision as it progressed. (Re 4:9-11; 5:4-14; 7:9-17; 14:3; 19:4) Especially were they observed joining in the Kingdom proclamation to the effect that Jehovah had taken up his great power and had begun to rule as king.​—Re 11:15-18.

In ancient Israel, “older men [elders] of Israel” represented and spoke for the entire nation. (Ex 3:16; 19:7) In the same way “elders” may stand for, or represent, the entire congregation of spiritual Israel. Therefore, the 24 elders seated on thrones about God might well represent the entire body of anointed Christians who, proving faithful till death, receive the promised reward of a heavenly resurrection and thrones near that of Jehovah. (Re 3:21) The number 24 is also significant, for this was the number of the divisions into which King David organized the priests to serve at Jerusalem’s temple. The anointed Christians are to be “a royal priesthood.”​—1Pe 2:9; 1Ch 24:1-19; Lu 1:5-23, 57-66; Re 20:6; see OVERSEER.

[Heb., zaʹyith; Gr., e·laiʹa].

The olive tree was unquestionably one of the most valuable plants in Bible times, of equal importance with the vine and the fig tree. (Jg 9:8-13; 2Ki 5:26; Hab 3:17; Jas 3:12) It appears early in the Bible record; following the Flood it was an olive leaf brought back by a dove that indicated to Noah the recession of the waters.​—Ge 8:11.

The olive tree (Olea europaea) thrives on mountain slopes of Galilee and Samaria and up in the central highlands, as well as throughout the entire Mediterranean area. (De 28:40; Jg 15:5) It flourishes in rocky, chalky soil, too dry for many other plants, and it can endure frequent droughts. At the time of the Exodus from Egypt, the Israelites were promised that the land into which they would come was one of “oil olives and honey,” with “vineyards and olive trees that [they] did not plant.” (De 6:11; 8:8; Jos 24:13) Since the olive is a slow-growing tree and may take ten years or more to begin bearing good harvests, the fact that these trees were already growing was a decided advantage for the Israelites. The tree is exceptionally long-lived, producing fruit for hundreds of years, and it is suggested that some of the olive trees in Palestine date back more than 1,000 years.

The olive trees present a refreshing view throughout Palestine, often growing on rocky hillside terraces or carpeting the valley floors. The tree may exceed 6 m (20 ft) in height. The gnarled trunk with its ash-colored bark has a profuse branch system bearing a thick foliage of slender grayish-green leaves. Though not generally thought of by many as being such, the tree is an evergreen. It generally flowers about May and is covered with thousands of pale-yellow blossoms. The ease with which these flowers are blown off is mentioned in the Bible. (Job 15:33) The fruit, or olive berry, is green when immature but ripens into a deep purplish to black color. Harvesting is done in the autumn (October-November), and the ancient method of beating the tree with rods is still frequently employed. (De 24:20; Isa 24:13) In Bible times gleaners gathered the remaining fruit. (Isa 17:6) By nature the tree is an alternately bearing one, that is, its good harvest is followed by a slack one the following year. The fresh fruit contains a bitter substance that is removed by soaking the olives in brine, and the olives are then eaten raw or pickled. Their chief value, however, is in their oil, which composes as much as 30 percent or more (by weight) of the fresh fruit. One good tree can yield from 38 to 57 L (10 to 15 gal) in a year. The wood of the tree is very hard and must be seasoned for years to be of value for woodworking.

The olive tree not only lives for centuries but, if cut down, will send up as many as six new shoots from its roots to develop into new trunks, and aged trees also will often perpetuate themselves in this way. New trees are frequently planted by using slips cut from a grown tree. Thus the psalmist’s illustration is very apt when likening the blessed man’s sons to “slips of olive trees all around your table.”​—Ps 128:3.

Grafting. Wild olive trees growing on hillsides were often subjected to grafting with cuttings from the cultivated productive trees so that they would produce good fruit. It would seem unusual, even unnatural, to graft a wild branch onto a cultivated tree; yet, that is what some farmers did in the first century. Paul referred to this unusual procedure in his illustration at Romans 11:17-24, in which he likened the Gentile Christians who became part of the ‘seed of Abraham’ to branches of a wild olive tree grafted into a cultivated tree to replace the unproductive branches that were broken off and that represented the rejected natural Jewish members removed from the symbolic tree for their lack of faith. (Ga 3:28, 29) This act, “contrary to nature,” emphasizes God’s undeserved kindness toward such Gentile believers, stresses the benefits resulting to them as branches of “a wild olive” in receiving of the “fatness” of the garden olive’s roots, and thus removes any basis for boasting on the part of these Gentile Christians.​—Compare Mt 3:10; Joh 15:1-10; see GRAFTING.

Groves and Presses. Conditions permitting, nearly every village in Palestine had its olive grove. Its failure, as when damaged by its principal enemy, the caterpillar, constituted a grave disaster for the people. (Am 4:9) King David had valued olive groves in the Shephelah region. (1Ch 27:28) The mountain ridge to the E of Jerusalem about “a sabbath day’s journey” distant was noted for its olives in King David’s day and, by Zechariah’s time, was already called “the mountain of the olive trees.” (2Sa 15:30; Zec 14:4; Lu 19:29; 22:39; Ac 1:12) The large number of ancient stone olive presses found throughout Palestine testifies to the extensive cultivation of the tree. The “gardens” of that time were frequently in the nature of an orchard and often contained an olive press. Thus the garden named Gethsemane, to which Jesus retired after his last supper with his disciples, draws its name from an Aramaic term gath shema·nehʹ meaning “an oil press.” Olives were also trodden by foot at times.​—Mic 6:15.

Figurative Use. The olive tree is used figuratively in the Bible as a symbol of fruitfulness, beauty, and dignity. (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16; Ho 14:6) Its branches were among those used in the Festival of Booths. (Ne 8:15; Le 23:40) At Zechariah 4:3, 11-14 and Revelation 11:3, 4, olive trees are used as symbols of God’s anointed ones and witnesses.

A chain of rounded limestone hills located on the eastern side of Jerusalem, “a sabbath day’s journey” away, and separated from the city by the Kidron Valley. (Eze 11:23; Zec 14:4; Ac 1:12) This chain includes three major summits. Mount Scopus, the highest and most northerly, rises to about 820 m (2,700 ft) and, hence, higher than the general elevation of Jerusalem. The so-called Mount of Offense, or Mount of Ruination, is the most southerly of the summits and rises to about 740 m (2,430 ft). The central summit, across from the Temple Mount, is about 812 m (2,664 ft) at its highest point and is the one generally referred to in the Bible as the Mount of Olives. Anciently, this ridge was covered with palm, myrtle, oil, and, particularly, olive trees. (Ne 8:15) From the olive trees this range got its name. During the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., however, the Mount of Olives was denuded of its trees.​—The Jewish War, V, 523 (xii, 4).

Notable events of Bible history are associated with the Mount of Olives. King David, barefoot and weeping, ascended the Mount of Olives as he fled from his rebellious son Absalom. (2Sa 15:14, 30, 32) King Solomon built high places for idolatrous worship there “to the right [south] of the Mount of Ruination,” but King Josiah later made these unfit for worship. (1Ki 11:7; 2Ki 23:13, ftn) In the first century C.E., Jesus Christ often met with his disciples in the garden of Gethsemane, located on or in the vicinity of the Mount of Olives. (Mt 26:30, 36; Joh 18:1, 2) When at Jerusalem, Jesus and his disciples customarily spent the night at Bethany on the E slope of the Mount of Olives, undoubtedly in the home of Martha, Mary, and Lazarus. (Mt 21:17; Mr 11:11; Lu 21:37; Joh 11:1) Apparently from Bethphage, near Bethany, Jesus, seated on the colt of an ass, commenced his triumphal ride over the Mount of Olives to Jerusalem. (Mt 21:1, 2; Mr 11:1; Lu 19:29) And it was on the Mount of Olives that he explained to his disciples what ‘the sign of his presence’ would be. (Mt 24:3; Mr 13:3) Finally, after his resurrection, Jesus ascended from there into the heavens.​—Ac 1:9-12.

(O·lymʹpas).

A Christian at Rome to whom the apostle Paul sent greetings.​—Ro 16:15.

(Oʹmar) [from a root meaning “say”].

Second-listed son of Esau’s firstborn Eliphaz; a sheik of Edom.​—Ge 36:10, 11, 15; 1Ch 1:36.

See ALPHA AND OMEGA.

