(Maʹa·cah).

The name of several persons and of a kingdom.

[1-9: possibly from a root meaning “squeeze”]

1. A child born to Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by his concubine Reumah. The child was evidently a male, as a kingdom and its inhabitants derived their name from this person.​—Ge 22:23, 24; 2Sa 10:6, 8.

2. Wife of the Manassite Machir.​—1Ch 7:14-16.

3. One of the concubines of Caleb (the son of Hezron) who bore several of his children.​—1Ch 2:18, 48, 49.

4. The wife of Jeiel “the father of Gibeon.”​—1Ch 8:29; 9:35.

5. One of David’s wives and the daughter of Talmai the king of Geshur. She was Absalom’s mother.​—2Sa 3:2, 3; 1Ch 3:1, 2.

6. Father or ancestor of Hanan, a mighty man of David’s military forces.​—1Ch 11:26, 43.

7. Father or ancestor of Shephatiah, a prince of Israel appointed leader of the Simeonites in David’s organization of the king’s service.​—1Ch 27:1, 16, 22.

8. Father of Achish, king of Gath, to whom Shimei’s slaves fled early in Solomon’s reign. (1Ki 2:39) This Maacah may be the same person as Maoch of 1 Samuel 27:2.​—See MAOCH.

9. Absalom’s granddaughter, who was the most beloved wife of Judean King Rehoboam and the mother of King Abijah (Abijam). (2Ch 11:20-22; 1Ki 15:1, 2, 9, 10) She was regarded as “lady” in the kingdom, being queen mother, until her grandson, King Asa, in a restoration of true worship, removed her “because she had made a horrible idol to the sacred pole,” or the Asherah. (1Ki 15:9-13; 2Ch 15:16) She is called Micaiah at 2 Chronicles 13:2.

10. A petty kingdom in existence in N Palestine at the time of the Israelite invasion, also called Maacath. The territory of the tribe of Manasseh evidently was to embrace this area, but the record shows that the Israelites did not dispossess the inhabitants of that land, so ‘they kept dwelling in the midst of Israel.’ (De 3:14; Jos 13:13) Generally associated with the neighboring kingdom of Geshur, Maacah appears to have been located to the N of that kingdom and to have bordered on the region of Bashan. (Jos 12:5) It is usually considered to have occupied the area running from the southern slopes of Mount Hermon down to the Hula Basin and from the Jordan River eastward to the edge of the Syrian Desert, or, basically, the northern part of the present district of Golan.

Maacah was an Aramaean (Syrian) kingdom, its people perhaps descending from Nahor’s son of the same name. (Ge 22:24; 1Ch 19:6) When the Ammonites went to war against King David, they hired the services of the king of Maacah, along with others. The small number of troops provided by Maacah, as compared with those of the other allies, may indicate the small size of the Maacathite kingdom. (2Sa 10:6-8) Joab’s victory over the Ammonites and their Syrian allies was followed up by a further victory over the Syrians by King David. (2Sa 10:13-19) From later accounts it seems likely that the kingdom of Maacah eventually came under the domination of the kingdom of Damascus.

See MAACAH No. 10.

(Ma·acʹa·thite) [Of (Belonging to) Maacath [the town]].

Inhabitant of the Aramaean kingdom of Maacah (De 3:14; Jos 12:5; 13:13), one of these being Eshtemoa. (1Ch 4:19) It is suggested that Abel-beth-maacah (meaning “Watercourse of the House of Maacah”), a town in N Palestine, may have been so named because of its proximity to the region occupied by the Maacathites.​—1Ki 15:20.

(Ma·a·daʹi) [shortened form of Maadiah].

An Israelite among “the sons of Bani” who had accepted foreign wives but sent them away in Ezra’s day after the Jews returned from Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 10:25, 34, 44.

(Ma·a·diʹah) [Jah Decks Himself].

A priest and head of a paternal house accompanying those returning from Babylon with Zerubbabel. (Ne 12:1, 5) Moadiah mentioned at Nehemiah 12:17 may be the same person.

(Maʹai).

A priest and musician who descended from Asaph and played an instrument of song at the inauguration of Jerusalem’s wall in Nehemiah’s time.​—Ne 12:36.

(Maʹa·rath) [Cave; or, Bare Field].

A town assigned to the tribe of Judah. (Jos 15:21, 59) A site near the village of Beit Ummar in the hill country of Judah, 11 km (7 mi) N of Hebron, is considered to be the probable location. Some suggest that Maarath may be a variant name of Maroth.​—Mic 1:9, 12.

(Maʹa·sai) [possibly a shortened form of Maaseiah].

A priest and descendant of Immer, who returned from Babylonian exile.​—1Ch 9:10, 12.

(Ma·a·seiʹah) [Work of Jehovah].

1. A Levite musician of the second division who played a stringed instrument when the ark of Jehovah was brought from the house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem in David’s day.​—1Ch 15:17-20, 25.

2. One of “the chiefs of hundreds” who entered a covenant with High Priest Jehoiada in connection with establishing Jehoash as Judah’s rightful king in place of the usurper Athaliah.​—2Ch 23:1.

3. An officer under the control of Hananiah, a prince of Judah’s King Uzziah. He evidently had to do with the registration of Uzziah’s military forces.​—2Ch 26:11.

4. “The son of the king” (an offspring of Judean King Ahaz or possibly an official of royal descent) who was killed by the Ephraimite Zichri when Pekah of Israel invaded Judah.​—2Ch 28:1, 6, 7.

5. The chief of the city of Jerusalem and one of the men King Josiah sent to repair the house of Jehovah.​—2Ch 34:8.

6. A priest and the father of a certain Zephaniah, a contemporary of Jeremiah.​—Jer 21:1; 29:25; 37:3.

7. Father of Zedekiah, a false prophet of Jeremiah’s day.​—Jer 29:21.

8. Son of Shallum the doorkeeper and evidently a Levite. A temple dining room was linked with his name.​—Jer 35:4.

9. One of the sons of the priests, of the house of Jeshua, among those who had taken foreign wives but who sent them away in Ezra’s time.​—Ezr 10:18, 19, 44.

10. A priest “of the sons of Harim,” among those who had married foreign wives but who sent them away in the time of Ezra.​—Ezr 10:21, 44.

11. A priest “of the sons of Pashhur,” also among those sending their foreign wives away.​—Ezr 10:22, 44.

12. An Israelite “of the sons of Pahath-moab,” among those dismissing their foreign wives.​—Ezr 10:25, 30, 44.

13. Father or ancestor of a certain Azariah, one of the repairers of Jerusalem’s wall under Nehemiah’s supervision.​—Ne 3:23.

14. A man who stood at Ezra’s right hand when he read the Law to the Israelites assembled in Jerusalem.​—Ne 8:2, 4.

15. A Levite who assisted the priest Ezra by explaining the Law to the Israelites gathered in Jerusalem.​—Ne 8:7.

16. One of “the heads of the people” whose descendant, if not he himself, attested by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” of Nehemiah’s time.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 14, 25.

17. A man of Judah who resided in Jerusalem after the return from Babylonian exile. (Ne 11:4, 5) He may be identical with Asaiah of 1 Chronicles 9:5.​—See ASAIAH No. 4.

18. A man of Benjamin who was an ancestor of Sallu, a resident of Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s time.​—Ne 11:7.

19. A priest who participated in the dedication of Jerusalem’s wall in the time of Nehemiah.​—Ne 12:41.

20. Another priest participating in the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s day.​—Ne 12:42.

(Maʹath).

One of Jesus’ ancestors listed in his genealogy as given by Luke.​—Lu 3:23, 26.

(Maʹaz) [shortened form of Ahimaaz].

One of Judah’s descendants through Jerahmeel and Ram.​—1Ch 2:3, 25, 27.

(Ma·a·ziʹah) [Jehovah Is a Stronghold].

1. A descendant of Aaron who was made head of the 24th course of priests in David’s day.​—1Ch 24:1, 18.

2. One of the priests, or a forefather of one, who attested by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” of Nehemiah’s time.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 8.

(Mac·e·doʹni·a[n]).

A region of SE Europe occupying the central part of what is now known as the Balkan Peninsula. It extended from the Adriatic Sea on the W to the Aegean Sea on the E, and lay N of Achaia. Although having numerous fertile plains, this is chiefly a mountainous area. Anciently, Macedonia served as a vital link between the east and the west. The Roman-built Via Egnatia ran from Dyrrachium and Apollonia on the W coast of the peninsula to Neapolis on the E coast, and beyond.

The Macedonians were descendants of Japheth, perhaps through Kittim the son of Javan. (Ge 10:2, 4, 5) Although primarily associated with the island of Cyprus, the name Kittim was anciently also used to refer to other areas. The historian Josephus writes that the Hebrews called the islands and most of the seacoasts (apparently those in the Mediterranean area) “Chethim.” (Jewish Antiquities, I, 128 [vi, 1]) This may account for Macedonia’s being called “Cethim” in the Apocryphal book of First Maccabees (1:1 Dy; Kx) and provides a possible basis for considering the Macedonians to have been descendants of Kittim.

History. Macedonia attained prominence under the rule of Philip II. He was able to consolidate Macedonia and neighboring regions, and as a result of his victory in the Battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.E.), Macedonia emerged supreme in relation to the majority of the Greek states. Subsequent to Philip’s assassination, his son Alexander (the Great) ascended the throne. Two years later, Alexander commenced his extensive campaign of conquest. By the time of his death at Babylon (323 B.C.E.), Alexander, through his military victories, had built up an empire that extended as far E as India and included Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Asia Minor, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece.​—See Da 2:31-33, 39; 7:6; 8:1-7, 20, 21; ALEXANDER No. 1; BEASTS, SYMBOLIC; IMAGE.

When the empire was divided following Alexander’s death, Antipater, who had been the regent of Macedonia while Alexander was warring in the east, retained his position. Before his death, Antipater entrusted the regency to Polyperchon instead of to his own son Cassander. Then followed political struggles that finally culminated in Cassander’s being recognized as king of Macedonia. His son Alexander succeeded him but not long thereafter was killed by Demetrius Poliorcetes (son of Antigonus Cyclops, one of the generals of Alexander the Great). Again confusion set in. Finally, Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, gained possession of the throne. Though driven from his kingdom twice, Antigonus recovered it each time, and Macedonia continued to be ruled by the Antigonids until coming under Roman administration. In the middle of the second century B.C.E., Macedonia became a Roman province. For a time during the first century C.E., it was joined with Achaia, to the S, and Moesia, to the N, to form an imperial province under the legate of Moesia. However, in 44 C.E. Macedonia again became a senatorial province under the jurisdiction of a Roman governor.​—See GREECE, GREEKS.

Paul’s Ministry. Macedonia was the first area in Europe to be visited by the apostle Paul on his second missionary journey. While at Troas in NW Asia Minor, Paul had a vision. “A certain Macedonian man was standing and entreating him and saying: ‘Step over into Macedonia and help us.’” (Ac 16:8, 9) Paul responded to that vision and, with Luke, Timothy, and Silas (if not also other companions), left for Macedonia. After arriving at Neapolis (the port of Philippi in NE Macedonia), Paul went to Philippi and there declared the good news. (Ac 16:11-40) Luke, it appears, remained at Philippi when Paul, Silas, and Timothy journeyed through the Macedonian cities of Amphipolis (about 50 km [30 mi] WSW of Philippi) and Apollonia (about 35 km [22 mi] SW of Amphipolis). Next Paul witnessed in the Macedonian cities of Thessalonica (about 45 km [28 mi] WNW of Apollonia) and Beroea (about 65 km [40 mi] WSW of Thessalonica) respectively. (Ac 17:1-12) On account of threatened mob violence at Beroea, Paul was forced to depart from Macedonia. But he left Silas and Timothy at Beroea so that they might care for the new group of believers there. Silas and Timothy were to join him later. (Ac 17:13-15) Paul, concerned about the welfare of the newly formed congregation at Thessalonica, sent Timothy to encourage the brothers there. (1Th 3:1, 2) Perhaps Timothy joined Paul at Athens, in Achaia, and then was sent back to Thessalonica. But it seems more likely that Paul notified him at Beroea to make the trip to Thessalonica. The good report Timothy brought, upon returning, prompted Paul to write his first letter to the Thessalonians (1Th 3:6; Ac 18:5). His second letter to the Thessalonians followed not long thereafter.

During the course of his third missionary tour, Paul made plans to return to Macedonia. (1Co 16:5-8; 2Co 1:15, 16) Although Paul remained a while longer at Ephesus, he sent Timothy and Erastus to Macedonia in advance. (Ac 19:21, 22) It was after this that the Ephesian silversmith Demetrius stirred up a riot against Paul. The city was thrown into confusion, and as the Ephesians rushed into the theater, they seized and took along “Gaius and Aristarchus, Macedonians, traveling companions of Paul.” (Ac 19:23-29) After the uproar subsided, Paul set out for Macedonia. (Ac 20:1) He apparently stopped at Troas. There he was disappointed at not meeting Titus, who had been sent to Corinth, in Achaia, to assist in the collection for the holy ones in Judea. (2Co 2:12, 13) Paul then proceeded to Macedonia, where he was joined by Titus and received word about the way the Corinthians had reacted to the apostle’s first letter. (2Co 7:5-7) Subsequently Paul wrote his second letter to the Corinthians and later went south to Greece. He had intended to sail from Greece to Syria, but a plot against him by the Jews caused him to change his plans and to return to Macedonia instead. (Ac 20:2, 3) His traveling companions included three Macedonians, Sopater, Aristarchus, and Secundus.​—Ac 20:4.

Although poor themselves, the Macedonian Christians were very generous. They expended themselves beyond their actual ability in making contributions for the needy brothers in Judea. (2Co 8:1-7; compare Ro 15:26, 27; 2Co 9:1-7.) Especially were the Philippians outstanding in supporting Paul’s ministry. (2Co 11:8, 9; Php 4:15-17) Even while the apostle was imprisoned at Rome for the first time, the congregation at Philippi sent Epaphroditus to minister to Paul’s needs. (Php 2:25-30; 4:18) And the Thessalonians manifested great faith and endurance and, therefore, came to be an example for “all the believers in Macedonia and in Achaia.”​—1Th 1:1-8; 4:9, 10.

It appears that Paul, after being released from imprisonment at Rome, revisited Macedonia and from there wrote the letter known as First Timothy. (1Ti 1:3) The letter to Titus may also have been written from Macedonia.

(Machʹban·nai).

A Gadite mighty man who joined David’s band at “the place difficult to approach in the wilderness” and became one of the heads of his army.​—1Ch 12:8-14.

(Mach·beʹnah).

The name appears in a list of Caleb’s descendants through his concubine Maacah, her son Sheva being called “the father of Machbenah and the father of Gibea.” (1Ch 2:48, 49) Some commentators, noting that many of the names in this section also occur as names of towns, suggest that Machbenah may be the name of a town founded or ‘fathered’ by Sheva.

(Maʹchi) [possibly a shortened form of Machir].

A Gadite and the father of Geuel, one of the 12 Israelites sent to spy out Canaan.​—Nu 13:1, 2, 15, 16.

(Maʹchir) [from a root meaning “sell”].

1. The first-named son of Manasseh by his Syrian concubine. Machir founded the family of Machirites and is called “the father of Gilead.” His wife was Maacah, and he had sons within Joseph’s lifetime. (Ge 50:23; Nu 26:29; Jos 17:1; 1Ch 2:21, 23; 7:14-17) “The sons of Machir” captured the region of Gilead, drove out the Amorites, and were given that district as an inheritance. (Nu 32:39, 40; De 3:15; Jos 13:31) Zelophehad and his daughters were of the Manassite family of Machir. (Nu 27:1; 36:1, 2; Jos 17:3) In the victory song of Deborah and Barak, “Machir” seems to be used poetically for the entire tribe of Manasseh.​—Jg 5:1, 14.