Anything viewed as giving some indication about the future; a situation or occurrence thought of as portending good or evil. (Ge 30:27; Nu 24:1) Looking for omens, as a form of divination, was specifically prohibited by God’s law to Israel. (Le 19:26; De 18:10) But apostates like Judean King Manasseh did look for omens. (2Ki 17:17; 21:6) Since this practice is condemned in the Scriptures, evidently faithful Joseph’s comment about use of his silver cup to read omens was merely part of a ruse. (Ge 44:5, 15) By making the comment, Joseph represented himself, not as one having faith in Jehovah, but as an administrator of a land where false worship prevailed. He thus gave no hint of having anything in common with his brothers and kept his true identity concealed from them.​—See DIVINATION.

(oʹmer).

A dry measure amounting to one tenth of an ephah. (Ex 16:16, 18, 22, 32, 33, 36) The ephah measure is calculated at 22 L (20 dry qt) on the basis of archaeological evidence concerning the capacity of the corresponding liquid-measure bath. (Compare Eze 45:10, 11.) An omer measure would therefore equal 2.2 L (2 dry qt).

A comparison of the Hebrew text of Exodus 29:40 and Numbers 28:5 reveals that a ‘tenth part’ means a tenth of an ephah, or an omer. This provides a basis for rendering the Hebrew ‘tenth part’ as “tenth of an ephah.”​—Nu 15:4, AT, NW, Ro, JP.

(Omʹri).

1. Fifth listed among the nine sons or descendants of Becher, a son of Benjamin.​—1Ch 7:6, 8.

2. Prince of the tribe of Issachar during David’s reign; son of Michael.​—1Ch 27:18, 22.

3. Sixth king of the northern ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. Nothing of Omri’s ancestry is recorded, not even the name of his father or tribe. Omri founded the third dynasty of Israel (those of Jeroboam and Baasha preceded), his son Ahab and grandsons Ahaziah and Jehoram succeeding him, all four totaling some 46 years (c. 951-905 B.C.E.) on the throne. Omri’s granddaughter Athaliah ruled six years on the throne of Judah. (2Ki 8:26; 11:1-3; 2Ch 22:2) Jehu, who wiped out the house of Ahab and established the next dynasty of Israel, is called a “son [that is, successor] of Omri” on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 281) In fact, the Assyrians continued calling Israel “the land of Omri” and Israel’s kings “the house of Omri” long after his descendants had ceased ruling​—a tribute to his power.

Omri came to the throne, not by inheritance, but by the sword. He had been chief of Israel’s army under King Elah (and perhaps under his predecessor Baasha) when Zimri, chief of half the chariots, overthrew Elah, took the kingship for himself, and wiped out the house and friends of Baasha. As soon as this was reported to the Israelite army, at the time camped against the Philistines at Gibbethon, “all Israel,” doubtless the tribal heads “in the camp,” made Omri their king. At once they withdrew from Gibbethon and stormed Zimri’s capital Tirzah. Zimri, seeing the hopelessness of his cause, burned down the king’s house over himself, tragically ending his seven-day rule.​—1Ki 16:8-20.

But a new rival to Omri presented himself​—Tibni the son of Ginath. The populace remained divided for about four years, during which time civil war presumably raged until Omri’s supporters defeated Tibni’s, securing undisputed rule for Omri. Zimri had died in the 27th year of King Asa of Judah (c. 951 B.C.E.). (1Ki 16:15-18) Finally, in the 31st year of Asa (c. 947 B.C.E.), Tibni died in some unstated way, leaving Omri about eight years of sole rule.​—1Ki 16:21-23, 29; see CHRONOLOGY.

“Mightiness” is attributed to King Omri. (1Ki 16:27) According to lines 4 through 8 of the Moabite Stone, Omri brought Moab into subjection, which domination Ahab continued. (2Ki 3:4) Midway in his reign, Omri wisely moved his capital away from Tirzah, which he had found so easy to capture. He purchased the mountain owned by Shemer, well suited for fortifying, and there he built a new city, Samaria, which was able to withstand long sieges. (1Ki 16:23, 24) Cuneiform inscriptions likewise call him its founder, and it was also his burial place. (1Ki 16:28) In the course of his reign, Omri met with various setbacks, such as having to surrender some cities to the king of Syria (1Ki 20:34) and having to pay tribute to Assyria, he being the first Israelite king to do so.

Religiously, Omri continued the downward trend of the northern kingdom; he continued Jeroboam’s idolatry; in fact, he “kept doing what was bad in the eyes of Jehovah and came to do worse than all who were prior to him.” (1Ki 16:25, 26) Some 200 years later, through Micah, Jehovah condemned Israel for following “the statutes of Omri.”​—Mic 6:16.

4. A Judahite whose descendant lived in Jerusalem following the Babylonian exile.​—1Ch 9:3, 4.

The name of a person and a place.

1. [Generative Power; Dynamic Energy]. A son of Peleth; a principal man of the tribe of Reuben. (Nu 16:1) He was among those raising a protest against Moses and Aaron, but his name does not appear among the rebels in their later speeches to Moses or when they were punished by Jehovah with destruction. (Nu 16:2, 3, 12-14, 23-35) This may be due to his playing a very subordinate part in the rebellion, or it may even indicate that he withdrew from it following Moses’ initial rebuking of the conspirators.

2. An ancient and renowned city in Egypt, located a short distance NE of Cairo, on the E bank of the Nile and near the point where the river’s waters divide to begin the formation of the Delta region. In Egyptian records the city’s name was written as Junu, while Assyro-Babylonian records mention it as Ana or Unu. The Egyptian name is thought to mean “City of the Pillar,” perhaps referring to the obelisks (tall, tapering columns topped by a pyramid-shaped point) for which the city was famous; or the name may relate to the sacred stone (called the benben) connected with the worship of the sun-god Ra (Re). The Greeks called the city Heliopolis, meaning “City of the Sun,” because it was the chief center of Egyptian sun worship.

On first appears in the Bible record as the city of the priest Potiphera, whose daughter Asenath was given to Joseph as his wife. (Ge 41:45, 50) The name Potiphera itself includes the name of Ra the sun-god.

In course of time the priesthood of On became very wealthy, rivaling the priesthood of Memphis in this respect and being surpassed only by the priesthood of Thebes (Biblical No-amon). Connected with its temple to the sun, a school was operated for training priests and for the teaching of medicine. Greek philosophers and scholars were drawn there to learn the priestly theology, and On became celebrated as a center of Egyptian wisdom.

The prophet Jeremiah was inspired to foretell that King Nebuchadnezzar would overrun Egypt and “break to pieces the pillars of Beth-shemesh, which is in the land of Egypt.” (Jer 43:10-13) Beth-shemesh corresponds somewhat to the Greek name Heliopolis and means “House of the Sun.” Hence the reference here is likely to the city of On, and “the pillars” that were to be broken may well refer to the many obelisks around the temple of the sun.

Ezekiel’s prophecy contains a similar warning. (Eze 30:10, 17) Here the Hebrew vowel pointing of the name varies from that of Genesis so that the name literally is Aven (Heb., ʼaʹwen). Some scholars suggest that this was done as a play on words, since Aven means “Hurtfulness; Something Hurtful,” and On was a center of idolatry.

This may also be the case at Isaiah 19:18, where the Masoretic text refers to one of the “five cities in the land of Egypt speaking the language of Canaan and swearing to Jehovah” as “The City of Tearing Down [Heb., ʽIr ha-Heʹres].” The Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah has ʽIr ha-Cheʹres, meaning “City of the Sun,” thus pointing to On (Heliopolis). Here again there may be an intentional play on words, Heʹres (tearing down) being substituted for Cheʹres (another Hebrew word for “sun,” less common than sheʹmesh) in view of Jehovah’s intention to destroy the idolatrous city of On. The paraphrase of this portion of the verse found in the Aramaic Targums reads: “(City of) the House of the Sun, which is to be destroyed.”

Besides the foretold destructive invasion by Nebuchadnezzar, On (Heliopolis) evidently suffered a further blow when Cambyses II conquered Egypt (according to Strabo, Greek geographer who lived near the start of the Common Era). (Geography, 17, I, 27) By Strabo’s time Heliopolis had lost its position of importance and was partially deserted. Today, the village called Al-Matariya occupies part of the ancient site, and all that remains there of the earlier splendor is a single obelisk of red granite dating from the reign of Sesostris I. Other obelisks from Heliopolis are now to be found in New York, London, and Rome.

(Oʹnam) [from a root meaning “generative power; dynamic energy”].

1. Last of the five listed sons of Horite sheik Shobal, and grandson of the Horites’ forefather Seir.​—Ge 36:20, 21, 23; 1Ch 1:40.

2. A son of Jerahmeel and a link in the Jerahmeelite genealogy in the tribe of Judah; his mother’s name was Atarah.​—1Ch 2:26, 28.

(Oʹnan) [from a root meaning “generative power; dynamic energy”].

A son of Judah, his second by the Canaanite daughter of Shua. (Ge 38:2-4; 1Ch 2:3) After Onan’s childless older brother Er was put to death by Jehovah for wrongdoing, Onan was told by Judah to perform brother-in-law marriage with Er’s widow Tamar. If a son was produced, he would not be the founder of Onan’s family, and the firstborn’s inheritance would belong to him as an heir to Er; whereas if no heir came, Onan would get the inheritance for himself. When Onan had relations with Tamar, he “wasted his semen on the earth” instead of giving it to her. This was not an act of masturbation on the part of Onan, for the account says “when he did have relations with his brother’s wife” he spilled his semen. Apparently it was a case of “coitus interruptus,” in which Onan purposely prevented ejaculation of his semen into Tamar’s genital tract. For his disobedience to his father, his covetousness, and his sin against the divine arrangement of marriage, not for self-abuse, Onan, himself also childless, was put to death by Jehovah.​—Ge 38:6-10; 46:12; Nu 26:19.

(O·nesʹi·mus) [Profitable].

A runaway slave whom Paul helped to become a Christian. Onesimus had been a servant of Philemon, a Colossian Christian, but had run away from Colossae to Rome. He may even have first robbed his master in order to make the journey. (Col 4:9; Phm 18) It is quite possible that he had met or at least heard of Paul through Philemon; for, though no visit of Paul to Colossae on the missionary tours is specifically mentioned, Paul did travel through the general area and was acquainted with Philemon. (Ac 18:22, 23; Phm 5, 19, 22) At any rate, in some unstated way, Onesimus became associated with Paul in Rome, and he soon became a Christian. (Phm 10) In great contrast with his former uselessness to Philemon as a slave, he now became most useful to Paul as a minister, a “faithful and beloved brother” whom Paul calls “my own tender affections.”​—Col 4:9; Phm 11, 12.

Nonetheless, Onesimus was still a runaway slave, and the social order of the day obliged Paul to send him back to his owner, though with reluctance in view of how good a companion he had become. The apostle, however, had no way of forcing Onesimus to make the return, so it depended on and resulted from Onesimus’ own willingness to go. In dispatching Onesimus, Paul arranged for Tychicus to accompany him and for the two to carry a letter and a report to Colossae. (Col 4:7-9) Additionally, Paul gave Onesimus his letter to Philemon, even though it was late enough in his imprisonment that Paul was expecting release and looking forward to visiting Philemon personally. (Phm 22) This latter letter might be termed one of reintroduction and recommendation for Onesimus, in which Paul assured Philemon of the good Christian ministry and new personality of Onesimus, and in which he pleaded that the reunion be more like that of two Christians than that of a slave and his master. Paul asked that any outstanding debt that Onesimus owed Philemon be charged to the apostle’s account. (Phm 12-22) Incidentally, in the letter to the Colossians that Onesimus and Tychicus were carrying, Paul dealt with the Christian principles governing the relationship of slave and master.​—Col 3:22–4:1.

(On·e·siphʹo·rus) [Profit Bearer].

A Christian referred to in Paul’s second letter to Timothy. (2Ti 4:19) In contrast with others in the district of Asia who turned away from Paul, Onesiphorus remained a loyal supporter and, when in Rome, diligently hunted to find Paul in spite of the risk to himself. He was not ashamed of Paul’s prison bonds but rendered the apostle good service, as he had done in Ephesus. Paul greatly appreciated this loyalty and prayed that Onesiphorus and his household would receive of Jehovah’s mercy.​—2Ti 1:15-18.

The fact that Paul sent greetings to the household of Onesiphorus rather than to Onesiphorus himself (2Ti 4:19) does not necessarily indicate that he was no longer alive, though such might be true. He may simply have been away from his family at the time or may even be included in the general greeting sent to his household of believers.

[Heb., ba·tsalʹ].

A strong-tasting bulbous biennial having slender tubelike leaves. The onion (Allium cepa) was one of the items of diet for which the mixed crowd and the Israelites yearned in the wilderness after being liberated from Egypt. (Nu 11:4, 5) In that land of Israel’s captivity, onions were extensively cultivated. The Greek historian Herodotus (II, 125) even tells of an inscription that listed onions among the foods provided for the laborers on a certain Egyptian pyramid. In Egypt, onions, usually tied together in a bundle, were offered to the deities, although the priests were not permitted to eat them. The onions of Egypt have been described as soft, and therefore more easily digestible than other varieties, as well as sweet tasting rather than sharp, or acrid.

The Greek word mo·no·ge·nesʹ is defined by lexicographers as “single of its kind, only,” or “the only member of a kin or kind.” (Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 1889, p. 417; Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford, 1968, p. 1144) The term is used in describing the relation of both sons and daughters to their parents.

The Scriptures speak of “the only-begotten son” of a widow who lived in the city of Nain, of Jairus’ “only-begotten daughter,” and of a man’s “only-begotten” son whom Jesus cured of a demon. (Lu 7:11, 12; 8:41, 42; 9:38) The Greek Septuagint uses mo·no·ge·nesʹ when speaking of Jephthah’s daughter, concerning whom it is written: “Now she was absolutely the only child. Besides her he had neither son nor daughter.”​—Jg 11:34.

The apostle John repeatedly describes the Lord Jesus Christ as the only-begotten Son of God. (Joh 1:14; 3:16, 18; 1Jo 4:9) This is not in reference to his human birth or to him as just the man Jesus. As the Loʹgos, or Word, “this one was in the beginning with God,” even “before the world was.” (Joh 1:1, 2; 17:5, 24) At that time while in his prehuman state of existence, he is described as the “only-begotten Son” whom his Father sent “into the world.”​—1Jo 4:9.

He is described as having “a glory such as belongs to an only-begotten son from a father,” the one residing “in the bosom position with the Father.” (Joh 1:14, 18) It is hard to think of a closer, more confidential, or more loving and tender relationship between a father and his son than this.​—See BOSOM POSITION.

The angels of heaven are sons of God even as Adam was a “son of God.” (Ge 6:2; Job 1:6; 38:7; Lu 3:38) But the Loʹgos, later called Jesus, is “the only-begotten Son of God.” (Joh 3:18) He is the only one of his kind, the only one whom God himself created directly without the agency or cooperation of any creature. He is the only one whom God his Father used in bringing into existence all other creatures. He is the firstborn and chief one among all other angels (Col 1:15, 16; Heb 1:5, 6), which angels the Scriptures call “godlike ones” or “gods.” (Ps 8:4, 5) Therefore, according to some of the oldest and best manuscripts, the Lord Jesus Christ is properly described as “the only-begotten god [Gr., mo·no·ge·nesʹ the·osʹ].”​—Joh 1:18, NW, Ro, Sp.

A few translations, in support of the Trinitarian “God the Son” concept, would invert the phrase mo·no·ge·nesʹ the·osʹ and render it as “God only begotten.” But W. J. Hickie in his Greek-English Lexicon to the New Testament (1956, p. 123) says it is hard to see why these translators render mo·no·ge·nesʹ hui·osʹ as “the only begotten Son,” but at the same time translate mo·no·ge·nesʹ the·osʹ as “God only begotten,” instead of “the only begotten God.”

Paul referred to Isaac as Abraham’s “only-begotten son” (Heb 11:17), even though Abraham also fathered Ishmael by Hagar as well as several sons by Keturah. (Ge 16:15; 25:1, 2; 1Ch 1:28, 32) God’s covenant, however, was established only through Isaac, Abraham’s only son by God’s promise, as well as the only son of Sarah. (Ge 17:16-19) Furthermore, at the time Abraham offered up Isaac, he was the only son in his father’s household. No sons had yet been born to Keturah, and Ishmael had been gone for some 20 years​—no doubt was married and head of his own household.​—Ge 22:2.

So from several viewpoints in regard to the promise and the covenant, the things about which Paul was writing to the Hebrews, Isaac was Abraham’s only-begotten son. Hence, Paul parallels “the promises” and the “only-begotten son” with “‘your seed’ . . . through Isaac.” (Heb 11:17, 18) Whether Josephus had a similar viewpoint or not, he too spoke of Isaac as Abraham’s “only son.”​—Jewish Antiquities, I, 222 (xiii, 1).

(Oʹno).

A city built evidently by the Benjamite Shemed, ‘son’ of Elpaal. (1Ch 8:1, 12) After the Babylonian exile Ono was reoccupied by Benjamites. (Ezr 2:1, 33; Ne 7:6, 37; 11:31, 35) Kafr ʽAna (Ono), about 11 km (7 mi) ESE of Joppa, is identified with the ancient site. This location is just a few kilometers from the suggested sites of ancient Lod and Hadid. “The valley plain of Ono” (Ne 6:2) possibly denotes the wide valley in which Kafr ʽAna lies. This “valley plain” has also been associated with “the valley of the craftsmen [geh ha·chara·shimʹ].” (Ne 11:35) But some scholars understand the Hebrew geh ha·chara·shimʹ to designate another location and transliterate it as a proper name, “Ge-harashim.”​—JP; compare 1Ch 4:14.