2. Son of Ammiel (and resident of Lo-debar) with whom Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth resided until David sent for him and made provision for his care. (2Sa 9:4-7, 13) Later, during Absalom’s rebellion, Machir was among the persons who supplied King David and his associates with food and other provisions.​—2Sa 17:27-29.

(Maʹchir·ites) [Of (Belonging to) Machir].

A family of the tribe of Manasseh founded by his son Machir.​—Nu 26:29; see MACHIR No. 1.

(Mach·nadʹe·bai).

A postexilic Israelite among those who sent away their foreign wives in Ezra’s day.​—Ezr 10:25, 40, 44.

(Mach·peʹlah) [from a root meaning “double,” possibly indicating that the cave had a double entrance or two recesses or receptacles].

The name of a field and a cave near Hebron, purchased by Abraham from Ephron the Hittite for 400 silver shekels (c. $880). The cave was a burial place for Abraham’s wife Sarah and for at least five others: Abraham, Isaac, Rebekah, Jacob, and Leah. (Ge 23:14-19; 25:9; 49:30, 31; 50:13) The name evidently also applied to the surrounding area.​—Ge 23:17.

The cave is generally identified with Meʽarat HaMakhpela, in modern Hebron beneath a Moslem mosque within an enclosure called Haram el-Khalil.

At Genesis 23:17 the Hebrew term indicating the position of the cave of Machpelah in relation to Mamre has been variously rendered “east of” (RS), “before” (AS), “near” (BE), “opposite” (JB), and “in front of Mamre” (NW). If the traditional location of Mamre (er-Ramat el-Khalil) is correct, the rendering “east of Mamre” would not be appropriate, since this site lies about 3 km (2 mi) N of modern Hebron. The phrase “Mamre, that is to say, Hebron” (Ge 23:19), may mean that Mamre was in the district of Hebron.

(Maʹda·i).

The third-listed son of Japheth. (Ge 10:2; 1Ch 1:5) He is believed to be the progenitor of the Medes. Because of this understanding, elsewhere in the Bible the Hebrew Ma·dhaiʹ is translated “Medes,” or “Media,” as at 2 Kings 17:6; 18:11; Esther 1:3; Isaiah 13:17; 21:2; and other texts. The Medes were also called Madaia in Assyro-Babylonian (Akkadian) and Mada in Old Persian. At some point in the past, they established themselves in the Iranian plateau region, settling primarily between the Elburz Mountains (S of the Caspian Sea) and the Zagros Mountains to the E of Assyria. The modern name Iran derives from the word “Aryan,” a term used to refer to those of Japhetic descent.

(Mad·manʹnah) [from a root meaning “manure”].

1. This name appears in the list of descendants of Judah through Caleb. Caleb’s concubine Maacah is stated to have borne “Shaaph the father of Madmannah.” (1Ch 2:49) However, most scholars consider the term “father” to be used here in the sense of “founder” and consider Madmannah in this text to correspond with the town considered below, Shaaph being viewed as the founder or perhaps the rebuilder thereof after its capture. It may be noted that the names of Kiriath-jearim and Bethlehem appear in a similar context in the following verses.​—1Ch 2:50, 54.

2. A city in the southern part of the territory of Judah. (Jos 15:21, 31) Although Umm Deimneh may preserve the ancient name, there are no suitable remains at the site. Scholars in recent times favor Khirbet Tatrit, about 15 km (9.5 mi) NE of Beer-sheba. A comparison of Joshua 15:31 with the parallel lists at Joshua 19:5 and 1 Chronicles 4:31 indicates it to be the same as Beth-marcaboth. Beth-marcaboth (meaning “House of the Chariots”) may have been a secondary name of Madmannah.​—See BETH-MARCABOTH.

(Madʹmen) [possibly from a root meaning “manure”].

Seemingly a place in Moab foretold to suffer calamity by sword. At Jeremiah 48:2, “You, too, O Madmen, should keep silent,” translates the Hebrew phrase gam-madh·menʹ tid·domʹmi. Many scholars believe that the initial m in madh·menʹ (“Madmen”) was inadvertently repeated from the previous word (gam). Without the initial m, the consonants of Madmen correspond to those of Dimon, and therefore, Madmen is often considered to be the same as Dimon (possibly, Dimna, about 10 km [6 mi] N of Karak). However, perhaps Madmen does not designate an actual location, since the renderings of the Greek Septuagint, Syriac Peshitta, and Latin Vulgate suggest that the ancient Hebrew text read, ‘Yes, you [Moab] shall be utterly brought to silence.’

(Mad·meʹnah) [from a root meaning “manure”].

A site in the path of the Assyrian advance toward Jerusalem. (Isa 10:24, 31, 32) Today Madmenah’s exact location is unknown. But some tentatively identify it with Shuʽfat, about 4 km (2.5 mi) NNW of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.

Mental derangement, either insanity or a condition of extreme rage or great folly. Various Hebrew and Greek words are employed in the Scriptures to denote such disorders of the mind, whether lasting or temporary. Some of these words seem to be associated with or derived from the weird and sometimes violent or sorrowful cries of persons afflicted with madness.

Madness befell boastful Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar. In fulfillment of a prophetic dream explained by Daniel, this monarch was stricken with madness at a time of boasting. For seven years he was insane, “and vegetation he began to eat just like bulls.” (Da 4:33) His reason gone, Nebuchadnezzar may have imagined that he was a beast, perhaps a bull. Regarding his mental derangement, a French medical dictionary states: “LYCANTHROPY . . . from [lyʹkos], lupus, wolf; [anʹthro·pos], homo, man. This name was given to the sickness of people who believe themselves to be changed into an animal, and who imitate the voice or cries, the shapes or manners of that animal. These individuals usually imagine themselves transformed into a wolf, a dog or a cat; sometimes also into a bull, as in the case of Nebuchadnezzar.” (Dictionnaire des sciences médicales, par une société de médecins et de chirurgiens, Paris, 1818, Vol. 29, p. 246) At the end of the seven years, Jehovah restored Nebuchadnezzar’s understanding to him.​—Da 4:34-37.

Madness and Demon Possession. While not all persons afflicted with madness or insanity are possessed by the demons, logically persons possessed by the demons may be expected to manifest an unbalanced mental state. In the country of the Gerasenes, Jesus encountered a madman who was demon possessed. His haunt was among the tombs, and though he had often been bound with fetters and chains, “the chains were snapped apart by him and the fetters were actually smashed; and nobody had the strength to subdue him.” Further, “continually, night and day, he was crying out in the tombs and in the mountains and slashing himself with stones.” After Jesus cast out the demons, the man had a “sound mind.” (Mr 5:1-17; Lu 8:26-39) However, Christians are kept safe from demon invasion that produces madness if they put on and keep on “the complete suit of armor from God.”​—Eph 6:10-17.

Feigned Madness. On one occasion, while he was outlawed by King Saul, David sought refuge with Achish the king of Gath. Upon discovering who he was, the Philistines suggested to Achish that David was a security risk, and David became afraid. Consequently, he disguised his sanity by acting insane. He “kept making cross marks on the doors of the gate and let his saliva run down upon his beard.” Thinking David was crazy, Achish let him go with his life, as a harmless idiot. David was later inspired to write Psalm 34, in which he thanked Jehovah for blessing this strategy and delivering him.​—1Sa 21:10–22:1.

Madness of Opposition to Jehovah. The prophet Balaam foolishly wanted to prophesy against Israel in order to receive money from King Balak of the Moabites, but Jehovah overruled and prevented his efforts. The apostle Peter wrote about Balaam that “a voiceless beast of burden, making utterance with the voice of a man, hindered the prophet’s mad course.” For Balaam’s madness the apostle used the Greek word pa·ra·phro·niʹa, which has the thought of “being beside one’s mind.”​—2Pe 2:15, 16; Nu 22:26-31.

Regarding the false prophets of Israel, the prophet Hosea wrote: “The prophet will be foolish, the man of inspired expression will be maddened on account of the abundance of your error, even animosity being abundant.” (Ho 9:7) Jehovah brings madness to his opposers and those who reject his wisdom, identifying himself as “the One that makes diviners themselves act crazily,” that is, by making their forecasts prove false. (Isa 44:24, 25) Job said, concerning worldly judges, that Jehovah “makes judges themselves go crazy.”​—Job 12:17.

Paul compared men who resisted the truth and who tried to corrupt the Christian congregation to Jannes and Jambres, who resisted Moses. He assured: “They will make no further progress, for their madness will be very plain to all, even as the madness of those two men became.”​—2Ti 3:8, 9.

Madness From Oppression and Confusion. Among the dire consequences the Israelites would suffer for disobedience to Jehovah was being stricken with madness. As a result of the oppressive measures of their conquerors, they would become maddened, responding in an unreasoning way because of frustration. (De 28:28-34) Indeed, King Solomon stated that “mere oppression may make a wise one act crazy.”​—Ec 7:7.

In prophecy Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar was likened to the ‘cup of the wine of Jehovah’s rage.’ This the nations would have to drink, and it would cause them to “shake back and forth and act like crazed men because of the sword that I [Jehovah] am sending among them.” (Jer 25:15, 16) Later, in Babylon herself madness would be brought about, her idolaters having horrifying visions, “and because of their frightful visions they [would] keep acting crazy.” (Jer 50:35-38) She, too, would have to drink the cup of Jehovah’s rage.​—Jer 51:6-8.

Extreme Rage. Madness, as used Biblically, can also denote extreme rage. On a sabbath day Jesus cured a man with a withered right hand. The observing scribes and Pharisees thereupon “became filled with madness, and they began to talk over with one another what they might do to Jesus.” (Lu 6:6-11) To describe their state of mind, Luke used the Greek word aʹnoi·a, meaning, literally, “mindlessness” (the English word “paranoia” is related to this term). Paul evidently had in mind extreme rage or fury when he admitted that in persecuting Christians he had been “extremely mad against them.”​—Ac 26:11.

Contrasted With Wisdom. In the book of Ecclesiastes, the congregator reveals that he gave his heart “to knowing wisdom and to knowing madness.” (Ec 1:17) His investigation did not restrict itself to considering wisdom but also took into account its opposite as manifested by men. (Ec 7:25) At Ecclesiastes 2:12, Solomon again reveals that he weighed wisdom, madness, and folly. In this way he could determine their contrast in value. He recognized inordinate frivolity as madness, saying, “I said to laughter: ‘Insanity!’” for, as compared with wisdom, it was senseless, not producing real happiness.​—Ec 2:2.

Commenting on the stupid one’s condition of mind, Solomon said: “The start of the words of his mouth is foolishness, and the end afterward of his mouth is calamitous madness.” (Ec 10:13) Foolishness may take the form of a trick, which can sometimes be so harmful to its victim that the player of the trick is likened to a madman armed with deadly weapons.​—Pr 26:18, 19.

Some have no hope in the resurrection of the dead, thinking that death ends all for everyone. Giving evidence of their unbalanced outlook, they seek only to satisfy their fleshly inclinations and show no concern about doing God’s will. Solomon also took note of them, saying: “Because there is one eventuality to all, the heart of the sons of men is also full of bad; and there is madness in their heart during their lifetime, and after it​—to the dead ones!”​—Ec 9:3.

Illustrative Use. The apostle Paul’s authority and apostleship were challenged by some in Corinth whom he sarcastically termed “superfine apostles.” (2Co 11:5) In order to bring the Corinthian congregation to their senses, Paul “boasted” about his credentials, his blessings and the things he had experienced in Jehovah’s service, proving his claim. This boasting was contrary to the usual speech of a Christian, but Paul had to do it in this case. Hence he spoke of himself as though being ‘out of his mind’ and said of the so-called superfine apostles: “Are they ministers of Christ? I reply like a madman, I am more outstandingly one.”​—2Co 11:21-27.

(Maʹdon) [from a root verb meaning “judge”].

A royal Canaanite city that leagued itself with Hazor against the Israelites and was subsequently defeated. (Jos 11:1-12; 12:19) Madon is usually identified with Qarn Hattin (Horvat Qarne Hittim), about 8 km (5 mi) WNW of Tiberias. Khirbet Madin, about 1 km (0.6 mi) to the S, seems to preserve the ancient name. However, some question the identification because it is based solely on the similarity of the name of nearby Madin to the Biblical name.

(Magʹa·dan).

An area near the Sea of Galilee to which Jesus withdrew after his miraculous feeding of about 4,000 men. (Mt 15:39; manuscripts of more recent date here read “Magdala.”) Mark (8:10), according to the best Greek manuscripts, referred to the same territory as “Dalmanutha.”​—See DALMANUTHA.

No place called Magadan is today known in the region around the Sea of Galilee. However, some scholars believe that Magadan is the same as Magdala. Lending some support to this view is the fact that in Aramaic the letter l often replaces the n of Hebrew words. Thus Magadan could have been changed to Magdala. Others suggest that “Magdala” perhaps came to appear in more recent copies of the Greek text on account of an attempt to equate Magadan with modern Majdal.

Magdala (possibly Magadan) is considered to be modern Majdal (Migdal), about 6 km (3.5 mi) NNW of Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee. Located near the fork formed by the road running along the Sea of Galilee from Tiberias and the one coming down from the western hills, this site occupies a strategic position. Ruins of a relatively modern tower found there indicate that Majdal once guarded the southern entrance to the Plain of Gennesaret. Both Majdal and Magdala (a form of the Hebrew migh·dalʹ) mean “Tower.” This place is often suggested as the home of Mary Magdalene.

(Magʹbish).

The name of either a person or a place. Among those returning from Babylonian exile were 156 “sons of Magbish.” (Ezr 2:1, 30) Some tentatively identify Magbish with Khirbet el-Makhbiyeh, located about 5 km (3 mi) SW of Adullam.

See MARY No. 3.

(Magʹdi·el) [Choice Things of God].

A descendant of Esau, and one of the sheiks of Edom. (Ge 36:40-43; 1Ch 1:51, 54) Magdiel may have also been the name of a place and a tribe.​—See TIMNA No. 3.

[Heb., rim·mahʹ; Gr., skoʹlex].

The larva, or wormlike stage, of an insect just after leaving the egg. The term “maggot” is applied particularly to the fly larvae found in decaying vegetable or animal matter and in living tissues. The living or putrefying material provides heat for hatching the eggs and nourishment for the maggots.

Maggots have a legless, slender, segmented body that appears to be headless. However, with reference to the head, The Smithsonian Series (Vol. 5, p. 343) states: “The tapering end of the body is the head end, but the true head of the maggot is withdrawn entirely into the body. From the aperture where the head has disappeared, which serves the maggot as a mouth, two clawlike hooks project, and these hooks are both jaws and grasping organs to the maggot.”

The Scriptures allude to the fact that maggots subsist on dead organic matter. (Job 7:5; 17:14; 21:26; 24:20; Isa 14:11) The miraculous manna, if saved by the Israelites until the morning of the next day, gave off a repulsive odor and developed worms or maggots, except the manna stored up on the sixth day and saved over for the Sabbath. (Ex 16:20, 24) In mentioning the “maggot” in connection with Gehenna, Jesus evidently was alluding to the dump outside the city of Jerusalem where fires consumed the refuse and where worms or maggots subsisted on decaying matter near, but not in, the fire.​—Mr 9:48; compare Isa 66:24; see GEHENNA.

The word “maggot” was employed by Bildad to denote someone of little account.​—Job 25:6.

Secret arts and uncanny powers presumably used to accomplish things beyond what is natural​—associated with spiritistic, occult powers.

“Black” magic is said to consist of spells, special curses, and “the evil eye” that bring harm to one’s enemies. “White” magic, on the other hand, is said by its practicers to produce good results by breaking the spells and canceling the curses. Among some ancient peoples “black” magic was forbidden under penalty of death. The Bible, however, goes a step further and forbids every form of spiritistic magic. (Le 19:26; De 18:9-14) By the use of magic formulas, said to be obtained through supernatural knowledge and wisdom, the practitioner attempts to influence people and alter future events. In this respect magic differs from divination, which attempts only to discover future events rather than influence or change them.​—See DIVINATION.