(onʹy·cha).

An ingredient of the incense designated exclusively for sanctuary use. (Ex 30:34-37) Some believe that onycha may have been derived from the closing valves of certain shellfish. However, since this ingredient was used for a sacred purpose, others consider it to have been a vegetable product instead of something obtained from an unclean animal.

A semiprecious gemstone, a hard variety of agate; the term also applies to a banded form of chalcedony. The onyx has white layers alternating with black, brown, red, gray, or green. The pale color produced by the combination of the red layers showing through the translucent white layers of this stone evidently reminded the Greeks of the fingernail, which in Greek is oʹnyx. From early times, onyx has been prized for ornaments, rings, and beads. The varicolored layers made it especially popular for cameo work.

The “land of Havilah” was a prominent source of onyx in early Bible times. (Ge 2:11, 12) Onyx stones were among the valuables contributed for the making of things associated with Israel’s tabernacle. (Ex 25:1-3, 7) “The names of the sons of Israel . . . in the order of their births” were engraved upon two onyx stones (six names on each stone) placed upon the shoulder pieces of the high priest’s ephod “as memorial stones for the sons of Israel.” Another onyx stone was engraved with the name of one of the 12 tribes of Israel and was set in the center position of the fourth row of stones on the high priest’s “breastpiece of judgment.”​—Ex 28:9-12, 15-21; 35:5, 9, 27; 39:6-14.

Later, David personally prepared many valuable things, including onyx stones, for the construction of the prospective temple at Jerusalem. (1Ch 29:2) Onyx was also among the precious stones serving as a figurative “covering” for “the king of Tyre” in the dirge recorded by Ezekiel. (Eze 28:12, 13) Recognizing wisdom’s value, Job stated that with “the rare onyx stone” and other precious things one could not buy priceless, godly wisdom.​—Job 28:12, 16.

(Oʹphel) [Mound [that is, bulge, swelling, projection, eminence]].

The Hebrew term ʽOʹphel is applied in two ways. Most commonly, it is applied in a topographical sense to a prominent hill or promontory. A form of the term is also applied to the swelling or bulging of body veins known as piles, or hemorrhoids.​—De 28:27; 1Sa 5:6, 9, 12; 6:4, 5.

There was a particular hill or eminence located at or near Jerusalem that was called ha·ʽOʹphel, or Ophel. The Scriptural indications taken with the comments of Josephus locate Ophel at the SE corner of Moriah. (2Ch 27:3; 33:14; Ne 3:26, 27; 11:21) In the first century C.E., Josephus placed Ophel where the eastern wall “joined the eastern portico of the temple.” (The Jewish War, V, 145 [iv, 2]) Ophel evidently was the bulge of land extending eastwardly from the SE corner of Jerusalem’s temple hill.

Ophel’s wall and elevated position over the Kidron Valley gave it a strong defensive position. Nevertheless, Isaiah prophesied that “Ophel,” apparently that of Jerusalem, would become a ‘bare field.’​—Isa 32:14; compare the reference to the tower and “mound” (ʽOʹphel) at Mic 4:8.

Scholars believe that the term ʽOʹphel at 2 Kings 5:24 refers to some prominent hill or fortified place in the vicinity of Samaria to which Elisha’s attendant Gehazi took the riches he obtained from Naaman. This indicates that the word was applied to mounds other than the one in Jerusalem.

(Oʹphir).

1. A descendant of Shem through Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, and Joktan; the 11th of Joktan’s 13 sons. (Ge 10:22-29; 1Ch 1:17-23) Ophir was probably born about 200 years before Abraham, who was a descendant of his paternal uncle Peleg. (Ge 10:25; 11:18-26) As in the case of his brothers, it appears that Ophir also headed one of the Semite tribes that were numbered among the descendants of Noah “according to their families, according to their tongues, in their lands, according to their nations.” (Ge 10:31, 32) See No. 2 for possible locations of the land of Ophir in which this tribe eventually settled.

2. A place renowned as a source of much gold of the finest quality. Thus already in Job’s time (c. 1600 B.C.E.) “precious ore in the dust” and “pure gold” were spoken of in parallel with the “gold of Ophir.” (Job 22:24; 28:15, 16) Psalm 45:9 describes the queenly consort arrayed in precious gold of Ophir, and at Isaiah 13:11, 12, in the pronouncement against Babylon, the relative rarity of Ophir gold is used to symbolize the scarcity of tyrannical men in Babylon after its fall.

David donated 3,000 talents of gold from Ophir for construction of the temple, gold valued at $1,156,050,000. (1Ch 29:1, 2, 4) Later, the trading fleet of David’s son Solomon brought back from Ophir 420 talents of gold. (1Ki 9:26-28) The parallel account at 2 Chronicles 8:18 reads 450 talents. Some scholars have suggested that this difference came about when letters of the alphabet served as figures​—that an ancient copyist could have mistaken the Hebrew numeral letter nun (נ), representing 50, for the letter kaph (כ), standing for 20, or vice versa. However, the evidence is that all numbers in the Hebrew Scriptures were spelled out, rather than represented by letters. A more probable explanation, therefore, is that both figures are correct and that the gross amount brought was 450 talents, of which 420 were clear gain.

In 1946, as confirmation of these Biblical accounts about imports of gold from Ophir, a potsherd was unearthed NE of Tel Aviv-Yafo. Thereon was an inscription saying “Ophir gold to bet horon, thirty shekels.”​—Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1951, Vol. X, pp. 265, 266.

In addition to being a source of a vast quantity of gold, the land of Ophir was also a source of the “algum” trees and precious stones imported by Solomon. (1Ki 10:11; 2Ch 9:10) However, when King Jehoshaphat, a hundred years later, attempted an expedition to that land, it ended in disaster, his “Tarshish ships” being wrecked at Ezion-geber at the head of the Gulf of ʽAqaba.​—1Ki 22:48; see TARSHISH No. 4.

Location. The precise location of Ophir cannot be determined today with certainty. Of the several suggestions in this regard, three are particularly favored: India, Arabia, and NE Africa​—all being within reach of a fleet operating out of Ezion-geber at the head of the eastern arm of the Red Sea. In regard to India, all the goods brought back in the ships of Solomon and Hiram were available there. Josephus, Jerome, and the Septuagint could also be marshaled to give some support to Ophir’s being in India. On the other hand, those maintaining that Ophir was in the region of NE Africa in the vicinity of Somalia, at the lower extremity of the Red Sea, point out that it would have been a much closer source of supply for all the imported items than India.

However, the weight of opinion appears to support the conclusion that Ophir was a region in SW Arabia in the vicinity of Yemen. Evidence offered for this view is based on the premise that the descendants of Joktan’s son Ophir settled in the Arabian Peninsula along with such brother tribes as the descendants of Sheba and Havilah. (Ge 10:28, 29) The account of the visit of the queen of Sheba (likely from southern Arabia) is sandwiched in between two references to Solomon’s trade with Ophir.​—1Ki 9:26–10:11.

(Ophʹni).

A city of Benjamin (Jos 18:21, 24), commonly linked with the Gophna mentioned by Josephus (The Jewish War, III, 55 [iii, 5]) and considered to be modern Jifna. This site is about 5 km (3 mi) NNW of Bethel and therefore seemingly N of Benjamite territory. (Jos 18:11-13) For the identification to be correct, it must be assumed either that Ophni was a Benjamite enclave city in Ephraim or that the Benjamite boundary extended northward near Bethel to include this suggested site of Ophni.

(Ophʹrah).

1. [Young One [of the Stags]]. A descendant of Judah through Meonothai.​—1Ch 4:1, 14.

[2, 3: possibly, Place of Dust]

2. A city of Benjamin. (Jos 18:21, 23) Its relative location may be deduced from the narrative about Israel’s encounters with the Philistines during Saul’s reign. From their camp at Michmash, bands of Philistine pillagers sallied forth in three different directions. One band turned to the road to Ophrah. Another went westward on the road to Beth-horon, while yet another traveled eastward on “the road to the boundary that looks toward the valley of Zeboim.” Since at least part of the Israelite army was encamped at Geba to the S of Michmash, apparently the Philistine band taking the road to Ophrah went northward. Accordingly, this would place Ophrah to the N of Michmash.​—1Sa 13:16-18.

Scholars often equate Ophrah with the city called Ephraim (2Sa 13:23; Joh 11:54) and Ephrain (2Ch 13:19), thought to be represented by et-Taiyiba (c. 6 km [3.5 mi] ENE of Bethel).

3. The home of Gideon and the place where Jehovah’s angel commissioned him to save Israel out of Midian’s palm. (Jg 6:11-32) After his victory over the enemy forces, Gideon made an ephod from the contributed spoils and exhibited it at Ophrah. Subsequently this ephod became an object of idolatrous veneration. (Jg 8:24-27) Later, after Gideon’s death and burial at Ophrah, his ambitious son Abimelech “killed his brothers . . . seventy men, upon one stone, but Jotham the youngest . . . was left over.” (Jg 8:32; 9:5) Not counting Abimelech, Gideon had 70 sons. (Jg 8:30, 31) Therefore, since Jotham escaped the slaughter, apparently Abimelech killed only 69 sons at Ophrah. Jotham’s later words concerning the incident merely appear to point to Abimelech’s intention to kill all 70 sons. (Jg 9:18) However, as a Jewish commentary fittingly observes: “It is still correct to speak in round numbers of ‘seventy’ slain.”​—Soncino Books of the Bible, edited by A. Cohen, London, 1950 (Joshua and Judges, p. 234).

This Ophrah apparently lay W of the Jordan. It is tentatively identified with el-ʽAffuleh (ʽAfula), about 45 km (28 mi) N of Shechem.

(Oʹreb) [Raven].

1. A prince of Midian. Oreb and Zeeb were in the Midianite army of Kings Zebah and Zalmunna that Gideon and his 300 put to flight. The two princes were captured and put to death by men of Ephraim, and their heads were brought to Gideon.​—Jg 7:24, 25; 8:3-5; Ps 83:11.

2. The rock where Midianite prince Oreb was executed and that came to bear his name. Its location is unknown.​—Jg 7:25; Isa 10:26.

(Oʹren).

A son of Jerahmeel in the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 2:25.

(Ori·enʹtals).

The populace of those lands viewed by Hebrew writers as “the East.” This area was beyond the boundary of Israel not only to the east but also well up to the northeast and to the southeast into Arabia. (Ge 25:6; Jer 49:28) Thus, when Jacob went to Laban’s household at Haran, he went “to the land of the Orientals,” NE of Canaan.​—Ge 29:1.

Job is called “the greatest of all the Orientals [literally, sons of the East].” (Job 1:3, ftn) The forces that oppressed Israel before Gideon rose up and vanquished them were comprised of Amalekites and Midianites in addition to “the Easterners,” otherwise unidentified. (Jg 6:3, 33; 7:12; 8:10) The Orientals, noted for their wisdom, were, however, surpassed in this respect by Solomon. (1Ki 4:30) The so-called wise men, or Magi, who visited the young child Jesus were “astrologers from eastern parts.”​—Mt 2:1, 2, 11.

An adornment, not always essential in itself, but meant to enhance the appearance of something. Ornaments were used especially by women but also by men; they were used to decorate buildings; at times, they were put on animals.

Bible references and the evidence unearthed by archaeologists reveal not only an interest in ornamentation from very ancient times but also great ability and skill in producing ornamentation of high artistic caliber. Artisans did highly decorative work in weaving, in embroidery, in carving wood and ivory, and in metalworking. The remains of palaces in Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and the city of Mari all give evidence of rich decorating, with large murals on interior walls and finely carved bas-reliefs depicting scenes of war, hunting, and palace affairs, to adorn both inner and outer walls. Palace doorways were often guarded by great figures of mighty beasts. The representations of the king and others in the reliefs reveal fine embroidery on their garments. Even the gear of the horses is highly decorated with tassels and engravings. (Compare the necklaces of the Midianites’ camels; Jg 8:21, 26.) Tomb paintings provide the principal source of evidence from Egypt, although some artifacts in the form of throne chairs, royal chariots, and other items have survived.

Hebrew and Christian. Early mention is made of jewelry in the form of a gold nose ring and also bracelets given to Rebekah by Abraham’s servant. (Ge 24:22, 30, 47, 53) Joseph, upon becoming Pharaoh’s prime minister, received a gold necklace and the monarch’s own signet ring. (Ge 41:41-43) Such signet rings, or seal rings, were common in all the Bible lands, frequently being worn on a cord around the neck. (Compare Ge 38:18.) They served to affix the signature, or official seal, of the individual to documents and hence, if granted to another person to carry, identified him as a bona fide and authorized representative of the ring’s owner.

At the Exodus, the Israelites obtained many silver and gold articles from the Egyptians, and doubtless from these came many of the brooches, earrings, rings, and other items they contributed for the preparation of the tabernacle, even as they had wrongly contributed gold earrings for the forming of an idolatrous calf. (Ex 12:35, 36; 32:1-4; 35:20-24) The tabernacle and its equipment saw much work by artisans skilled in woodworking and working with precious metals and gems as well as weaving and embroidery. (Ex 35:25-35) The later temple by Solomon was even more gloriously adorned. Its cedarwood panels, as well as its doors of oil-tree and juniper wood, were carved with such figures as gourd-shaped ornaments, garlands of blossoms, cherubs, and palm-tree figures and were overlaid with gold; while the two copper pillars in front of the structure had network, chainwork, pomegranates, and lily work adorning their capitals. (1Ki 6:18, 29, 35; 7:15-22) Solomon showed great appreciation for artistic beauty, and his great ivory throne overlaid with gold, with lion figures alongside each arm and 12 more on the six steps before it, was unique in the ancient world.​—1Ki 10:16-21.

The Bible lays greater emphasis, however, on spiritual beauty. Parental discipline is “a wreath of attractiveness” to one’s head “and a fine necklace” for the throat; wisdom is “a crown of beauty”; “lips of knowledge are precious vessels” superior to any gold vases of an artisan; “as apples of gold in silver carvings is a word spoken at the right time for it,” and “an earring of gold, and an ornament of special gold, is a wise reprover upon the hearing ear.” (Pr 1:9; 4:9; 20:15; 25:11, 12) A pretty woman lacking sensibleness is likened to “a gold nose ring in the snout of a pig.”​—Pr 11:22.

Moderation is encouraged, particularly in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Women were “to adorn themselves in well-arranged dress, with modesty and soundness of mind, not with styles of hair braiding and gold or pearls or very expensive garb, but in the way that befits women professing to reverence God, namely, through good works.” (1Ti 2:9, 10) Peter could call upon examples of pre-Christian times in urging that women seek the beauty of “the secret person of the heart in the incorruptible apparel of the quiet and mild spirit, which is of great value in the eyes of God”; he pointed to women such as Sarah who so adorned themselves, “subjecting themselves to their own husbands.” (1Pe 3:1-6) Thus, if followed, the Scriptures provide the guide to a proper evaluation of ornamentation and jewelry and good balance in its use.

Ornamentation in Prophecy. Because of his blessing upon Jerusalem, Jehovah likened this capital of Judah to a woman clothed with costly garments, richly ornamented and bejeweled. Her loss of spirituality and her spiritual prostitution with the nations led to her being stripped of her adornments and left as if naked. (Eze 16:2, 10-39) Such stripping came not only in a spiritual way but also literally as her greedy conquerors took the city’s wealth, including the bangles, headbands, moon-shaped ornaments, eardrops, bracelets, veils, headdresses, step chains, breastbands, “houses of the soul” (probably referring to perfume receptacles), ornamental humming shells (charms), finger and nose rings that “the daughters of Zion” had worn. (Isa 3:16-26) It would be a time of mourning, for in mourning, ornaments were customarily removed.​—Ex 33:4-6.

However, when Jehovah repurchased Zion from Babylonian exile, he would figuratively build her with a sapphire foundation, with battlements of rubies and gates of fiery glowing stones, this because of the peace and righteousness he would bring (Isa 54:7, 8, 11-14), and she would be clothed with bridelike attire and ornaments. (Isa 49:14-18; compare 61:10.) This latter picture resembles somewhat the description of the New Jerusalem with its pearl gates and gemlike foundations, and its being prepared as “a bride adorned for her husband.” (Re 21:2, 9-21) Again, it is evident that the ornaments and adornment relate to spiritual qualities and blessings that result from God’s approval and favor.

By contrast, Babylon the Great, the symbolic woman committing fornication with the kings of the earth, decks herself with royal garb and ornaments and lives in shameless luxury, but is to be stripped of all her gorgeous finery, made naked, and destroyed. Her beauty is false, and she ‘glorifies herself’; hence her ornamentation does not represent divine blessing and favor but, rather, her own pretenses and the benefits her harlotlike course pays her in the way of power and wealth.​—Re 17:3-5, 16; 18:7-20.