Much of the concept of magic-working sorcery is based on the belief that evil spirits can be induced either to leave or to enter a person, that they can be tricked and deceived, and that they can be captured or trapped in a piece of wood or a clay image. For example, it is claimed that by making magic paths of honey or other agreeable things, the demons can be led around at the will of the magician.

All such notions naturally gave rise to a crafty class of magic-practicing priests, who exercised great power over the lives of the people, extorting large payments from those under their influence on the pretense of possessing supernatural powers over and beyond those of the demons. The people believed that these professional sorcerers could invoke the demons to obey but that the demons had no power over the sorcerers.

These spiritistic practices, so-called sciences, were developed and used by the ancient Chaldeans of Babylonia. Isaiah, in the eighth century B.C.E., tells us that Babylon of his day was rife with sorceries of all sorts. (Isa 47:12-15) More than a century later, in the days of Daniel, the magic-practicing priests were still a part of the Babylonian court. (Da 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27; 4:7; 5:11) This expression “magic-practicing priests” is a literal and explicit translation of the Hebrew.

The Babylonians had a great fear of physically deformed persons called warlocks and witches, in the belief that they were dispensers of “black” magic. The priests, on the other hand, were said to be masters of “white” magic. They believed that the same incantation that made a sick man well if spoken by a priest would kill the man if uttered by a warlock or witch.

It is possible that when people scattered around the earth because of the confusion of languages at Babel, they took with them some concept of such magical arts. (Ge 11:8, 9) Today millions practice the magic of mantra, that is, the mystic formula, hymn, or spellbinding prayer of popular Hinduism. Magic-practicing priests, witch doctors, medicine men, and sorcerers of all sorts are found in many places the world over, as they were among the Egyptians of the 18th century B.C.E., in the days of Joseph. (Ge 41:8, 24) Over two centuries after Joseph was sold into slavery, the magic-practicing priests of Egypt seemingly duplicated to an extent the first three miracles performed by Moses. (Ex 7:11, 22; 8:7) But they were powerless when it came to producing gnats, having to admit that it was “the finger of God!” They were likewise helpless in preventing the plague of boils from afflicting themselves.​—Ex 8:18, 19; 9:11.

Condemned by the Bible. The Bible is singularly different from the writings of other ancient people in that its references to uncanny powers and magical arts are all condemnatory. Nowhere does it recommend “white” magic to cancel spells of “black” magic. Rather, it urges faith, prayer, and trust in Jehovah as the protection against unseen “wicked spirit forces” and all their related activities, including magical influences. (Eph 6:11-18) In the Psalms the righteous pray for deliverance from evil; Jesus taught us to pray for deliverance “from the wicked one.” (Mt 6:13) The Talmud and the Koran, on the other hand, give way to superstition and fear. The Apocryphal book of Tobit contains absurd passages of magic-working sorcery.​—Tobit 6:5, 8, 9, 19; 8:2, 3; 11:8-15; 12:3; see APOCRYPHA (Tobit).

The nation of Israel was, therefore, unlike its contemporaries in this respect, and in order that it might remain so, Jehovah gave his people some very explicit laws concerning those who were intimate with the occult powers. “You must not preserve a sorceress alive.” (Ex 22:18) “You must not practice magic.” “As for a man or woman in whom there proves to be a mediumistic spirit or spirit of prediction, they should be put to death without fail.” (Le 19:26; 20:27) “There should not be found in you . . . a practicer of magic or anyone who looks for omens or a sorcerer, or one who binds others with a spell or anyone who consults a spirit medium.”​—De 18:10-14.

Jehovah’s prophet also declared that God would cut off all those who indulged in sorceries. (Mic 5:12) Certain individuals such as Saul, Jezebel, and Manasseh, who forsook Jehovah and turned to sorceries of one kind or another, are examples of the past not to be copied.​—1Sa 28:7; 2Ki 9:22; 2Ch 33:1, 2, 6.

The Christian Greek Scriptures also tell of the prevalence of sorcerers throughout the Roman Empire in the days of Jesus and the apostles. On the island of Cyprus, there was such a one named Bar-Jesus, whom Paul denounced as “full of every sort of fraud and every sort of villainy, . . . son of the Devil.” (Ac 13:6-11) There were others, however, such as Simon of Samaria who gave up their magic-working practices and embraced Christianity. (Ac 8:5, 9-13) On one occasion in Ephesus, “quite a number of those who practiced magical arts brought their books together and burned them up before everybody. And they calculated together the prices of them and found them worth fifty thousand pieces of silver [if denarii, $37,200].” (Ac 19:18, 19) Writing to those in Galatia, the apostle Paul included spiritistic occultism among “the works of the flesh,” warning them “that those who practice such things will not inherit God’s kingdom.” (Ga 5:19-21) Outside that glorious Kingdom will be all those who persist in these Babylonish practices. (Re 21:8; 22:15) Together with Babylon the Great, so notorious for misleading the nations by her sorceries, they will all be destroyed.​—Re 18:23; see POWER, POWERFUL WORKS (Responsible use of power).

Under the government of Babylon, police magistrates were civil officers in the jurisdictional districts who were learned in the law and exercised limited judicial authority. They were among the officials gathered to bow to Nebuchadnezzar’s image of gold.​—Da 3:2, 3.

In Roman colonies, the administration of government was in the hands of civil magistrates, called stra·te·goiʹ in the Greek cities. There could be 3, 4, usually 5, or even 10 or 12 making up the magisterial board. These had the duties of keeping order, administering finances, trying and judging law violators, and ordering the execution of punishment. Sometimes their names and titles appear on coins issued by a city. Constables, or lictors, were assigned to them to carry out their orders.​—See CONSTABLE.

The civil magistrates in the Roman colony of Philippi (Ac 16:12), without a trial, had Paul and Silas put into stocks. The next day, the magistrates sent constables to release them. But Paul, in order to give public and legal vindication to the good news that he preached, demanded that the magistrates personally release them. The magistrates, fearing trouble with Rome over flogging Roman citizens, entreated Paul and Silas and released them.​—Ac 16:19-39.

(Maʹgog).

1. A son of Japheth and grandson of Noah. His name appears among the family heads from whom the initial national groups were dispersed about the earth following the Flood.​—Ge 10:1, 2, 5; 1Ch 1:5.

2. A name that occurs in Ezekiel’s prophecy concerning the stormlike attack by “Gog of the land of Magog” against Jehovah’s regathered people. It appears to be used by the prophet to indicate a land or region in “the remotest parts of the north,” out of which Gog’s host comes forth, his plundering forces described as “riding on horses, a great congregation, even a numerous military force” employing sword and bow.​—Eze 38:2-4, 8, 9, 13-16; 39:1-3, 6.

From the time of the Jewish historian Josephus, it has been suggested that “the land of Magog” related to the Scythian tribes found in NE Europe and Central Asia. (Jewish Antiquities, I, 123 [vi, 1]) Classical writers of Greek and Roman times described the Scythians as northern barbarians, rapacious and warlike, equipped with large cavalry forces, well armored, and skilled with the bow. While the name Scythian may originally have been derived from “Ashkenaz,” another descendant of Japheth (Ge 10:2, 3), the 1959 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (Vol. 20, p. 235) states that “throughout classical literature Scythia generally meant all regions to the north and northeast of the Black sea, and a Scythian (Skuthes) any barbarian coming from those parts.” Other reference works likewise show that the term “Scythian” was used rather flexibly to embrace generally the nomadic tribes N of the Caucasus (the region between the Black and Caspian Seas), similar to the modern use of the term “Tartar.” Hence The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge comments: “The name ‘Scythians’ was among the ancients an elastic appellation, and so was the Hebrew ‘Magog.’”​—Edited by S. Jackson, 1956, Vol. V, p. 14.

Symbolic Use. The fact that the definite location of “the land of Magog” is left uncertain and indeterminate to us in the Bible (as well as in secular history), along with the prophet’s reference to “the final part of the years” (Eze 38:8), and the fact that the described invasion is not known to have taken place literally upon Israel, provide the basis for viewing the prophecy concerning Magog as relating to a future time in the Biblical ‘time of the end.’ Because of this, many commentators see in it a forecast of the final attack of the world powers upon the Kingdom of God, and they see the land of Magog as representing “the world as hostile to God’s people and kingdom.”​—Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Bible Dictionary, 1936, p. 307.

Thus, the land of Magog clearly has a symbolic significance. The fact that the term “Scythian,” with which Magog is usually associated, came to be used as a synonym for that which is brutal, rapacious, and warlike would logically point to a position of strong opposition to God’s people. The nations of the world will find themselves in such a position when, at the instigation of the foremost opposer of God, Satan the Devil, they launch a final attack on earth against true worship of God.​—See GOG No. 2.

3. A term used at Revelation 20:8 in relation to events to occur at the close of the Thousand Year Reign of Christ Jesus and subsequent to the loosing of Satan from the abyss. Instead of referring to a particular land or location, “Gog and Magog” here is used to describe those on earth who yield to the released Adversary’s influence and rebel against God’s rule as expressed through “the holy ones and the beloved city.”​—Re 20:3, 7-10.

(Magʹpi·ash).

One of the heads of the people whose descendant, if not he himself, attested by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” of Nehemiah’s day.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 14, 20.

See MAHALALEL No. 1.

(Ma·halʹa·lel) [possibly, Praise of God].

1. A descendant of Seth through Enosh and Kenan; hence Seth’s great-grandson. Mahalalel lived 895 years. (Ge 5:6-17; 1Ch 1:1, 2) In Luke’s genealogy of Jesus, he is referred to by the name Mahalaleel.​—Lu 3:37, 38.

2. A descendant of Judah through Perez and the ancestor of Athaiah, a resident of Jerusalem after the return from Babylonian exile.​—Ne 11:4.

(Maʹha·lath).

1. Ishmael’s daughter, the sister of Nebaioth and one of the women Esau took as a wife. (Ge 28:9) She is possibly the same person as the Basemath of Genesis 36:3.

2. A granddaughter of David through his son Jerimoth. She became one of the wives of Rehoboam.​—2Ch 11:18.

(Maʹha·lath).

Probably a musical term, perhaps one of a technical nature, found in the superscriptions of Psalms 53 and 88. Some believe that this term may be related to a Hebrew root verb meaning “grow weak; fall sick,” thereby suggesting a gloomy and melancholy tune. This would harmonize with the somewhat somber content of the two songs, particularly that of Psalm 88.

(Ma·ha·naʹim) [Two Camps].

A site E of the Jordan where Jacob, after parting from Laban, encountered a company of angels. Jacob then called the place “Mahanaim.” (Ge 32:1, 2) The meaning of the name (“Two Camps”) may allude to “the camp of God,” as represented by his angels, and to the camp of Jacob. Apparently sometime later a city was built on the site. In the 15th century B.C.E., this city was first assigned to the Gadites and then to the Levite Merarites.​—Jos 13:24, 26; 21:34, 38.

While David ruled from Hebron, Mahanaim served as the capital for the rival kingdom of Saul’s son and successor Ish-bosheth. This suggests that it was fortified and occupied a strategic position. (2Sa 2:8-11, 29) Evidently in this city Ish-bosheth was assassinated. (2Sa 4:5-7) Later David, fleeing from his rebellious son Absalom, came to Gilead where he was kindly received at Mahanaim. He remained there at the request of his supporters and did not share in the battle that completely defeated Absalom’s attempt to seize the throne. (2Sa 17:24–18:16; 19:32; 1Ki 2:8) During the reign of David’s son Solomon, Mahanaim was under the jurisdiction of the deputy Ahinadab.​—1Ki 4:7, 14.

At The Song of Solomon 6:13 “the dance of two camps” may also be rendered “the dance of Mahanaim” (AS) or “the Mahanaim dance.” (AT) Perhaps the reference is to dancing associated with a certain festival that was held at Mahanaim.​—Compare Jg 21:19, 21.

The exact location of Mahanaim is uncertain, but it was E of the Jordan and evidently N of the Jabbok. (2Sa 2:29; Ge 31:21; 32:2, 22) Some suggest Khirbet Mahneh (or, Mihna), about 19 km (12 mi) N of the Jabbok and about the same distance E of the Jordan, but many feel that it is too far N of the Jabbok. Yohanan Aharoni identifies Mahanaim with Tell edh-Dhahab el-Gharbi, on the N bank of the Jabbok, about 12 km (7.5 mi) E of the Jordan.​—The Land of the Bible, translated and edited by A. Rainey, 1979, pp. 314, 439.

(Maʹha·neh-dan) [Camp of Dan].

A place once described as lying “between Zorah and Eshtaol” (Jg 13:25) and another time as being located W of Kiriath-jearim. (Jg 18:11, 12) Some believe that these are two different sites, since the suggested locations for Eshtaol and Zorah are a number of miles SW of Kiriath-jearim. In any event, the location(s) of Mahaneh-dan is unknown. Its name means “Camp of Dan” and, therefore, perhaps simply denoted a temporary settlement or a campsite and understandably could have applied to more than one place.

(Maʹha·rai) [from a root meaning “hurry; hasten”].

A mighty man of David’s military forces and a Netophathite. (2Sa 23:8, 28; 1Ch 11:26, 30) He was a descendant of Zerah and was later put in charge of the division of 24,000 ministering to the king during the tenth month.​—1Ch 27:1, 13.

(Maʹhath) [possibly from a root meaning “terrify”].

1. A Kohathite Levite and ancestor of Samuel and Heman the singer at the house of Jehovah.​—1Ch 6:31-35.

2. One of the Kohathite Levites who aided in cleansing the temple in King Hezekiah’s day. (2Ch 29:12, 15, 16) Evidently the same person was made a commissioner under Conaniah and Shimei in charge of “the contribution and the tenth and the holy things” at the temple.​—2Ch 31:12, 13.

(Maʹha·vite).

A designation applied to Eliel, one of the mighty men of David’s military forces. (1Ch 11:26, 46) The term may have been used to distinguish this person from the Eliel of 1 Chronicles 11:47.

(Ma·haʹzi·oth).

A Kohathite Levite and last mentioned of the 14 sons of Heman. Mahazioth became head of the 23rd service group of temple musicians as organized by David.​—1Ch 25:4-6, 8, 9, 30.

(Maʹher-shalʹal-hash-baz) [Hurry, O Spoil! He Has Made Haste to the Plunder; or, Hurrying to the Spoil, He Has Made Haste to the Plunder].

The name given to Isaiah’s second son at Jehovah’s direction.

Jehovah commanded Isaiah to write these prophetic words on a large tablet and have it attested to by reliable witnesses. Thereafter, he instructed the prophet to give this same expression as a name to his newborn son, declaring that before the child could say, “My father!” and “My mother!” the king of Assyria would subjugate Judah’s enemies​—Damascus and Samaria. (Isa 8:1-4) The prophetic meaning of this name given to Isaiah’s second son was fulfilled within the designated time period. During the reign of Israel’s King Pekah, the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-pileser III invaded Israel, took many cities, plundered the land, and carried numerous inhabitants into captivity. Thereafter, Pekah was murdered. (2Ki 15:29, 30) The king of Assyria also captured Syria’s capital city Damascus, took its people into exile, and put Syrian King Rezin to death. (2Ki 16:9) In this way both of these kings who had conspired against Judah met their end. Later, in 740 B.C.E., the Assyrians overthrew Samaria, removing the apostate Israelites from that city and from the rest of the domain of the northern kingdom of Israel. (2Ki 17:1-6) Thus, this boy born to Isaiah by his wife (whom he terms “the prophetess”) proved to be in Israel a truthful and reliable ‘sign and miracle’ from Jehovah.​—Isa 8:3, 18.

(Mahʹlah) [from a root meaning “grow weak; fall sick”].