See ANKLET; BEADS; BRACELET; BROOCH; EARRING; JEWELS AND PRECIOUS STONES; NECKLACE; NOSE RING; RING.

(Orʹnan).

A Jebusite from whom David bought the threshing floor that later became the site for the temple. (1Ch 21:18-28; 2Ch 3:1) Ornan is also called Araunah.​—See ARAUNAH.

(Orʹpah).

The Moabite wife of Chilion, and like Ruth, a daughter-in-law of Naomi. (Compare Ru 1:3-5 with 4:10.) After the husbands of all three died, the childless widows, Naomi, Orpah, and Ruth, began the journey from Moab to Bethlehem. At a certain point Naomi urged her two daughters-in-law to go back to their mothers’ homes and marry in Moab, but they both kept saying to Naomi, “No, but with you we shall return to your people.” Orpah had dealt kindly with her mother-in-law, for whom she evidently felt considerable affection. (Ru 1:8-10) Her inclination to continue on with Naomi may have been in part the result of having enjoyed life in an Israelite family. But Naomi now stressed the strong probability that for these two Moabite widows to continue with her might mean a life of widowhood in Judah, inasmuch as Naomi had little hope of remarrying so as to bring forth sons, and even should this happen, she was sure that Orpah and Ruth would not want to wait until such sons matured so that they might perform levirate marriage toward these Moabite widows. Orpah’s affection and appreciation were not enough to keep her going along in the face of such a possible future, and after much weeping, she bade farewell to Naomi and Ruth and returned “to her people and her gods.”​—Ru 1:3-15.

See FATHERLESS BOY.

[Heb., peʹres].

One of “the flying creatures” decreed as unclean and not to be eaten, according to the Law covenant. (Le 11:13; De 14:12) Its Hebrew name (peʹres) literally means “the breaker.” Understanding this to refer to the breaking of bones by a bird of prey, the King James Version renders peʹres as “ossifrage,” a name derived from Latin and meaning “bone-breaker.” Others understand the Hebrew name to indicate a bird “tearing its prey” apart, and hence not necessarily denoting a breaker of bones.

The osprey (Pandion haliaëtus) appears to be related to the hawk but with certain distinct features, including feet with some similarity to those of the owl. The osprey’s head and beak resemble those of the hawk, the body and wings are dark brown above and the underparts are white with streaks of brown. Measuring about 65 cm (26 in.) in length, it has a wingspan of nearly 1.8 m (6 ft). The osprey is found throughout the world, living near large bodies of water, where it feeds on fish that swim near the surface. The bird glides almost effortlessly above the water, wheeling gracefully and hovering until it locates its prey. Then it plunges swiftly downward, striking the water forcefully feet first, at times disappearing beneath the surface. It is admirably equipped for this type of attack, having dense compact plumage on its underparts to withstand some of the impact of hitting the water, and long, curved, very sharp claws that extend out from rough toes, enabling the bird to get a firm grip on its slippery prey. Observers say that in flying with the fish to shore to devour it, the osprey always grips the fish so that its head faces forward, thereby reducing air resistance. The osprey is fairly common on the coast and islands of southern Sinai.

Other suggestions for the bird designated by the Hebrew peʹres include the sea eagle (Haliaëtus albicilla, distinct from the osprey) and the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), a vulture known to carry bones and tortoises to some height and then drop them on rocks in order to break them open.

[Heb., bath hai·ya·ʽanahʹ; rena·nimʹ (plural)].

The first of these Hebrew names is understood to mean either “daughter of the greedy one” or “daughter of the barren ground,” terms that may aptly apply to the ostrich. The second name, regarded as indicating a “bird of piercing cries,” also fits the ostrich, whose cry is described as a “hoarse, mournful cry which has been likened to the roaring of a lion.”​—The Smithsonian Series, 1944, Vol. 9, p. 105; compare Mic 1:8.

The ostrich (Struthio camelus) is the largest living bird known, at times standing over 2 m (7 ft) high at the crown of the head and weighing as much as 140 kg (300 lb). The head is rather small and flat with very large eyes, the flexible neck is about 1 m (3 ft) long, and like the powerful legs, both head and neck are bare of feathers. The body plumage, however, is luxuriant, the long soft wing and tail plumes being much prized in ancient and modern times. The sleek black and white plumage of the male contrasts with the dull grayish-brown color of the female. The ostrich is unique among all birds in having but two toes on each foot, one of them equipped with a clawlike hoof that becomes a dangerous weapon when the bird is forced to defend itself. Its height and keen vision, however, usually enable it to spot its enemies from afar, and the huge bird then warily moves away.

While the ostrich feeds mainly on vegetation, it is also carnivorous, including snakes, lizards, and even small birds in its indiscriminate diet. It is found among the list of ‘unclean’ birds prohibited by the Mosaic Law. (Le 11:13, 16; De 14:12, 15) Anciently known as the camel bird, the ostrich is able to endure for long periods without water and hence thrives in solitary wastelands. It is used in the Bible, along with jackals and similar creatures, as representative of desert life (Isa 43:20) and to depict the ruinous desolation that became the fate of Edom and Babylon. (Isa 13:21; 34:13; Jer 50:39) Job, rejected and detested, sitting among ashes, and mournfully crying out, considered himself like “a brother to jackals” and “a companion to the daughters of the ostrich.”​—Job 30:29.

Contrasted With Stork. Jehovah God later drew Job’s attention to the ostrich, and the things he pointed out strikingly illustrate some of the unusual features of that bird. (Job 39:13-18) In great contrast to the high-flying, majestically soaring storks with their broad powerful wings, the ostrich is flightless; its wings are incapable of sustaining the bird’s weight, and its flat breastbone lacks the “keel” that supports the flying muscles of birds of flight. The ostrich’s plumes, though lovely, lack even the tiny hooklike filaments that cling together and give the feathers of flying birds the resistance to air that makes flight possible.​—Job 39:13.

Again in contrast to the stork, which builds its big nest firmly in the tops of trees (Ps 104:17), buildings, or tall rocks, the ostrich merely scoops out a shallow depression in the ground surrounded by a low embankment. Here the female lays the eggs, weighing some 1.5 kg (3 lb) each, and since the ostrich is often polygamous (unlike the stork, which is renowned for its fidelity to one mate), there may be a good number of eggs laid in the nest by the two or three hens. The male ostrich warms the nest eggs during the night and the hen incubates them by day, but she is known to leave the nest for periods during the day when the sun is hot. At such times the eggs, though very thick-shelled, are, nevertheless, vulnerable to damage or despoiling by animals or man.​—Job 39:14, 15.

‘Treats Sons Roughly.’ The statement that the ostrich “does treat her sons roughly, as if not hers” (Job 39:16) and reference to ostriches as being “cruel” with respect to their offspring (La 4:3) have been objected to by some who claim that parent ostriches are quite solicitous in caring for their young. While it is true that the Hebrew term (rena·nimʹ) used at Job 39:13 may grammatically apply to either male or female ostriches, some lexicographers understand it to refer to the female birds. This would seem to be the case in view of the connection with the eggs laid, obviously, by the hen bird. When understood as applying to the female, there is certainly good basis for this poetic expression concerning the ‘cruelty’ of the bird in the fact that, once the young are hatched, the male “assumes all their care while the hens generally go off together.” (All the Birds of the Bible, by Alice Parmelee, 1959, p. 207) It is also true that these powerful birds, both male and female, quickly abandon the nest and their young when sensing danger, and even though they may use diversionary tactics to draw enemies away from the nest, this is still ‘rough’ treatment for the unprotected young. Only the protective coloration given by the Creator is what may save the undefended and abandoned chicks, causing the enemy beasts to overlook them and chase after the fleeing parents. The ostrich may properly be termed “cruel,” then, as compared with many other birds and particularly in contrast with the stork, whose affectionate attention and constant concern for its young are proverbial.

‘Forgets Wisdom.’ The ostrich is said to “forget wisdom” and ‘not share in understanding.’ (Job 39:17) Modern observers have acknowledged this. The Arabs have a saying “more foolish than an ostrich.” (Soncino Books of the Bible, edited by A. Cohen, London, 1946, Job, p. 205) The ostrich tends to run in a large curve, which permits its pursuers, if sufficient in number, to surround it. But on a straight course the ostrich’s powerful legs enable it to ‘laugh at the horse and at its rider.’ (Job 39:18) When running, its strides lengthen out to cover as much as 3.5 m (11 ft) at a time, and its pace may reach as high as 70 km/​hr (44 mph). The wings, useless for flight, nevertheless help to give balance to the bird’s heavy body as it runs.