1. One of the daughters of Zelophehad of the tribe of Manasseh. Mahlah and her sisters requested their father’s inheritance, since he had no sons but only five daughters. Moses inquired of Jehovah, who ruled that the daughters of Zelophehad should receive it. (Nu 26:28-33; 27:1-11) A subsequent order of Jehovah through Moses required Mahlah and the other daughters of Zelophehad to marry within the tribe of Manasseh, to prevent the inheritance from passing to another tribe. Accordingly, Mahlah and her sisters “became the wives of the sons of their father’s brothers.” (Nu 36:1-6, 10-12) This judicial decision established a precedent as to inheritance. (Nu 36:7-9) They later presented themselves before Eleazar the priest and Joshua, cited Jehovah’s command, and were given “an inheritance in the midst of the brothers of their father.”​—Jos 17:3, 4.

2. A descendant of Manasseh whose mother was Hammolecheth. It is not stated whether this was a son or a daughter.​—1Ch 7:17, 18.

(Mahʹli) [possibly from a root meaning “grow weak; fall sick”].

1. Levi’s grandson, a son of Merari and brother of Mushi. (Ex 6:16, 19; 1Ch 6:19, 29; 24:26) Mahli was the father of Eleazar and Kish and the family head of the Mahlites. (Nu 3:20, 33; 1Ch 23:21; 24:28, 29) His descendant Sherebiah, referred to as “a man of discretion from the sons of Mahli,” returned to Jerusalem with Ezra.​—Ezr 8:18.

2. A Levite, the son of Mushi, and hence the nephew of Merari’s son Mahli.​—1Ch 6:47; 23:23; 24:26, 30.

(Mahʹlites) [Of (Belonging to) Mahli].

Levites who were descendants of Merari’s son Mahli.​—Nu 3:17, 20, 33; 26:58.

(Mahʹlon) [possibly from a root meaning “grow weak; fall sick”].

Son of Elimelech and Naomi. During a famine in the days of the Judges, he moved with his parents from Bethlehem in Judah to Moab. There Mahlon married the Moabitess Ruth, but he died childless. (Ru 1:1-5; 4:10) Ruth returned to Judah with her mother-in-law and, complying with the law of levirate marriage, married Boaz. (Ru 4:9, 10; De 25:5, 6) The resulting family line produced David and led to Jesus Christ.​—Ru 4:22; Mt 1:5, 6, 16.

(Maʹhol) [from a root meaning “dance; whirl”; or, possibly from a root meaning “play the flute”].

One whose sons’ wisdom, though great, was not equal to King Solomon’s. (1Ki 4:31) Some view the designation “sons of Mahol” to mean an association of musicians or dancers.​—Compare Ps 150:4, where the same Hebrew word is rendered “circle dance.”

(Mah·seiʹah) [Jah Is a Refuge].

Ancestor of Jeremiah’s associate Baruch and of Seraiah the quartermaster.​—Jer 32:12; 51:59.

See VIRGIN.

(Maʹkaz) [possibly from a root meaning “abhor”].

A place under the jurisdiction of one of Solomon’s 12 deputies. (1Ki 4:7, 9) Makaz is tentatively identified with Khirbet el-Mukheizin, about 5 km (3 mi) NW of Ekron.

(Mak·heʹloth) [Congregated Throngs].

One of Israel’s wilderness encampments. (Nu 33:25, 26) Location, unidentified.

(Mak·keʹdah).

A royal Canaanite city in the Shephelah. It was in the cave of Makkedah that the five kings who had allied themselves against the Gibeonites hid and were then temporarily trapped until their execution. Thereafter this cave became their common tomb, and the Israelite army under Joshua captured the city of Makkedah and devoted it to destruction. At the time of the division of the Promised Land, Makkedah was granted to the tribe of Judah.​—Jos 10:5-29; 12:7, 8, 16; 15:20, 33, 41.

The exact site of Makkedah is uncertain. It has been tentatively identified with Khirbet el-Kheishum, about 4 km (2.5 mi) NNE of Azekah. Extensive ruins and nearby caves mark the site.

(Makʹtesh) [A Mortar].

Apparently a section of Jerusalem near the Fish Gate and the second quarter. At the time of Judah’s calamity, the inhabitants of Maktesh were foretold to howl, since commercial activities would cease there.​—Zep 1:1, 2, 10, 11.

The Hebrew word makh·teshʹ refers to “a mortar” (Pr 27:22) or “a mortar-shaped hollow” (Jg 15:19), and therefore, some translations use “Mortar” instead of “Maktesh” as a proper name. (AT, JB, RS) The Targum identifies Maktesh with the Kidron Valley, the deep ravine along Jerusalem’s eastern wall. But this valley is not in the vicinity of the more westerly “Fish Gate” and the “second quarter.” For this reason Maktesh is generally thought to denote a part of the Central (Tyropoeon) Valley, perhaps its upper portion.

(Malʹa·chi).

A Hebrew prophet and Bible writer. (Mal 1:1) The Scriptures furnish no information as to his ancestry and personal life. What is known about him is revealed in the book bearing his name. He is therein shown to have been a man of great zeal for the name and worship of Jehovah.

The final book of the Hebrew Scriptures in modern English Bibles. In the traditional Jewish canon, it is placed last among the writings of the so-called minor prophets but before the Writings (Hagiographa). It constitutes a pronouncement of Jehovah regarding Israel by means of Malachi.​—Mal 1:1.

Circumstances in Malachi’s Time. At the time Malachi prophesied, a deplorable situation existed among the priests. Contrary to the Law, they were accepting lame, blind, and sick animals for sacrifice on Jehovah’s altar. (Mal 1:8; Le 22:19; De 15:21) They failed to give proper direction and instruction to the people, causing many to stumble. (Mal 2:7, 8) When judging matters, they showed partiality. (2:9) All of this had a bad effect on the Israelites in general, causing them to view Jehovah’s service as being of little value. (3:14, 15) This is apparent from the fact that the Israelites did not support the temple by paying their tithes. So far had they fallen from their devotion to Jehovah that apparently they were divorcing their wives to marry women worshiping false gods. Also, sorcery, adultery, lying, fraud, and oppression came to exist among the Israelites. (2:11, 14-16; 3:5, 8-10) For this reason Jehovah gave advance warning of his coming to his temple for judgment. (3:1-6) At the same time he encouraged wrongdoers to repent, saying: “Return to me, and I will return to you.”​—3:7.

Time of Composition. Internal evidence provides a basis for dating the completion of the book of Malachi. It was written after the Babylonian exile, for the Israelites were under the administration of a governor. Worship was carried on at the temple, indicating that it had been rebuilt. (Mal 1:7, 8; 2:3, 13; 3:8-10) This points to a period later than that of Haggai (520 B.C.E.) and Zechariah (520-518 B.C.E.), as these prophets were active in urging the Israelites to complete the temple. (Ezr 5:1, 2; 6:14, 15) Israel’s neglect of true worship and its failure to adhere to God’s law appear to fit conditions existing when Nehemiah again arrived at Jerusalem sometime after the 32nd year of King Artaxerxes (c. 443 B.C.E.). (Compare Mal 1:6-8; 2:7, 8, 11, 14-16; Ne 13:6-31.) Therefore, like the book of Nehemiah, the book of Malachi may well have been committed to writing after 443 B.C.E.

Harmony With Other Bible Books. This book is in full agreement with the rest of the Scriptures. The apostle Paul quoted from Malachi 1:2, 3 when illustrating that God’s choosing depends, “not upon the one wishing nor upon the one running, but upon God, who has mercy.” (Ro 9:10-16) Jehovah is identified as the Creator (Mal 2:10; compare Ps 100:3; Isa 43:1; Ac 17:24-26) and as a just, merciful, and unchangeable God who does not leave deliberate wrongdoing unpunished. (Mal 2:2, 3, 17; 3:5-7, 17, 18; 4:1; compare Ex 34:6, 7; Le 26:14-17; Ne 9:17; Jas 1:17.) The importance of God’s name is stressed. (Mal 1:5, 11, 14; 4:2; compare De 28:58, 59; Ps 35:27; Mic 5:4.) And encouragement is given to remember the Law of Moses.​—Mal 4:4.

The book also directed Israel’s attention to the coming of the Messiah and to the day of Jehovah. While it is pointed out that Jehovah would send forth the one called “my messenger,” this one would be only the forerunner of the still greater “messenger of the covenant” who would accompany Jehovah. (Mal 3:1) The inspired accounts of Matthew (11:10-14; 17:10-13), Mark (9:11-13), and Luke (1:16, 17, 76) combine to identify Jesus’ forerunner John the Baptizer as the “messenger” and the “Elijah” initially meant at Malachi 3:1 and 4:5, 6.

[Box on page 299]

HIGHLIGHTS OF MALACHI

A pronouncement emphasizing accountability to Jehovah God when his requirements are disregarded

Written by the prophet Malachi, evidently some 95 years after the first Jewish exiles returned from Babylon

Jehovah loved Israel, but they despise his name (1:1-14)

Jehovah loved his people just as he loved Jacob, though he hated Esau

Nevertheless, Israel’s priests despise God’s name, accepting lame and sick animals for sacrifice; they would not give animals like that to a human governor

Priests and people are censured for failure to keep Jehovah’s ways (2:1-17)

The priests have departed from God’s way, causing many “to stumble in the law,” and thus have “ruined the covenant of Levi”

There has been a marrying of foreign wives, and some have dealt treacherously with the wives of their youth by divorcing them

Israelites have wearied God by claiming that he approves of those doing bad

The true Lord will judge and refine his people (3:1-18)

Jehovah will come to the temple with the messenger of the covenant; he will refine and cleanse the Levites, and Judah’s gift offering will please Jehovah

Sorcerers, adulterers, those swearing falsely, defrauders, and oppressors will experience a speedy judgment

Bring the whole tenth part into Jehovah’s storehouse and thus receive a flood of blessings

A book of remembrance will be written for those fearing Jehovah; His people will discern the distinction between the righteous and the wicked

The coming of the great and fear-inspiring day of Jehovah (4:1-6)

Jehovah’s day will bring the complete destruction of the wicked, while ‘the sun of righteousness will shine forth’ to those fearing God’s name

That day will be preceded by a restoration work, to be accomplished by the prophet Elijah

(Malʹcam) [Their King].

1. A Benjamite and a son of Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh.​—1Ch 8:1, 8, 9.

2. The principal idol god of the Ammonites. (2Sa 12:30; 1Ch 20:1, 2; Jer 49:1, 3) Possibly the same as Milcom, Molech, and Moloch. (1Ki 11:5, 7; Ac 7:43) The name Malcam in the Masoretic text differs from Milcom, “the disgusting thing of the Ammonites,” only in the vowel pointing of the Hebrew. (1Ki 11:5) Contrary to the instruction given at Joshua 23:7, the Jews began making sworn oaths by Malcam. (Zep 1:5) It must be determined from context when the Hebrew should be rendered as the name of the god and when as “their king.”​—Am 1:15; see MOLECH.

See MALCHIJAH No. 3.

(Malʹchi·el) [God Is King; or, My King Is God].

Grandson of Asher and a son of Beriah. (Ge 46:17) He is called “the father of Birzaith” (1Ch 7:31) and was a family head in Israel.​—Nu 26:45.

(Malʹchi·el·ites) [Of (Belonging to) Malchiel].

A family of Asherites that descended from Malchiel.​—Nu 26:44, 45.

(Mal·chiʹjah) [My King Is Jehovah].

1. A Levite who descended from Gershom and who was an ancestor of the Levite musician Asaph.​—1Ch 6:39-43.

2. Descendant of Aaron and head of the 5th of the 24 divisions of priests organized by David.​—1Ch 24:1, 9.

3. A priest and the father of Pashhur.​—1Ch 9:12; Ne 11:12; Jer 21:1; 38:1.

4. “The son of the king” into whose cistern Jeremiah was thrown. (Jer 38:6) In this instance the expression “the son of the king” may denote, not that he was an offspring of the king, but that he was closely connected with the royal household or was an official of royal descent.​—See JERAHMEEL No. 3.

5. An Israelite “of the sons of Parosh” among those accepting foreign wives but dismissing them in Ezra’s day.​—Ezr 10:25, 44.

6. Another Israelite “of the sons of Parosh” among those sending their foreign wives away. (Ezr 10:25, 44) The Greek Septuagint reads “Hashabiah” instead of “Malchijah” here.

7. A man of Israel “of the sons of Harim” who was among those sending away foreign wives and sons in Ezra’s time.​—Ezr 10:31, 44.

8. An Israelite, “the son of Harim.” Along with Hasshub, he repaired a section of Jerusalem’s wall and the Tower of the Bake Ovens after the return from Babylonian exile. (Ne 3:11) He may be the same person as No. 7.

9. Son of Rechab and prince of the district of Beth-haccherem who repaired the Gate of the Ash-heaps during Nehemiah’s governorship.​—Ne 3:14.

10. Member of the goldsmith guild who repaired part of Jerusalem’s wall in Nehemiah’s day.​—Ne 3:31.

11. A priest who stood at Ezra’s left hand when the copyist read the Law before the Israelites in reestablished Jerusalem.​—Ne 8:4.

12. One of the priests, or the forefather of one, who attested by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” during Nehemiah’s governorship.​—Ne 9:38–10:3.

13. A priest who participated in the inauguration ceremonies for Jerusalem’s wall as rebuilt under Nehemiah’s supervision. (Ne 12:40-42) He may be the same person as No. 11.

(Mal·chiʹram) [My King Is High (Exalted)].

One of the sons of King Jeconiah (Jehoiachin) as a prisoner in Babylon.​—1Ch 3:17, 18.

(Malʹchi-shuʹa) [My King [Hears My] Cry for Help].

One of King Saul’s sons. (1Sa 14:49; 1Ch 8:33; 9:39) He was struck down in battle by the Philistines at Mount Gilboa (1Sa 31:2; 1Ch 10:2), and his corpse (along with those of his brothers Jonathan and Abinadab and that of his father Saul) was fastened by the Philistines on the wall of Beth-shan. However, valiant men of Israel retrieved the bodies, burned them in Jabesh, and buried their bones there.​—1Sa 31:8-13.

(Malʹchus) [from a Heb. root meaning “king”].

The high priest’s slave who accompanied Judas Iscariot and the crowd to Gethsemane, where Christ was arrested. Peter struck off Malchus’ right ear with a sword (Joh 18:10; Mt 26:51; Mr 14:47), but Jesus miraculously healed it. (Lu 22:50, 51) Another slave of the high priest Caiaphas, a relative of Malchus, later recognized Peter, and this led to the apostle’s third denial of Christ.​—Joh 18:26, 27.

Literally, a speaking ill, or evil, against someone, and hence, the opposite of a benediction, or a blessing. The Hebrew word qela·lahʹ basically refers to such a malediction and is regularly contrasted with “blessing” in numerous texts. (Ge 27:12, 13; De 11:26-29; Zec 8:13) It is derived from the root verb qa·lalʹ, which literally means “be light”; but, when used in a figurative sense, means “call down evil upon,” “treat with contempt.” (Ex 18:22; Le 20:9; 2Sa 19:43) This is the word David used when he told Michal he would make himself even more “lightly esteemed” than what she had accused him of doing. (2Sa 6:20-22) Jehovah God used it after the Flood in saying that he would never again “call down evil upon the ground on man’s account.”​—Ge 8:21.

Purpose of Divine Maledictions. One purpose of divine maledictions is to make clear who are and who are not God’s approved servants, since the maledictions manifest God’s disapproval, even as his blessings manifest his approval. So, in promising Abraham his blessing, Jehovah also stated that “him that calls down evil [a participial form of qa·lalʹ] upon you I shall curse.” (Ge 12:3) When the object of the malediction is thus left anonymous, the malediction also serves as a warning guide and a protection for those who wish to gain or retain God’s favor. The Mosaic Law specified numerous blessings and maledictions, all of which would result from the application of the Law’s statutes and ordinances. (De 28:1, 2, 15) Prior to entry into the Promised Land, Moses emphasized the fact that the nation, as individuals and as a collective group, must choose between the blessing and the malediction and that this they would do by either obedience or disobedience. (De 30:19, 20) Joshua, in essence, repeated this protective exhortation and warning within the Promised Land. (Compare Jos 8:32-35; 24:14, 15.) Individuals could, therefore, endeavor to avoid coming under the announced maledictions.