The ostrich has certain characteristics that are said to stagger scientists, who tend to class the ostrich as among the ‘lower or more primitive’ of living birds. It has a bladder collecting uric acid, an organ characteristic of mammals but not possessed by any other family of birds. It also possesses eyelashes that protect its eyes from the blowing sand. Thus, though low in intelligence, the powerful, speedy ostrich gives credit to the wisdom of its Creator.

The Arabian ostrich (Struthio camelus syriacus), once abundant in Palestine and Arabia, is now extinct. Since 1973, a related African variety has been reintroduced into Israel.

(Othʹni) [shortened form of Othniel].

Son of Shemaiah and grandson of Korahite Obed-edom, appointed as a Levite gatekeeper before the sanctuary. Othni and his brothers were “rulers of the house of their father, . . . capable, mighty men.”​—1Ch 26:1, 4, 6-8, 15.

(Othʹni·el).

The first-named judge of Israel after Joshua. Othniel was “the son of Kenaz, Caleb’s younger brother.” (Jg 1:13; 3:9; Jos 15:17) While this grammatical structure allows for either Othniel or Kenaz to be Caleb’s younger brother, to harmonize with other texts Othniel must be viewed as Caleb’s nephew, the son of Caleb’s brother Kenaz. Thus certain translations read: “Othniel, the son of Caleb’s younger brother, Kenaz.” (AT, Mo) Additionally, Caleb was “the son of Jephunneh,” hence not a son of Kenaz as was Othniel.​—Nu 32:12; 1Ch 4:15.

Othniel’s marriage to Achsah the daughter of Caleb came as a result of his victory over the Canaanite stronghold of Debir. Achsah’s father Caleb had promised her to the conqueror of the city. (Jos 15:16-19; Jg 1:11-15) Othniel had a son named Hathath and established a permanent family in the tribe of Judah. Years later a descendant was chosen from this family to head a service group of 24,000 during David’s reign.​—1Ch 4:13; 27:1, 15.

Israel’s first oppression by foreign kings due to disobedience lasted for eight years. When they “began to call to Jehovah for aid,” He raised up Othniel to deliver them. With Jehovah’s spirit upon him, Othniel defeated Cushan-rishathaim, “the king of Syria,” and took general oversight and rendered judicial decisions among his brothers.​—Jg 3:8-11.

A chamber that is heated in order to bake or to roast foods. Various types of ovens were used by the Hebrews and others.​—PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 952.

Ovens of considerable size, consisting of a round hole in the ground, have been used in the Middle East up until modern times, some being as much as 1.5 or 1.8 m (5 or 6 ft) deep and almost 1 m (3 ft) in diameter. In an oven of this size, it was possible to roast an entire sheep by suspending it over the hot stones or coals.

The bowl oven was used in Biblical days and was probably similar to that employed by Palestinian peasants of modern times. A large clay bowl is placed inverted upon small stones on which the bread rests. The bowl is heated by the burning of fuel heaped over and around it, and the bread is baked.

Every Hebrew home likely had a portable jar oven, a type still used in Palestine. It was a large earthenware jar, about 0.9 m (3 ft) high, having an opening at the top and widening toward the bottom. To heat it, fuel such as wood or grass was burned inside, the ashes being removed through a hole provided for that purpose. The top was closed, and when the jar was hot enough, dough was spread around the inside or the outside. Bread baked in this manner was very thin.

A great many pit ovens have been unearthed by archaeologists. These were evidently further developments of the jar oven. This type, partly in the ground and partly above ground, was built up of clay and was plastered throughout. It tapered toward the top, and the fuel was burned inside. Monuments and paintings show that the Egyptians placed the dough on the outside of these ovens. For fuel, the Hebrews employing this type might use dry twigs or grass. (Compare Mt 6:30.) Meat could also be roasted in such an oven.

It is interesting that baking ovens now used by peasants in Palestine differ little from those found in ancient ruins or those depicted on Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs and paintings. In ancient Chaldea ovens were located in the courtyards of homes, and today they may be found in small bakehouses in the yards of private dwellings, though ovens may also be grouped together in some part of the village. Large public ovens are still in use.

Household ovens were common among the Israelites and Egyptians in the land of Egypt. Thus, during the second plague, frogs even came up into their ovens and their kneading troughs.​—Ex 8:3.

“The Tower of the Bake Ovens” in Jerusalem was repaired under Nehemiah’s direction during the restoration of the city’s walls. (Ne 3:11; 12:38) This name’s origin is uncertain, but it has been suggested that the tower was so named because commercial bakers had their ovens situated in that vicinity.

Illustrative Use. The oven is used in an expression denoting scarcity at Leviticus 26:26, which reads: “When I [Jehovah] have broken for you the rods around which ring-shaped loaves are suspended, ten women will then actually bake your bread in but one oven and give back your bread by weight; and you must eat but you will not be satisfied.” Under normal conditions, each woman would need an oven to do her daily baking. However, Leviticus 26:26 pointed to a time when there would be so little food available that one oven would be sufficient to handle all the baking that ten women could do. And Hosea 7:4-7 compares adulterous Israelites to a baker’s furnace, apparently because of the wicked desires burning within them.

The Hebrew word for overseer, pa·qidhʹ, is drawn from the verb pa·qadhʹ, meaning “turn attention to” (Ge 21:1), “visit” (Jg 15:1), “appoint” (Ge 39:5), or “commission” (Ezr 1:2). Similarly, the Greek word for overseer, e·piʹsko·pos, is related to the verb e·pi·sko·peʹo, meaning “watch carefully” (Heb 12:15), and to the noun e·pi·sko·peʹ, meaning “inspection” (Lu 19:44, Int; 1Pe 2:12), “overseer” (1Ti 3:1), or “oversight” (Ac 1:20). The Greek Septuagint renders the Hebrew word pa·qidhʹ four times as e·piʹsko·pos. (Jg 9:28; Ne 11:9, 14, 22) Therefore, the overseer was one who gave attention to certain matters or persons, visiting, inspecting, and appointing. Protective supervision is a basic idea inherent in the Greek term.

Overseers in the Hebrew Scriptures. Joseph counseled Pharaoh to appoint overseers over the land to lay up stores during the years of plenty against the coming famine. (Ge 41:34-36) Under their respective chieftains, each family line of the Levites had its particular responsibility as regards the oversight of tabernacle duties. (Nu 3:24-26, 30, 31, 35-37) Eleazar, Aaron’s son, was made “the chieftain of the chieftains of the Levites” and had general oversight of the tabernacle structure and its utensils. (Nu 3:32; 4:16) The high priest also might appoint overseers for certain sanctuary services. (2Ki 11:18) First Chronicles chapters 23 to 27 shows the numerous and varied positions and arrangements for oversight in effect during David’s reign, as regards both the priesthood and the royal court, including economic and military matters.

The prophecy of Isaiah (60:17) sets “overseers” in parallel with “task assigners,” since overseers may assign work to others as well as supervise and watch over the interests of those persons or things entrusted to their care. In this prophecy Jehovah foretells the time when he would “appoint peace as your overseers and righteousness as your task assigners,” a prophecy initially fulfilled in Israel’s restoration from exile but more fully realized in the Christian congregation.

Overseers in the Christian Congregation. The Christian “overseers” (e·piʹsko·poi) correspond to those recognized as “older men” (pre·sbyʹte·roi) in the congregation. That both of these terms designate the same role in the congregation can be seen from the instance of Paul’s calling “the older men of the congregation” of Ephesus to Miletus to meet with him there. In exhorting these “older men,” he states: “Pay attention to yourselves and to all the flock, among which the holy spirit has appointed you overseers [form of e·piʹsko·poi], to shepherd the congregation of God.” (Ac 20:17, 28) The apostle further makes this clear in writing to Titus, where he discusses the subject of making appointments of “older men in city after city.” In evident reference to such ones, he uses the term “overseer” (e·piʹsko·pos). (Tit 1:5, 7) Both terms, therefore, refer to the same role, pre·sbyʹte·ros indicating the mature qualities of the one so appointed, and e·piʹsko·pos the duties inherent with the appointment.​—See OLDER MAN.

There was no set number of overseers for any one congregation. The number of overseers depended upon the number of those qualifying and accredited as “older men” in that congregation. That there were several overseers in the one congregation of Ephesus is evident. Likewise, in writing to the Philippian Christians, Paul referred to the “overseers” there (Php 1:1), indicating that they served as a body, overseeing the affairs of that congregation.