The malediction also certifies that there can be no trifling with or despising of God’s principles and announced purposes. High Priest Eli became the object of a specific malediction because of weakly allowing his sons to go unrebuked, even though they were “calling down evil upon God.” (1Sa 3:13) Jehovah told him the rule that “those honoring me I shall honor, and those despising me will be of little account [from the root form qa·lalʹ].” (1Sa 2:30) Just recompense for wrongdoing thus accompanies God’s malediction. This may be immediate, as in the case of the jeering delinquents upon whom Elisha called down evil in the name of Jehovah (2Ki 2:24), or it may be reserved for a later time, as when God informed King Josiah concerning the calamity due to come on Judah. (2Ki 22:19, 20) Jehovah warned the nation of Israel that violation of his laws would bring inescapable difficulties, saying: “All these maledictions will certainly come upon you and pursue you and overtake you until you have been annihilated, because you did not listen to the voice of Jehovah your God by keeping his commandments and his statutes that he commanded you.” (De 28:45) Although he foretold their desolation and exile in the plainest of terms, they refused to give heed, and thus Jerusalem became “a malediction to all the nations of the earth.”​—Jer 26:6; 24:9; De 29:27.

Setting Aside of Maledictions. A malediction can be set aside or canceled by Jehovah, but only where his just requirements are properly satisfied. This appears to be the case with the original malediction on the earth that was evidently terminated by the Flood that cleansed the globe of wickedness. (Ge 8:21) Failure to keep the Law covenant brought a malediction on all the nation of Israel, even on those who conscientiously (though imperfectly) tried to keep its terms. The apostle Paul shows that it was for this reason that Christ Jesus died in the manner in which he did​—upon a torture stake. (Ga 3:10-13) Thereby Jesus, though he had perfectly observed the Law himself, took upon himself the curse that resulted from the malediction of the Law and that rested on all those under that Law. Deuteronomy 21:23 states: “Because something accursed [literally, a malediction] of God is the one hung up [upon a stake].” Jesus, by being nailed to the stake as a criminal, sentenced (though unjustly) by the Jewish priestly court, in effect became “a curse.” Thereafter, when Jesus presented the value of his sacrifice in heaven, the Law was canceled by God. In accepting the sacrifice, God figuratively nailed the Law to the stake, and the curse accompanying that Law was legally removed. (Col 2:14) Because Jesus’ body was viewed as being a malediction, and also to fulfill the Law’s requirement so that the Sabbath might not be profaned, the Jews were anxious that Jesus’ corpse and those of the malefactors be removed from their stakes before the day ended.​—De 21:23; Joh 19:31.

What determines the effectiveness of a malediction?

While individuals may pronounce maledictions, their validity is entirely dependent on God, his principles, and his purposes. It was in vain that Goliath “called down evil upon David by his [false] gods.” (1Sa 17:43) Jehovah changed Balaam’s proposed malediction into a blessing. (De 23:4, 5; Jos 24:9, 10) Because David recognized that only Jehovah can make a malediction effective, he rejected Abishai’s angry request to be allowed to go and ‘take off the head’ of Shimei, who was abusively calling down evil on David. David said: “Let him alone that he may call down evil, for Jehovah has said so to him! Perhaps Jehovah will see with his eye, and Jehovah will actually restore to me goodness instead of his malediction this day.” (2Sa 16:5-12; compare Ps 109:17, 18, 28.) God’s Word specifically condemns the calling down of evil on one’s parents (Ex 21:17; Le 20:9; Pr 20:20), on God (Ex 22:28; Le 24:11, 14, 15, 23), or on the king (Ec 10:20), and it exposes those who bless with their mouths while “inside themselves they call down evil.”​—Ps 62:4.

As God’s spokesman, Christ Jesus while on earth, in effect, pronounced maledictions on the religious guides and Pharisees for their willful opposition to God’s purpose. (Mt 23:13-33) The apostle Peter evidently ‘called down evil’ upon Ananias and Sapphira for playing false to God, resulting in their immediate death. (Ac 5:1-11) The apostle Paul did somewhat similarly with the false prophet Elymas, the sorcerer, whom he called a “son of the Devil” and an “enemy of everything righteous,” and who, thereafter, became temporarily blind. (Ac 13:6-12) These actions had a salutary effect on those witnessing them. Such apostolic powers, however, did not give authority, or license, to others to pronounce maledictions. James warns against Christians’ improperly using the tongue for cursing men.​—Jas 3:9-12; compare Ps 109:17, 18 with Col 3:8-10.

Whereas history records that in postapostolic times and down through the centuries religious organizations have published many “anathemas” and “interdicts” against individuals, cities, and nations, it also shows that the agent employed to make such malediction effective has invariably been, not the power of God, but the earthly power of a church or of the secular state. In contrast, at Psalm 37:3-9, 22 we are counseled to wait on Jehovah, since “those being blessed by him will themselves possess the earth, but those upon whom evil is called by him will be cut off.” Such “cutting-off” is included in the malediction Jesus pronounces on the cursed “goat” class of his prophetic parable at Matthew 25:31-46. In connection with the “new heavens and a new earth,” evil is also prophesied to be called down on sinners.​—Isa 65:17, 20; see CURSE.

(Mal·loʹthi) [from a root meaning “make signs; utter”].

A Kohathite Levite and one of the 14 sons of the singer Heman. (1Ch 25:4, 5) The family served as musicians under the direction of their father Heman. When David organized the divisions of the Levites to serve in turns at the house of Jehovah, the 19th lot fell to Mallothi, who assumed the headship of that division of 12 musicians.​—1Ch 25:6, 26.

[Heb., ʼo·rothʹ or ʼoh·rothʹ].

The dwarf mallow is a creeping plant having nearly round, somewhat lobed, saw-edged leaves with long leafstalks. Its flowers are over 1 cm (0.5 in.) across and vary in color from pale blue to white. The flat and circular mucilaginous fruits are commonly called cheeses.

“Mallows” translates the Hebrew word ʼo·rothʹ (2Ki 4:39; Isa 26:19), considered to be the plural of ʼoh·rahʹ, “light.” (Es 8:16; Ps 139:12) According to L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner’s Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (Leiden, 1958, p. 90), ʼo·rothʹ denotes the dwarf mallow (Malva rotundifolia). This identification is based on the fact that this plant is very sensitive to light, hence perhaps the Hebrew designation meaning “light-[herbs].” Also, its fruit is edible, thus harmonizing with 2 Kings 4:39.​—PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 543.

(Malʹluch) [from a root meaning “reign as king”; or, “king”].

1. A Merarite Levite and a forefather of the Levitical singer Ethan.​—1Ch 6:44-47.

2. One of the priests accompanying Zerubbabel when the Jews returned from Babylonian exile.​—Ne 12:1, 2, 7.

3. An Israelite “of the sons of Bani” among those who had accepted foreign wives but who sent them away in the days of Ezra.​—Ezr 10:29, 44.

4. An Israelite “of the sons of Harim” among those who had taken foreign wives but who dismissed them in Ezra’s time.​—Ezr 10:31, 32, 44.

5. One of the priests, or a forefather of one, attesting by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” made in Nehemiah’s day.​—Ne 9:38–10:4.

6. An Israelite, one of the heads of the people, whose descendant, if not he himself, attested the “trustworthy arrangement” made in the time of Nehemiah.​—Ne 9:38; 10:1, 14, 27.

(Malʹlu·chi).

A priestly family whose representative served in the days of High Priest Joiakim, and in the days of Ezra and Governor Nehemiah.​—Ne 12:12, 14, 26.

The name Malluchi is in the Masoretic text with the kere, or marginal notation, that it should be read as “Melicu,” which latter form is found in the King James Version. The Greek Septuagint reads “Malluch,” which some scholars think was the original form. These scholars suggest (but there is no way of proving it) that the adding of i (yohdh [י] in Hebrew) at the end of the name came about when the first letter of the following word was unintentionally repeated in manuscript copying.

(Malʹta).

An island in the Mediterranean lying about 100 km (60 mi) S of Sicily and having an area of about 246 sq km (95 sq mi). It was at Malta that the apostle Paul was shipwrecked, and there he remained for three months. During this time he healed Publius’ father and others afflicted with sicknesses.​—Ac 28:1, 7-9, 11.

In the past some associated the Greek word rendered “Malta” (Me·liʹte) with Mljet (or, Italian Meleda) off the W coast of the Balkan Peninsula, because anciently this island was called Melita. But tradition and the evidence of Scripture point to Malta as the place where Paul experienced shipwreck. The designation “sea of Adria,” where the boat was said to be as it approached Malta, came to include the waters of the Mediterranean E of Sicily and W of Crete, and therefore, it could be said that Malta was bounded by this sea.​—Ac 27:27.

Paul’s Shipwreck. Sometime after Atonement Day (in September or October) the ship on which Paul was traveling as a prisoner left the Cretan harbor of Fair Havens and was seized by a tempestuous wind (Euroaquilo), apparently from the ENE. It drove the ship away from the coast of Crete to Cauda, and the mariners feared being run aground on the “Syrtis,” the quicksands along the shores of northern Africa. (Ac 27:8, 9, 13-17) An ENE wind could not have caused the vessel to drift toward Mljet, about 1,000 km (600 mi) NNW of Cauda. Evidently the boat, after drifting some two weeks, neared Malta, about 870 km (540 mi) WNW of Cauda.​—Ac 27:33; see EUROAQUILO.

What is today called St. Paul’s Bay, situated on the NE side of Malta, could have been reached on a WNW course without previously touching any other part of the island of Malta. Perhaps when their trained ears heard breakers dashing against rocky Qawra (Koura) Head, which juts out into the Mediterranean from the eastern side of St. Paul’s Bay, the sailors began to suspect that they were approaching land. The depths of “twenty fathoms” and “fifteen fathoms” (a fathom equals 1.8 m; 6 ft) ascertained by them basically correspond to soundings made in the mid-19th century in the St. Paul’s Bay area.​—Ac 27:27, 28.

Possibly because of being familiar with another of Malta’s harbors, the mariners did not recognize the land as Malta even in daylight. The island’s largest and best-known harbor is at Valletta, 13 km (8 mi) SE of St. Paul’s Bay.​—Ac 27:39.

Along the western side of St. Paul’s Bay, there are two inlets. Probably at one of these, the sailors hoped to “beach the boat” but were unsuccessful, the reason for the failure (according to the literal Greek text) being their ‘having fallen around into a place of two seas.’ This may mean that the ship struck “a place where two seas met” (AS) or “a shoal washed on each side by the sea.” (NW) Or, the vessel was caught between crosscurrents and ran aground. (Compare JB, NE.) The ship’s bow became immovably stuck, perhaps in the mud and clay that lie three fathoms below the surface in parts of St. Paul’s Bay, while the stern was broken in pieces by the waves.​—Ac 27:39-41.

Paul’s experience in Malta. At this time the soldiers determined to kill Paul and the other prisoners. This may have been because of the strict Roman military discipline that held guards accountable for the escape of prisoners under their control. (Compare Ac 12:19; 16:27.) Since the army officer (centurion) restrained the soldiers on account of Paul, all those aboard, numbering 276, survived the shipwreck, either by swimming ashore or getting safely to land upon planks and other floatable items from the wrecked vessel.​—Ac 27:37, 42-44.

The non-Greek-speaking inhabitants of Malta showed extraordinary human kindness to the survivors, even building a fire for them so that they might warm themselves. When the apostle Paul placed a bundle of sticks on this fire, a venomous viper came out and fastened itself to his hand. Amazed that Paul did not swell up or die, the people of Malta began to view him as a god.​—Ac 28:1-6.

Today there are no vipers indigenous to Malta. Great changes have taken place since the first century C.E. Whereas now Malta is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with about 1,280 persons per sq km (3,330 per sq mi), extensive wooded areas may have existed there in Paul’s time. The population increase would have had a marked effect on the habitats of wildlife. This could easily have caused all vipers to disappear, as was the case in Arran, an island off the SW coast of Scotland. As late as 1853, however, a viper is reported to have been seen near St. Paul’s Bay.

See RICHES.

(Mamʹre) [possibly, Well-Fed].

1. An Amorite chieftain who, along with his brothers Aner and Eshcol, supported Abraham in defeating King Chedorlaomer and his allies. The basis for their support was evidently the confederacy into which they had entered with Abraham.​—Ge 14:13, 24.

2. A place generally identified with er-Ramat el-Khalil, about 3 km (2 mi) N of Hebron, but thought by some to be farther to the W, in harmony with Genesis 23:17. (See MACHPELAH.) It was the principal place of residence for Abraham and, at least for a time, for Isaac. In the nearby cave of Machpelah, they and their wives as well as Jacob and Leah were eventually buried. (Ge 13:18; 35:27; 49:29-33; 50:13) The area is well watered with numerous springs. There was a grove of big trees in Mamre in Abraham’s time, and here he built an altar to Jehovah. (Ge 13:18) Under one of such trees, he entertained the angels prior to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. (Ge 18:1-8) Here, too, Jehovah’s promise was made to him of a son by Sarah. (Ge 18:9-19) From a point near Mamre, it was possible for Abraham to see all the way down to Sodom and there behold the thick smoke billowing up as a result of the fiery destruction of that area.​—Ge 19:27-29.

In the area presently identified with Mamre, large trees (usually oaks) have received historical attention from Josephus’ time down to the present day. Over the centuries shrines have been set up, usually in connection with an ancient tree presumed to be the one under which Abraham spoke with the angels. Herod the Great built a stone wall around such a traditional site. After his mother-in-law visited the area in the fourth century C.E., Emperor Constantine had a basilica erected there. Thereafter the Muslim conquerors also venerated the area.

The highest form of earthly life and a product of the Creator, Jehovah God. Jehovah formed the man out of dust from the ground, blew into his nostrils the breath of life, “and the man came to be a living soul.” (Ge 2:7; 1Co 15:45) After Adam was created and after he named the animals, Jehovah caused a deep sleep to fall upon him; and while he slept, God took one of Adam’s ribs and used it to make the woman. Therefore, when she was presented to the man, Adam could say: “This is at last bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh.” He called her Woman, ʼish·shahʹ, “because from man this one was taken.” (Ge 2:21-23) Adam later gave her the name Eve (meaning “Living One”).​—Ge 3:20.

A number of Hebrew and Greek terms refer to man. ʼA·dhamʹ means “man; human; earthling man; mankind” (generic); ʼish, “man; an individual; a husband”; ʼenohshʹ, “a mortal man”; geʹver, “an able-bodied man”; za·kharʹ, “a male”; a few other Hebrew words are also sometimes translated “man.” The Greek anʹthro·pos means “man; mankind” (generic); a·nerʹ, “a man; a male person; a husband.”

Testifying to man’s creation by Jehovah God, the apostle Paul told the Athenians: “He made out of one man every nation of men, to dwell upon the entire surface of the earth.” (Ac 17:26) Hence, all nations and races have a common origin.

Adam and Eve were created toward the end of the sixth creative “day.” (Ge 1:24-31) There are no actual records of ancient man, his writing, agriculture, and other pursuits, extending into the past before 4026 B.C.E., the date of Adam’s creation. Since the Scriptures outline man’s history from the very creation of the first human pair, there can be no such thing as “prehistoric man.” Fossil records in the earth provide no link between man and the animals. Then, too, there is a total absence of reference to any subhumans in man’s earliest records, whether these be written documents, cave drawings, sculptures, or the like. The Scriptures make clear the opposite, that man was originally a son of God and that he has degenerated. (1Ki 8:46; Ec 7:20; 1Jo 1:8-10) Archaeologist O. D. Miller observed: “The tradition of the ‘golden age,’ then, was not a myth. The old doctrine of a subsequent decadence, of a sad degeneracy of the human race, from an original state of happiness and purity, undoubtedly embodied a great, but lamentable truth. Our modern philosophies of history, which begin with the primeval man as a savage, evidently need a new introduction. . . . No; the primeval man was not a savage.”​—Har-Moad, 1892, p. 417.