A consideration of the Christian Greek Scriptures indicates that the overseers, or older men, in any one congregation were of equal authority. In his congregational letters, Paul does not single out any one individual as the overseer, nor are these letters addressed to any individual as such. The letter to the Philippians was addressed “to all the holy ones in union with Christ Jesus who are in Philippi, along with overseers and ministerial servants.” (Php 1:1) In this regard Manuel Guerra y Gomez noted: “Certainly episcopos in the protocol of the letter to the Philippians does not suppose a monarchic authority; it is rather a term that names the people of evident plural and collegial structure in charge of the direction and government of the Christian community of the Macedonian city. At the same time the diaconos, according to the general meaning of the word, are the helpers, the ministers of the episcopos and by the same token were at the service of the believers.”​—Episcopos y Presbyteros, Burgos, Spain, 1962, p. 320.

Qualifications of an overseer, or elder. To be appointed as an overseer, the following qualifications must be met: “The overseer should therefore be irreprehensible, a husband of one wife, moderate in habits, sound in mind, orderly, hospitable, qualified to teach, not a drunken brawler, not a smiter, but reasonable, not belligerent, not a lover of money, a man presiding over his own household in a fine manner, having children in subjection with all seriousness; . . . not a newly converted man, . . . he should also have a fine testimony from people on the outside.”​—1Ti 3:1-7.

Likewise, in his letter to Titus, in discussing the subject of making appointments of elders, Paul said that in order to qualify as such, a man had to be “free from accusation, a husband of one wife, having believing children that were not under a charge of debauchery nor unruly. For an overseer must be free from accusation as God’s steward, not self-willed, not prone to wrath, not a drunken brawler, not a smiter, not greedy of dishonest gain, but hospitable, a lover of goodness, sound in mind, righteous, loyal, self-controlled, holding firmly to the faithful word as respects his art of teaching, that he may be able both to exhort by the teaching that is healthful and to reprove those who contradict.” (Tit 1:5-9) The differences in this latter list of qualifications evidently take into account the special needs of the congregations in Crete, where Titus was serving.​—Tit 1:10-14.

The Supreme Overseer. First Peter 2:25 evidently quotes Isaiah 53:6 as to those who ‘like sheep went astray,’ and Peter then says: “But now you have returned to the shepherd and overseer of your souls.” The reference must be to Jehovah God, since those to whom Peter wrote had not gone astray from Christ Jesus but, rather, through him had been led back to Jehovah God, who is the Grand Shepherd of his people. (Ps 23:1; 80:1; Jer 23:3; Eze 34:12) Jehovah is also an overseer, the one who makes inspection. (Ps 17:3) The inspection (Gr., e·pi·sko·peʹ) could be associated with expression of adverse judgment by him, as in the first century C.E. in the case of Jerusalem, which did not discern the time of her “being inspected [Gr., e·pi·sko·pesʹ].” (Lu 19:44) Or it could bring favorable effect and benefits, as in the case of those glorifying God in the day “for his inspection [Gr., e·pi·sko·pesʹ].”​—1Pe 2:12.

“Busybody in Other People’s Matters.” The apostle Peter warned against becoming “a busybody in other people’s matters.” (1Pe 4:15) This expression renders the Greek word al·lo·tri·e·piʹsko·pos, which literally means “overseer of what is another’s.” Francisco Zorell defines this word as “one who takes upon himself the duty of minding and correcting other people’s matters, the one who imprudently thrusts himself into other people’s affairs.”​—Lexicon Graecum Novi Testamenti, Paris, 1961, col. 70.

[Box on page 565]

Overseers, or Older Men

Ministerial Servants

1Ti 3:1-7

Tit 1:5-9

1Ti 3:8-10, 12, 13

irreprehensible

free from accusation

free from accusation

husband of one wife

husband of one wife

husband of one wife

not a drunken brawler

not a drunken brawler

not given to a lot of wine

not a lover of money

not greedy of dishonest gain

not greedy of dishonest gain

presiding over household in fine manner, having children in subjection

having believing children not under charge of debauchery nor unruly

presiding in fine manner over children and own households

not newly converted

—

tested as to fitness

sound in mind

sound in mind

—

hospitable

hospitable

—

qualified to teach

holding to the word in the art of teaching, able to exhort and reprove

—

not a smiter

not a smiter

—

reasonable

not self-willed

—

not belligerent

not prone to wrath

—

[Heb., tach·masʹ; kohs (little owl); yan·shuphʹ (long-eared owl); ʼoʹach (eagle owl)].

A night bird of prey mentioned several times in the Bible account. Once thought to be related to the hawk family, owls are now generally associated with other night feeders, such as the whippoorwill and the nightjar.

The owl has a short, hooked beak and powerful viselike talons resembling the hawk’s, but differs by having a broad head, large eyes and ears, as well as by having a reversible toe on each foot so that, while the other toes point forward, this outer toe can be turned outward or even backward, thereby enabling the bird to get a firm grip on a variety of objects. The large eyes with their expanding irises make the greatest possible use of the dim light at night, and unlike most other birds, the owl’s eyes both face forward, enabling it to view an object with both eyes at once. Its soft plumage is in mottled shades of brown, gray, black, and white with an intricate feather pattern and generally gives an impression of exaggerated bulk to the bird’s body. According to an article in Scientific American (April 1962, p. 78), the owl’s wings are ultrasonically quiet; the soft down on the upper surfaces and the feathery fringes on the leading and trailing edges of the wings apparently serve to reduce the turbulence of the air flow. Thus the owl noiselessly swoops through the darkness and silently drops down on its unsuspecting prey, primarily killing rodents, though some also eat smaller birds and insects. The cries of owls range from a shrill screech to a booming hooting sound.

The Hebrew tach·masʹ denotes a species of owl and is included in the list of ‘unclean’ birds. (Le 11:13, 16; De 14:15) This Hebrew word, being related to a verb meaning “do violence,” is appropriate to the owl, which lives by preying on small rodents and birds. This kind of owl has been identified with the striated scops owl (Otus brucei).

Also included among the ‘unclean’ birds is the Hebrew kohs, rendered by some as the “little owl” and designated as Athene noctua. (De 14:16, KJ, NW, RS; see also Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, by L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden, 1958, p. 428) The little owl, about 25 cm (10 in.) in length, is one of the most widely distributed owls in Palestine, found in thickets, olive groves, and desolate ruins. The psalmist in his lonely affliction felt like “a little owl of desolated places.” (Ps 102:6) Appropriately, the Arabic name for this variety of owl means the “mother of ruins.”

Another bird listed in the Mosaic Law as ‘unclean’ is the Hebrew yan·shuphʹ, a name thought by some to indicate a “snorting” or “harsh blowing” sound (the Heb. word for “blow” being na·shaphʹ). Others connect it with the “twilight” (Heb., neʹsheph) as indicating simply a nocturnal bird. (Le 11:17; De 14:16) Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (p. 386) identifies this bird as the “long-eared owl” (Asio otus). A bird about 38 cm (15 in.) in length, the long-eared owl is so called from the earlike erectile tufts on the sides of its broad head. It frequents wooded and desolate areas and is depicted as one of the creatures to inhabit the ruins of Edom.​—Isa 34:11.

The abandoned houses in Babylon’s ruins were foretold to be “filled with eagle owls [plural form of ʼoʹach].” (Isa 13:21) These circumstances and the Hebrew name, understood to denote a creature that “howls” with a doleful cry, well fit the eagle owl. Some would identify ʼoʹach with Bubo bubo aharonii, a variety of eagle owl inhabiting the desert regions of Palestine. However, the identification as the Egyptian (or dark desert) eagle owl (Bubo bubo ascalaphus), found from Morocco to Iraq, harmonizes well with the locale of the prophecy recorded in Isaiah 13. The eagle owl is the largest and most powerful of the owls of these regions. Its cry is a loud, prolonged, powerful hoot. Like other owls, at night its large eyes have a luminescent reddish-yellow glow when reflecting light, and together with its mournful cry, this characteristic doubtless contributed toward its being a symbol of evil portent among superstitious pagan peoples.

Some scholars believe the term li·lithʹ, used at Isaiah 34:14 as among the creatures haunting Edom’s ruins, applies to some type of owl. The name is said to be used today “for Strix, the tawny owl.” (The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 2, p. 252) However, see the article NIGHTJAR.

(Oʹzem).

1. Fourth-listed son of Jerahmeel in the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 2:25.

2. The sixth-named son of Jesse and older brother of David; tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 2:13, 15.

(Ozʹni) [possibly a shortened form of Azaniah].

A son of Gad and founder of the tribal family of Oznites numbered in the second wilderness registration of Israel. (Nu 26:15, 16) Ozni is called Ezbon in the first list of Gad’s sons, some of whose names are written somewhat differently in Numbers.​—Ge 46:16.

(Ozʹnites) [Of (Belonging to) Ozni].

A family of the tribe of Gad founded by Ozni.​—Nu 26:15, 16.