The Bible reveals that man’s original home was “a garden in Eden.” (Ge 2:8; see EDEN No. 1.) Its indicated location is relatively near the place of mankind’s early post-Flood civilization. The view generally accepted by scholars is expressed by P. J. Wiseman as follows: “All the real evidence we have, that of Genesis, archaeology, and the traditions of men, points to the Mesopotamian plain as the oldest home of man. Far Eastern civilization, whether Chinese or Indian, cannot compete with this land in the antiquity of its peoples, for it can easily sustain its claim to be the cradle of civilization.”​—New Discoveries in Babylonia About Genesis, 1949, p. 28.

In what sense is man made “in God’s image”?

In disclosing to his “master worker” the divine purpose to create mankind, God said: “Let us make man [ʼa·dhamʹ] in our image, according to our likeness.” (Ge 1:26, 27; Pr 8:30, 31; compare Joh 1:1-3; Col 1:15-17.) Note that the Scriptures do not say that God created man in the image of a wild beast or of a domestic animal or of a fish. Man was made “in God’s image”; he was a “son of God.” (Lu 3:38) As to the form or shape of God’s body, “at no time has anyone beheld God.” (1Jo 4:12) No one on earth knows what God’s glorious, heavenly, spiritual body looks like, so we cannot liken man’s body to God’s body. “God is a Spirit.”​—Joh 4:24.

Man and woman are “in God’s image” in that they were created with moral qualities like those of God, namely, love and justice. (Compare Col 3:10.) He also has powers and wisdom above those of animals, so that he can appreciate the things that God enjoys and appreciates, such as beauty and the arts, speaking, reasoning, and similar processes of the mind and heart of which the animals are not capable. Moreover, man is capable of spirituality, of knowing and having communication with God. (1Co 2:11-16; Heb 12:9) For such reasons man was qualified to be God’s representative and to have in subjection the forms of creature life in the skies, on the earth, and in the sea.

Being a creation of God, man was originally perfect. (De 32:4) Accordingly, Adam could have bequeathed to his posterity human perfection and opportunity for eternal life on earth. (Isa 45:18) He and Eve were commanded: “Be fruitful and become many and fill the earth and subdue it.” As their family increased, they would have cultivated and beautified the earth according to the design of their Creator.​—Ge 1:28.

The apostle Paul, in discussing the relative positions of man and woman in God’s arrangement, says: “I want you to know that the head of every man is the Christ; in turn the head of a woman is the man; in turn the head of the Christ is God.” He then points out that a woman who prays or prophesies in the congregation with her head uncovered shames the one who is her head. To enforce his argument he then states: “For a man ought not to have his head covered, as he is God’s image and glory; but the woman is man’s glory.” Jehovah is not subject to anyone. Unlike the woman, the man does not have an earthly head over him when it comes to matters relating to his wife and children. In this respect, he alone is “in God’s image.” In other respects, the woman shares with the man in reflecting the admirable qualities of God.​—1Co 11:3-7.

A Free Moral Agent. Being made in God’s image, according to His likeness, man was a free moral agent. He had the freedom of choice to do good or bad. By his willing, loving obedience to his Creator, he was in a position to bring honor and glory to God far beyond that which the animal creation could bring. He could intelligently praise God for His wonderful qualities and could support His sovereignty. But Adam’s freedom was a relative freedom; it was not absolute. He could continue to live in happiness only if he acknowledged Jehovah’s sovereignty. This was indicated by the tree of knowledge of good and bad, from which Adam was forbidden to eat. Eating of it would be an act of disobedience, a rebellion against God’s sovereignty.​—Ge 2:9, 16, 17.

Since Adam was a “son of God” (Lu 3:38), his relationship to God was that of a son to a father, and he should have obeyed accordingly. Additionally, God created in man an innate desire to render worship. This desire, if perverted, would take man in the wrong direction and would destroy his freedom, bringing him into bondage to what was created instead of to the Creator. This, in turn, would result in man’s degradation.

A rebellious spirit son of God caused Adam’s wife Eve to sin, and she placed the temptation before Adam, who deliberately entered into rebellion against Jehovah. (Ge 3:1-6; 1Ti 2:13, 14) They became like those whom Paul later described in Romans 1:20-23. By his transgression Adam lost his sonship and perfection and he introduced sin, with imperfection and death, to his offspring, the entire human race. Even at birth, they were in the image of their father Adam, imperfect, with death working in their bodies.​—Ge 3:17-19; Ro 5:12; see ADAM No. 1.

“The Man We Are Inside.” In speaking of the conflict of the Christian, including that with the fallen, sinful flesh, the Bible uses the expressions “the man I am within,” “the man we are inside,” and similar phrases. (Ro 7:22; 2Co 4:16; Eph 3:16) These expressions are appropriate because Christians have been “made new in the force actuating [their] mind.” (Eph 4:23) The driving force or inclination of their mind is in a spiritual direction. They are making efforts to “strip off the old personality [literally, old man]” and clothe themselves with the “new personality [literally, new (one)].” (Col 3:9, 10; Ro 12:2) In being baptized into Christ, anointed Christians have been “baptized into his death”; the old personality has been impaled, “that [the] sinful body might be made inactive.” But until their death in the flesh and their resurrection, the fleshly body is still there to fight the ‘spiritual man.’ It is a difficult contest, about which Paul says, “In this dwelling house we do indeed groan.” But the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ covers the sins of the old personality with fleshly desires working in its members, unless these Christians give in and deliberately go the way of the flesh.​—Ro 6:3-7; 7:21-25; 8:23; 2Co 5:1-3.

The Spiritual Man. The apostle contrasts the spiritual man with the physical man. He says: “But a physical [literally, soulical] man does not receive the things of the spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him.” (1Co 2:14) This “physical man” does not mean merely one living on earth, one with a fleshly body, for, obviously, Christians on earth have fleshly bodies. The physical man here spoken of means one who has no spiritual side to his life. He is “soulical” in that he follows the desires of the human soul to the exclusion of spiritual things.

Paul continues about the “physical man,” that he cannot get to know the things of the spirit of God “because they are examined spiritually.” Then he says: “However, the spiritual man examines indeed all things, but he himself is not examined by any man.” The spiritual man has understanding of the things God reveals; he sees also the wrong position and course of the physical man. But the spiritual man’s position, actions, and course of life cannot be understood by the physical man, neither can any man judge the spiritual man, for God only is his Judge. (Ro 14:4, 10, 11; 1Co 4:3-5) The apostle says by way of illustration and argument: “For ‘who has come to know the mind of Jehovah, that he may instruct him?’” No one, of course. “But,” Paul says of Christians, “we do have the mind of Christ.” By getting the mind of Christ, who reveals Jehovah and his purposes to Christians, they are spiritual men.​—1Co 2:14-16.

See OLDER MAN; SON OF MAN.

(Manʹa·en) [Gr. form of Heb. for Menahem, meaning “One Who Comforts”].

A man who was among the prophets and teachers in the congregation at Antioch. He had been educated with the district ruler Herod (Antipas).​—Ac 13:1.

(Manʹa·hath) [from a root that means “rest; settle down”].

1. A descendant of Seir through Shobal.​—Ge 36:20, 23; 1Ch 1:38, 40.

2. A site to which certain “sons of Ehud” inhabiting Geba were exiled at an unspecified time. (1Ch 8:6) Some tentatively identify it with el-Malha (Manahat), about 6 km (3.5 mi) WSW of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.

(Man·a·haʹthites) [Of (Belonging to) Manahath].

Certain Judeans descended from Caleb and Salma who apparently constituted part of the population of Manahath. (1Ch 2:50, 51, 54; 8:6) The Manahathites may be the same as the Menuhoth mentioned at 1 Chronicles 2:52.

(Ma·nasʹseh) [One Making Forgetful; One Who Makes Forget].

1. Joseph’s firstborn son and a grandson of Jacob. After Joseph became Egypt’s food administrator, Pharaoh gave him Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera the priest of On, as a wife, and she bore Joseph two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. Joseph named his firstborn Manasseh, because, he said: “God has made me forget all my trouble and all the house of my father.”​—Ge 41:45, 50-52.

When Jacob blessed Manasseh and Ephraim, he persisted in putting his right hand on Ephraim and his left on Manasseh, thereby placing the younger Ephraim before Manasseh. (Ge 48:13-20) As indicated thereby, Ephraim was to become greater than Manasseh.

Manasseh had sons by a Syrian concubine (1Ch 7:14), and Joseph lived long enough to see the sons of Manasseh’s son Machir.​—Ge 50:22, 23.

2. The tribe of Israel that descended from Joseph’s son Manasseh and consisted of seven tribal families. About a year after the Israelites left Egypt, Manasseh’s able-bodied men from 20 years old upward numbered 32,200. (Nu 1:34, 35) This doubtless included Gaddi, one of the ten men bringing back a bad report after spying out the Promised Land. (Nu 13:1, 2, 11, 25-33) By the time a second census was taken nearly four decades later, the tribe’s registered males had increased to 52,700, outnumbering Ephraim by 20,200. (Nu 26:28-34, 37) Evidently, therefore, it was with reference to the lesser future role of Manasseh that Moses spoke of the “tens of thousands of Ephraim” but the “thousands of Manasseh.”​—De 33:17.

In the wilderness, the tribe of Manasseh, under the leadership of its chieftain Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur, encamped W of the tabernacle, along with Ephraim and Benjamin. This three-tribe division was third in the order of march.​—Nu 1:10, 16; 2:18-24; 7:54; 10:23.

Conquests on Both Sides of Jordan River. When the Israelites defeated Amorite Kings Sihon and Og, Moses granted their conquered land to the Reubenites, the Gadites, and half of the tribe of Manasseh on condition that these tribes participate in the conquest of the territory W of the Jordan. (Nu 32:20-33; 34:14, 15; De 29:7, 8) The northern section of the area E of the Jordan appears to have been taken primarily through Manassite efforts, portions thereof being conquered by Jair, Nobah, and “the sons of Machir.” For this reason Moses assigned this region to them.​—Nu 32:39-42; De 3:13-15; 1Ch 2:21, 22.

Later, men from “the half tribe of Manasseh” that had received their inheritance did cross the Jordan and shared in the conquest of the land to the west. (Jos 1:12-18; 4:12) They were also among those assembled in front of Mount Gerizim when Joshua “read aloud all the words of the law, the blessing and the malediction.” (De 27:12; Jos 8:33, 34) Under the leadership of Joshua, the Israelites broke the power of the Canaanites, defeating 31 kings in the course of about six years. (Jos 12:7-24) Thereafter, although unconquered territory yet remained, Joshua, assisted by High Priest Eleazar and divinely appointed representatives from ten tribes (including the Manassite Hanniel the son of Ephod), divided the land into inheritance portions.​—Nu 34:17, 23; Jos 13:1-7.

Land Inheritance. Half of the tribe of Manasseh, of course, already had its inheritance E of the Jordan. It included Bashan and a part of Gilead. (Jos 13:29-31) To the S lay Gad, the border city being Mahanaim. (Jos 13:24-26, 30) This region was chiefly a high plateau, with an average elevation of some 610 m (2,000 ft). Here were located Golan, one of the six cities of refuge, and Beeshterah (Ashtaroth), another Levite city.​—Jos 20:8, 9; 21:27; 1Ch 6:71.

The remaining half of the Manassites received as their inheritance territory W of the Jordan. (Jos 17:2, 5) It was bounded by Ephraim on the S, Asher on the NW, Issachar on the NE, and the Mediterranean Sea on the W. From Michmethath the border between Ephraim and Manasseh extended to Tappuah, continued along the torrent valley of Kanah, and terminated at the Mediterranean. (Compare Jos 16:5-8; 17:7-10.) Whereas the Ephraimites had certain enclave cities in Manasseh, the Manassites were assigned enclave cities (Beth-shean, Ibleam, Dor, En-dor, Taanach, and Megiddo, as well as their dependent towns) both in Issachar and Asher. (Jos 16:9; 17:11) The Manassites failed to drive out the Canaanites from these enclave cities but, in time, subjected them to forced labor. (Jos 17:11-13; Jg 1:27, 28; compare 1Ch 7:29.) Two of these enclave cities, Taanach (Aner?) and Ibleam (Bileam or Gath-rimmon?), were assigned to Kohathite Levites.​—Jos 21:25, 26; 1Ch 6:70.

History. After the distribution of the land had been completed, Joshua blessed the men of Reuben, Gad, and the eastern “half tribe of Manasseh” and encouraged them to continue serving Jehovah. (Jos 22:1-8) They left Shiloh, traveled to the Jordan, and then near that river built an altar. This almost precipitated civil war, as the other tribes regarded this as an act of unfaithfulness and rebellion. However, the issue was settled peaceably when it was explained that the altar had been erected, not for sacrifice, but to serve as a memorial of faithfulness to Jehovah.​—Jos 22:9-31.

In a later period Manassite Judge Gideon was the one used by Jehovah to deliver the Israelites from Midianite oppression. (Jg 6:11-16, 33-35; 7:23; 8:22) Jephthah was evidently yet another judge from the tribe of Manasseh. It was during his judgeship that Israel was liberated from Ammonite harassment.​—Jg 11:1, 32, 33.

Sometime during the reign of Israel’s first king, Saul, the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the eastern “half tribe of Manasseh” gained a decisive victory over the Hagrites and their allies. (1Ch 5:10, 18-22) Also in this general period, Manassites, including men of outstanding valor, were among those who deserted Saul to join David. (1Ch 12:19-21) After the death of Saul and his successor Ish-bosheth, 18,000 Manassites from the region W of the Jordan and other thousands from the area E of the Jordan came to Hebron to make David king over all Israel (1070 B.C.E.).​—1Ch 12:31, 37, 38.

Years later, the extensive religious reforms undertaken by Judean King Asa prompted many Manassites to desert the northern kingdom “when they saw that Jehovah his God was with him.” (2Ch 15:8, 9) On the occasion of a grand assembly in the 15th year of Asa’s reign (963 B.C.E.), they joined with others in making a covenant to search for Jehovah. (2Ch 15:10, 12) Similarly, in the reign of Judean King Hezekiah (745-717 B.C.E.), while many mocked the messengers sent by him to extend the invitation to come to Jerusalem for the Passover celebration, other Manassites were willing to humble themselves and responded favorably. Thereafter these responsive ones shared in destroying appendages of idolatry.​—2Ch 30:1, 10, 11, 18; 31:1.

Earlier (c. 760 B.C.E.), Tiglath-pileser (Tilgath-pilneser) III had taken the Manassites living E of the Jordan into exile. (1Ch 5:23-26) About the same time it appears that intertribal conflicts existed between Ephraim and Manasseh. But both tribes were united in their opposition to Judah.​—Isa 9:20, 21.

Nearly a century after the ten-tribe kingdom came to its end, Judean King Josiah extended his destruction of altars, incense stands, sacred poles, and images, all used for false worship, to the devastated places of Manasseh and other areas outside Judah (from and after 648 B.C.E.). This Judean king also had repair work done on the temple, the work itself being financed by contributions received from Israelites of various tribes, including Manasseh.​—2Ch 34:1-11.

After the return from Babylonian exile (537 B.C.E.), some Manassites resided at Jerusalem.​—1Ch 9:1-3.

In Ezekiel’s vision, Manasseh’s land assignment lay between Naphtali and Ephraim. (Eze 48:4, 5) Manasseh is also represented as one of the tribes of spiritual Israel.​—Re 7:6.

3. A name appearing in the Masoretic text at Judges 18:30, because of scribal modification. The account concerns Danite apostasy, and the New World Translation says that “Jonathan the son of Gershom, Moses’ son, he and his sons became priests to the tribe of the Danites.” (See also AT; Mo; Ro; RS.) Jewish scribes inserted a suspended letter (nun = n) between the first two letters in the original Hebrew name so as to give the reading “Manasseh’s” instead of “Moses’,” doing so out of regard for Moses. The scribes thus sought to hide the reproach or disgrace that might be brought upon the name of Moses because of Jonathan’s action. In addition to the altered Masoretic text, “Manasseh’s” appears in the Vatican Manuscript No. 1209 of the Greek Septuagint and in the Syriac Peshitta. However, “Moses’” is found in the Alexandrine Manuscript of the Greek Septuagint and in the Latin Vulgate at Judges 18:30.

4. King of Judah who was the son and successor of King Hezekiah. (2Ki 20:21; 2Ch 32:33) Manasseh’s mother was Hephzibah. He was 12 years old when he ascended the throne as the 14th king of Judah after David and ruled for 55 years (716-662 B.C.E.) in Jerusalem. (2Ki 21:1) He did what was bad in Jehovah’s eyes, rebuilding the high places his father had destroyed, setting up altars to Baal, worshiping “all the army of the heavens,” and building false religious altars in two temple courtyards. He made his sons pass through the fire, practiced magic, employed divination, and promoted spiritistic practices. Manasseh also put the graven image of the sacred pole he had made into the house of Jehovah. He seduced Judah and Jerusalem “to do worse than the nations that Jehovah had annihilated from before the sons of Israel.” (2Ki 21:2-9; 2Ch 33:2-9) Though Jehovah sent prophets, these were not heeded. Manasseh was also guilty of shedding innocent blood in great quantity (2Ki 21:10-16), which, according to the literature of the Jewish rabbis, included that of Isaiah, who they say was sawed apart at Manasseh’s command.​—Compare Heb 11:37.

Manasseh was punished for paying no attention to Jehovah’s message, the king of Assyria taking him captive to Babylon, one of the Assyrian monarch’s royal cities. (2Ch 33:10, 11) ‘Manasseh of Judah’ is mentioned in Assyrian King Esar-haddon’s list of 22 tribute-paying “kings of Hatti, the seashore and the islands.” Manasseh’s name also appears in a list of kings tributary to Ashurbanipal.​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 291, 294.

While in captivity, Manasseh repented, humbled himself, and prayed to Jehovah. God heard his request for favor and restored him to the kingship in Jerusalem. (2Ch 33:12, 13) Manasseh thereafter “built an outer wall for the City of David,” put military chiefs in Judah’s fortified cities, and removed the foreign gods and the idol image from Jehovah’s house, as well as the altars he had built “in the mountain of the house of Jehovah and in Jerusalem.” Manasseh prepared the altar of Jehovah and began to sacrifice upon it, encouraging others also to serve Jehovah. However, the people were still sacrificing on the high places, though to Jehovah. (2Ch 33:14-17) At Manasseh’s death, he was succeeded in the kingship by his son Amon.​—2Ch 33:20.

5. An Israelite “of the sons of Pahath-moab” who was among those accepting foreign wives and sending them away “along with sons” in Ezra’s day.​—Ezr 10:30, 44.

6. Another Israelite, “of the sons of Hashum,” among those dismissing their foreign wives because of Ezra’s zealous stand for pure worship.​—Ezr 10:33, 44.

See MANASSEH No. 2.

[Heb., du·dha·ʼimʹ, plural].

A perennial herb of the potato family, with large, ovate, or oblong, dark-green leaves. The leaves of the mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) appear to grow directly from the taproot, fan out in a circle, and lie close to the ground. From the center of this circle, the flower stalks grow, each bearing only one white, bluish, or purple flower. The yellowish-red fruit, about the size of a plum, ripens about the time of the Palestinian wheat harvest. (Ge 30:14) It has been described as smelling sweet and fresh like an apple. (See Ca 7:13.) The thick, frequently forked, taproot of the mandrake bears some resemblance to a man’s lower limbs. This has given rise to numerous superstitious beliefs and the ascribing of magical powers to the plant.​—PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 544.

In ancient times the fruit of the mandrake was used in medicine as a narcotic and as an antispasmodic. Also, it was, and still is in some parts of the Middle East, regarded as an aphrodisiac and as able to increase human fertility or aid in conception. The Genesis record reports that Rachel agreed to exchange with her sister Leah an opportunity to have the marital due from her husband Jacob for some mandrakes. (Ge 30:14, 15) While the Bible does not reveal her motive, possibly Rachel felt that these would help her conceive, thus ending the reproach of her barrenness. It was, however, not until some years after this incident that she actually became pregnant.​—Ge 30:22-24.

See MINA.

The infant Jesus was laid in a manger and was seen there by shepherds, to whom the angelic announcement of his birth was made. (Lu 2:7, 12, 16) The Greek word for “manger” in this case is phatʹne, meaning “feeding place.” Phatʹne may also possibly apply to the stall in which animals are kept. (Compare Lu 13:15.) The Hebrew term ʼe·vusʹ is generally understood to mean “manger” and was rendered phatʹne in the Greek Septuagint, as were three other Hebrew words that have been translated “stalls” (2Ch 32:28), “enclosures” (Hab 3:17), and “fodder” (Job 6:5).

In Palestine, archaeologists have found large troughs cut out of single pieces of limestone and measuring about 0.9 m (3 ft) in length, 0.5 m (1.5 ft) in width, and 0.6 m (2 ft) in depth. These are thought to have served as mangers. It may also be that, as in more recent times, mangers were cut in the rock walls of caves that were used for sheltering animals.

A disclosure, or discernible evidence, a display of authority or power. The Greek term e·pi·phaʹnei·a, translated “manifestation,” is used in the Scriptures with reference to Jesus Christ’s days on earth and especially with regard to various events during his presence in royal power.

God’s Son Manifested in Flesh. It was with respect to “the manifestation of our Savior, Christ Jesus,” in the flesh that the apostle Paul wrote the words of 2 Timothy 1:9-11. The sending of God’s Son from heaven was to work toward the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty. It was also to result in the ‘abolition of death’ traceable to Adam and to bring to light the prospect of life and incorruption in heaven for some humans. As a feature of the development of “the sacred secret of this godly devotion,” Jesus was “made manifest in flesh.” (1Ti 3:16) Paul also called this act of God in sending his Son a ‘manifestation’ of God’s undeserved kindness “which brings salvation to all sorts of men . . . , instructing us to repudiate ungodliness and worldly desires and to live with soundness of mind and righteousness and godly devotion amid this present system of things, while we wait for the happy hope and glorious manifestation of the great God and of the Savior of us, Christ Jesus.” (Tit 2:11-13) Christ’s manifestation in glory, when accomplished, would also manifest the glory of God, who sent him.

Christ Manifest in Heavenly Glory. During Christ’s presence, he would turn his attention to his spiritual brothers who were sleeping in death. These would be the ones Paul speaks of, along with himself, who “have loved his manifestation” and who would receive the ‘crown of righteousness as a reward.’ (2Ti 4:8) When the Lord would “descend from heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel’s voice and with God’s trumpet,” the dead in union with Christ would rise first, and Christ would receive them home to himself. He would in this way be powerfully manifested in his glory to them. He would then proceed to make his presence manifest to his brothers yet on earth, and would take them home to himself at the time of their death.​—1Th 4:15, 16; Joh 14:3; Re 14:13.

As King and Judge. When Christ was before Pontius Pilate, he said that his Kingdom was no part of this world, though he did not deny being a king. (Joh 18:36, 37) He did not then manifest himself as a potentate, because the time for taking his Kingdom authority had not arrived. Nevertheless, there would come a time when “the manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ” would be clearly recognized, when he would exercise authority as “the happy and only Potentate” and “the King of those who rule as kings and Lord of those who rule as lords.”​—1Ti 6:13-16; Da 2:44; 7:13, 14.

In view of the coming Kingdom and of Christ’s manifestation, Paul said to Timothy: “I solemnly charge you before God and Christ Jesus, who is destined to judge the living and the dead, and by his manifestation and his kingdom, preach the word.” (2Ti 4:1, 2) The apostle thus pointed to the time when Christ’s glorious position in heaven would be made unmistakably manifest, when he would make God’s judgments felt in the earth.

In destroying “the man of lawlessness.” In writing to Christians in Thessalonica “respecting the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ,” Paul urged them not to be shaken from their reason or to be excited by any message “to the effect that the day of Jehovah is here.” The symbolic “man of lawlessness,” which had been operating for centuries in opposition to God and Christ, would then be brought to nothing “by the manifestation of his presence.” This “lawless one” would recognize Christ’s presence, not by faith, as would Christians, who loved his manifestation, but by Jesus’ power manifested in annihilating those of this composite “man.”​—2Th 2:1-8; see MAN OF LAWLESSNESS.

Manifestation of the Spirit and the Truth. After the holy spirit was poured out on Christ’s disciples, the fact of its invisible operation on these disciples was ‘manifested’ by visible evidences. Some of these were: the ability to speak in foreign tongues, gifts of healing, and discernment of inspired utterances. (1Co 12:7-10) The apostle Paul also speaks of “making the truth manifest” to others by the good conduct and preaching of Christians.​—2Co 4:2.

(manʹna).

The main food of the Israelites during their 40-year trek in the wilderness. (Ex 16:35) Manna was first provided by Jehovah in the Wilderness of Sin during the last half of the second month after Israel’s coming out of Egypt in 1513 B.C.E. (Ex 16:1-4) It served as food for them until they entered Canaan in 1473 B.C.E. and partook of the produce of the Promised Land.​—Jos 5:10-12.

Manna appeared on the ground with the evaporation of a layer of dew that developed in the morning, so that “upon the surface of the wilderness there was a fine flaky thing, fine like hoarfrost upon the earth.” When the Israelites first saw it, they said, “What is it?” or, literally, “man huʼ?” (Ex 16:13-15; Nu 11:9) This is the probable origin of the name, the Israelites themselves beginning to call this food “manna.”​—Ex 16:31.

Description. Manna was “white like coriander seed” and had the “look” of bdellium gum, a waxlike and transparent substance having a form that resembles a pearl. Its taste was comparable to “that of flat cakes with honey” or “an oiled sweet cake.” After being ground in a hand mill or pounded in a mortar, manna was boiled or made into cakes and baked.​—Ex 16:23, 31; Nu 11:7, 8.

No natural substance known today fits the Biblical description of manna in every respect, and so there is little basis for identifying it with a known product. This is especially so because miraculous aspects were involved in Jehovah’s providing manna for the Israelites. The availability of manna did not depend on the time of year or a particular wilderness location. Although the manna would breed worms and begin to stink on all the other days if kept overnight, the additional omer of manna gathered on the sixth day, to be used as food on the Sabbath, did not spoil. No manna could be found on the Sabbath, this serving to enforce Sabbath observance on the Israelites.​—Ex 16:19-30.

The family head either gathered or supervised the gathering of manna for the entire household. Since the manna melted when the sun got hot, he doubtless quickly gathered the approximate supply needed for the household and afterward measured it. Whether little or much was gathered, depending upon the size of the household, the amount collected always proved to be one omer (2.2 L; 2 dry qt) per person. (Ex 16:16-18) The apostle Paul alluded to this when encouraging the Christians at Corinth to use their material surplus to offset the material deficiency of their brothers.​—2Co 8:13-15.

Purpose. Jehovah let the Israelites go hungry in the wilderness and then furnished manna to teach them “that not by bread alone does man live but by every expression of Jehovah’s mouth does man live.” Jehovah did this ‘in order to humble them and put them to the test so as to do them good in their afterdays.’ (De 8:3, 16) When the Israelites tired of manna and began calling it “contemptible bread,” Jehovah punished their rebellion by sending poisonous serpents among them, causing the death of many.​—Nu 21:5, 6.

The psalmist referred to manna as “the grain of heaven” (Ps 78:24), “bread from heaven” (Ps 105:40), and “the very bread of powerful ones” (Ps 78:25). Angels are described as being “mighty in power” (Ps 103:20) and therefore could be called “powerful ones.” This, however, would not mean that angels actually eat manna but that God may have used angelic means in providing it for the Israelites. (Compare Gal 3:19.) Or, since heaven is the dwelling place of the “powerful ones,” the expression “bread of powerful ones” may simply point to its heavenly source.

So that future generations might see manna, Aaron was to deposit before Jehovah a jar containing an omer (2.2 L; 2 dry qt) of manna. After the golden ark of the covenant was completed, a “golden jar” of manna was put inside this sacred chest. (Ex 16:32-34; Heb 9:4) About five centuries later, however, when the Ark was transferred from the tent that David had erected for it to the temple that Solomon had built, the golden jar was missing. (2Sa 6:17; 1Ki 8:9; 2Ch 5:10) It had served its purpose.

Symbolic Use. Although the manna was a divine provision (Ne 9:20), it did not sustain the lives of the Israelites forever. Christ Jesus made a point of this, and then he added: “I am the living bread that came down from heaven; if anyone eats of this bread he will live forever; and, for a fact, the bread that I shall give is my flesh in behalf of the life of the world.” (Joh 6:30-33, 48-51, 58) Christ’s faithful followers avail themselves of this heavenly manna, or “bread of life.” They do so in a figurative manner by exercising faith in the redeeming power of Jesus’ flesh and blood laid down in sacrifice. Their doing so opens up to them the prospect of living forever, whether in the heavens with Christ or in the earthly Paradise.

Christ also used the jar of manna symbolically when he assured his spirit-anointed followers that those who prove to be conquerors would receive “the hidden manna,” an imperishable food supply or that which results from such a supply, in their case, immortality and incorruptibility in heaven.​—Re 2:17; 1Co 15:53.

(Ma·noʹah).

A Danite man of the Shephelah town of Zorah (Jos 15:33) and the father of Judge Samson. Manoah was a devout worshiper of Jehovah.

One day an angel appeared to Manoah’s barren wife, announcing that she would give birth to a son who would be a Nazirite of God. Upon being informed of this, Manoah supplicated Jehovah, asking him to send the messenger again in order to instruct them on raising the child. Jehovah answered the prayer and sent the angel a second time. When Manoah offered to set a meal before the messenger, he was told to render up a burnt offering to Jehovah instead, which he did. It was after this messenger ascended in the flame rising from the altar that Manoah recognized him as being Jehovah’s angel. Because of having had this experience, Manoah feared that he and his wife would die. But she allayed his fear, saying: “If Jehovah had been delighted only to put us to death, he would not have accepted a burnt offering and grain offering from our hand, and he would not have shown us all these things, and he would not as now have let us hear anything like this.”​—Jg 13:2-23.

Years later, Manoah and his wife, ‘not knowing that it was from Jehovah,’ objected to Samson’s desire to marry a Philistine woman of Timnah. (Jg 14:1-4; compare De 7:3, 4.) Subsequently Manoah and his wife accompanied Samson to Timnah, although not going with him as far as the home of the Philistine woman. Therefore they did not witness Samson’s killing a young lion with his bare hands. On another occasion Samson, intending to take the Philistine woman to his home, again went with his parents to Timnah. He turned aside to inspect the corpse of the lion that he had slain earlier and found a swarm of bees and honey inside. Upon rejoining his parents, he offered them some of the honey that he had scraped out of the lion’s corpse, and they ate it. Thereafter the family apparently continued on their way, and doubtless both parents were present at the banquet arranged by Samson at Timnah.​—Jg 14:5-10.

Manoah preceded his son in death, for Samson was buried in the burial place of Manoah between Zorah and Eshtaol.​—Jg 16:31.

An expression used by the apostle Paul at 2 Thessalonians 2:2, 3 in warning of the great anti-Christian apostasy that would develop before “the day of Jehovah.” The Greek word for “apostasy” here used, a·po·sta·siʹa, denotes more than a mere falling away, an indifferent sliding back. It means a defection, a revolt, a planned, deliberate rebellion. In ancient papyrus documents a·po·sta·siʹa was used politically of rebels.

A Religious Revolt. This rebellion, however, is not a political one. It is a religious one, a revolt against Jehovah God and Jesus Christ and therefore against the Christian congregation.

Foretold. Other forecasts of this apostasy were made by the apostles Paul and Peter both verbally and in writing, and the Lord Jesus Christ himself warned of its coming. In his illustration of the wheat and the weeds (Mt 13), Jesus said that the Devil would sow “weeds,” imitation Christians, “sons of the wicked one,” among the “wheat,” the “sons of the kingdom.” These would exist until the conclusion of the system of things, when they would be identified and ‘burned up.’

Paul warned the Christian overseers of Ephesus that after his going away “oppressive wolves” would enter in among true Christians and would not treat the flock with tenderness but would try to draw away “the disciples” after themselves (not just making disciples for themselves but trying to draw away the disciples, Christ’s disciples). (Ac 20:29, 30) He wrote, at 1 Timothy 4:1-3: “However, the inspired utterance says definitely that in later periods of time some will fall away from the faith, paying attention to misleading inspired utterances and teachings of demons, by the hypocrisy of men who speak lies, marked in their conscience as with a branding iron [feelingless, seared, so that they do not feel any twinges of conscience because of hypocritically speaking lies]; forbidding to marry, commanding to abstain from foods which God created to be partaken of with thanksgiving.”

Paul later wrote to Timothy that “there will be a period of time when they will not put up with the healthful teaching, but, in accord with their own desires, they will accumulate teachers for themselves to have their ears tickled; and they will turn their ears away from the truth.”​—2Ti 4:3, 4.

The apostle Peter drew a parallel between the apostasy from Christianity and that which occurred in the natural house of Israel. He said: “However, there also came to be false prophets among the people, as there will also be false teachers among you. These very ones will quietly bring in destructive sects and will disown even the owner that bought them, bringing speedy destruction upon themselves. Furthermore, many will follow their acts of loose conduct, and on account of these the way of the truth will be spoken of abusively.” Peter goes on to point out that these would exploit the congregation but that “the destruction of them is not slumbering.”​—2Pe 2:1-3.

A composite “man.” The “man” of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-12 is, therefore, not an individual, but a composite “man,” a collective group, as the foregoing scriptures show, and this “man” was to continue after the apostles’ death and exist down until the time of the Lord’s presence.

Treason against God. The “lawlessness” that this composite apostate “man” commits is lawlessness against Jehovah God the Universal Sovereign. This “man” is guilty of treason. He is called “the son of destruction,” as was Judas Iscariot, the traitor who betrayed the Lord Jesus Christ and who was instrumental in bringing about his death. He, like Judas, is to be annihilated, sent into extinction forever. This “man” is not “Babylon the Great,” who also fights against God, for she is a woman, a harlot. However, since he carries on a religious rebellion against God, he is evidently a part of mystic Babylon.​—Joh 17:12; Re 17:3, 5.

“The man of lawlessness” sets himself in opposition to God and is therefore a “satan,” which means “resister.” And, indeed, his “presence is according to the operation of Satan.” (2Th 2:9) In the days of the apostle Paul, there was “mystery,” or a religious secret, about the identity of this “man of lawlessness.” To this day mystery shrouds his identity in the minds of many persons, because his wickedness is practiced under the guise of godly devotion. (2Th 2:7) By his lying teachings contrary to or superseding, as it were, the law of God, “the man of lawlessness” sets himself up over Jehovah God and other ‘gods,’ mighty ones of the earth, and also against God’s holy ones, true spiritual brothers of Jesus Christ. (Compare 2Pe 2:10-13.) Since he is a hypocrite, a false teacher claiming to be Christian, he “sits down in the temple of The God,” that is, what such false teachers claim to be that temple.​—2Th 2:4.

A restraint. Paul speaks of “the thing that acts as a restraint.” (2Th 2:6) It appears that the apostles constituted this restraint. Paul had told the Ephesian overseers that after his going away wolflike men would enter in. (Ac 20:29) He repeatedly wrote admonitions about such apostasy not only here in Second Thessalonians but in many exhortations to Timothy. And he counseled Timothy to commit the things he had heard from Paul to faithful men who would be qualified to teach others. He spoke of the congregation of the living God as being “a pillar and support of the truth.” He wanted it built up as strongly as possible before the great apostasy blossomed out.​—2Ti 2:2; 1Ti 3:15.

Much later, at the command of Christ, the apostle John was told to write, warning against sects, mentioning especially the sect of Nicolaus and speaking of false prophets like Balaam and of the woman Jezebel who called herself a prophetess.​—Re 2:6, 14, 15, 20.

At work in apostles’ days. The apostle Paul said that the mystery was “already at work.” (2Th 2:7) There were those trying to teach false doctrine, some of these even disturbing the Thessalonian congregation, prompting, in part, the writing of his second letter to them. There were antichrists when John wrote his letters, and doubtless before that. John spoke of “the last hour” of the apostolic period, and said: “Just as you have heard that antichrist is coming, even now there have come to be many antichrists . . . They went out from us, but they were not of our sort; for if they had been of our sort, they would have remained with us. But they went out that it might be shown up that not all are of our sort.”​—1Jo 2:18, 19; see ANTICHRIST.

Revealed. Following the apostles’ death, “the man of lawlessness” came out into the open with his religious hypocrisy and false teachings. (2Th 2:3, 6, 8) According to Paul’s words, this “man” would gain great power, operating under Satan’s control, performing “every powerful work and lying signs and portents.” Persons deceived by the operation of the composite “man of lawlessness” are referred to as “those who are perishing [literally, “destroying themselves”], as a retribution because they did not accept the love of the truth that they might be saved.” The apostle shows that they “get to believing the lie” and they will all “be judged because they did not believe the truth but took pleasure in unrighteousness.” (2Th 2:9-12; see Int.) The judgment is therefore a condemnatory one.​—See RESURRECTION (Sin against the holy spirit).

Destroyed. This composite, hypocritical “man of lawlessness” is to be done away with by the Lord Jesus “by the spirit of his mouth” and brought to nothing “by the manifestation of his presence.” The annihilation of this wicked opposer of God will be visible, concrete proof that the Lord Jesus Christ is sitting and acting as Judge. He will not judge according to his own standards, hence the destruction “by the spirit of his mouth” evidently means in expression of Jehovah’s judgment against this wicked class of persons.​—2Th 2:8; compare Re 19:21, as to “the long sword . . . which sword proceeded out of his mouth.”

See CITIES OF REFUGE; MURDER.

See DRESS.

The Holy Scriptures have a superhuman origin as to content but a human history as to their writing and preservation. Moses began compiling them under divine inspiration in 1513 B.C.E., and the apostle John wrote the final portion thereof more than 1,600 years later. The Bible was not originally one book, but as time passed, a demand arose for copies of its various books. This was so, for instance, after the Babylonian exile, for not all released Jews returned to the land of Judah. Instead, many settled elsewhere, and synagogues sprang up throughout the vast territory of the resultant Jewish Dispersion. Scribes prepared copies of the Scriptures needed for these synagogues where the Jews gathered to hear the reading of God’s Word. (Ac 15:21) In later times, among Christ’s followers, conscientious copyists labored to reproduce the inspired writings for the benefit of the multiplying Christian congregations so that there might be an interchange and general circulation of these.​—Col 4:16.

Before printing from movable type became common (from the 15th century C.E. onward), the original Bible writings and also copies of them were handwritten. Hence, they are called manuscripts (Latin, manu scriptus, “written by hand”). A Bible manuscript is a handwritten copy of the Scriptures, the whole or in part, as distinguished from one that is printed. Bible manuscripts were produced principally in the form of rolls and codices.

Materials. There are leather, papyrus, and vellum manuscripts of the Scriptures. The noted Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah, for instance, is a leather roll. Papyrus, a type of paper made from the fibers of a water plant, was used for Bible manuscripts in the original languages and for translations thereof until about the fourth century C.E. At that time its use for Bible manuscripts began to be superseded by the use of vellum, a fine grade of parchment generally made from calf, lamb, or goat skins, a further development of the earlier use of animal skins as writing material. Such manuscripts as the renowned Codex Sinaiticus (Sinaitic Manuscript) and the Codex Vaticanus (Vatican Manuscript No. 1209) of the fourth century C.E. are parchment, or vellum, codices.

A palimpsest (Lat., palimpsestus; Gr., pa·limʹpse·stos, meaning “scraped again”) is a manuscript from which earlier writing was removed or scraped off to make room for later writing. A noted Bible palimpsest is the Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus of the fifth century C.E. If the earlier writing (the writing scraped off) is the important one on the palimpsest, scholars can often read this erased writing by employing technical means that include the use of chemical reagents and photography. Some manuscripts of the Christian Greek Scriptures are lectionaries, selected Bible readings for use at religious services.

Styles of Writing. Bible manuscripts written in Greek (whether translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, or copies of the Christian Greek Scriptures, or both) can be divided, or classified, as to writing style, which is also an aid in dating them. The older style (employed especially down to the ninth century C.E.) is the uncial manuscript, written in large, separated capital letters. In it there is generally no word separation, and rarely any punctuation or accent marks. The Codex Sinaiticus is such an uncial manuscript. Changes in writing style began to develop in the sixth century, eventually leading (in the ninth century C.E.) to the cursive, or minuscule, manuscript, written in smaller letters, many of which were joined in a running or flowing writing style. The majority of extant manuscripts of the Christian Greek Scriptures have a cursive script. Cursive manuscripts remained in vogue until the inception of printing.

Copyists. As far as is known today, no handwritten original, or autograph, manuscripts of the Bible are in existence. Yet the Bible has been preserved in accurate, reliable form because Biblical copyists in general, accepting the Scriptures as being divinely inspired, sought perfection in their arduous labor of producing manuscript copies of God’s Word.

The men who copied the Hebrew Scriptures in the days of Jesus Christ’s ministry on earth and for centuries before that time were called scribes (Heb., soh·pherimʹ). Among the early scribes was Ezra, spoken of in the Scriptures as “a skilled copyist.” (Ezr 7:6) Later scribes made some deliberate alterations of the Hebrew text. But their scribal successors, the Masoretes, detected these and recorded them in the Masora, or notes appearing in the margins of the Hebrew Masoretic text they produced.

Copyists of the Christian Greek Scriptures also made earnest efforts to reproduce faithfully the text of the Scriptures.

What assurance is there that the Bible has not been changed?

Despite the care exercised by copyists of Bible manuscripts, a number of small scribal errors and alterations crept into the text. On the whole, these are insignificant and have no bearing on the Bible’s general integrity. They have been detected and corrected by means of careful scholastic collation or critical comparison of the many extant manuscripts and ancient versions. Critical study of the Hebrew text of the Scriptures commenced toward the end of the 18th century. Benjamin Kennicott published at Oxford (in 1776-1780) the readings of over 600 Masoretic Hebrew manuscripts, and the Italian scholar Giambernardo de Rossi published at Parma comparisons of 731 manuscripts in 1784 to 1798. Master texts of the Hebrew Scriptures were also produced by the German scholar Baer and, more recently, by C. D. Ginsburg. Hebrew scholar Rudolf Kittel released in 1906 the first edition of his Biblia Hebraica (The Hebrew Bible), providing therein a textual study through a footnote service, comparing many Hebrew manuscripts of the Masoretic text. The basic text he used was the Ben Chayyim text. But, when the older and superior Ben Asher Masoretic texts became available, Kittel undertook the production of an entirely new third edition, which was completed by his colleagues after his death.

The 7th, 8th, and 9th editions of the Biblia Hebraica (1951-1955) furnished the basic text used to render the Hebrew Scriptures into English in the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures originally published in 1950-1960. A new edition of the Hebrew text, namely Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, is dated 1977. This edition was used for updating the information presented in the footnotes of the New World Translation published in 1984.

The first printed edition of the Christian Greek Scriptures was that appearing in the Complutensian Polyglott (in Greek and Latin), of 1514-1517. Then in 1516 the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus published his first edition of a master Greek text of the Christian Greek Scriptures. It contained many errors, but an improved text thereof was made available through four succeeding editions from 1519 to 1535. Later, Paris printer and editor Robert Estienne, or Stephanus, issued several editions of the Greek “New Testament,” based principally on Erasmus’ text, but having corrections according to the Complutensian Polyglott and 15 late manuscripts. The third edition of Stephanus’ Greek text (issued in 1550) became, in effect, the “Received Text” (called textus receptus in Latin), which was used for many early English versions, including the King James Version of 1611.

Quite noteworthy in more recent times is the master Greek text prepared by J. J. Griesbach, who availed himself of materials gathered by others but who also gave attention to Biblical quotations made by early writers such as Origen. Further, Griesbach studied the readings of various versions, such as the Armenian, Gothic, and Philoxenian. He viewed extant manuscripts as comprising three families, or recensions, the Byzantine, the Western, and the Alexandrian, giving preference to readings in the latter. Editions of his master Greek text were issued between 1774 and 1806, his principal edition of the entire Greek text being published in 1796-1806. Griesbach’s text was used for Sharpe’s English translation of 1840 and is the Greek text printed in The Emphatic Diaglott, by Benjamin Wilson, in 1864.

A Greek master text of the Christian Greek Scriptures that attained wide acceptance is that produced in 1881 by Cambridge University scholars B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort. It was the product of 28 years of independent labor, though they compared notes regularly. Like Griesbach, they divided manuscripts into families and leaned heavily on what they termed the “neutral text,” which included the renowned Sinaitic Manuscript and the Vatican Manuscript No. 1209, both of the fourth century C.E. While Westcott and Hort viewed matters as quite conclusive when these manuscripts agreed and especially when they were supported by other ancient uncial manuscripts, they were not bound to that position. They took every conceivable factor into consideration in endeavoring to solve problems presented by conflicting texts; and when two readings were of equal weight, that, too, was indicated in their master text. The Westcott and Hort text was the one used principally in translating the Christian Greek Scriptures into English in the New World Translation. However, the New World Bible Translation Committee also consulted other excellent Greek texts, among them Nestle’s Greek text (1948).

Commenting on the history of the text of the Christian Greek Scriptures and the results of modern textual research, Professor Kurt Aland wrote: “It can be determined, on the basis of 40 years of experience and with the results which have come to light in examining . . . manuscripts at 1,200 test places: The text of the New Testament has been excellently transmitted, better than any other writing from ancient times; the possibility that manuscripts might yet be found that would change its text decisively is zero.”​—Das Neue Testament—​zuverlässig überliefert (The New Testament​—Reliably Transmitted), Stuttgart, 1986, pp. 27, 28.

The extant manuscripts of the Christian Scriptures (in Greek and other languages) show textual variations. Variations are to be expected in view of human imperfection and the copying and recopying of manuscripts, especially by many copyists who were not professionals. If certain manuscripts had a common ancestor manuscript, perhaps came from a particular revision of early texts, or were produced in a particular area, they would probably have at least some variations in common, and hence they are said to belong to the same family, or group. On the basis of similarity in such differences, scholars have sought to classify the texts into groups, or families, the number of which has increased with the passing of time, till reference is now made to the Alexandrian, Western, Eastern (Syriac and Caesarean), and the Byzantine texts, represented in various manuscripts or in different readings scattered throughout numerous manuscripts. But despite the variations peculiar to different manuscript families (and the variations within each group), the Scriptures have come down to us in essentially the same form as that of the original inspired writings. The variations of reading are of no consequence as to Bible teachings in general. And scholastic collations have corrected errors of any importance, so that today we enjoy an authentic and reliable text.

Since Westcott and Hort produced their refined Greek text, a number of critical editions of the Christian Greek Scriptures have been produced. Noteworthy among them is The Greek New Testament published by the United Bible Societies and now in its third edition. Identical in wording is the 26th edition of the so-called Nestle-Aland text, published in 1979 in Stuttgart, Germany.​—See CHRISTIAN GREEK SCRIPTURES.

Manuscripts of Hebrew Scriptures. There are possibly 6,000 manuscripts of all or portions of the Hebrew Scriptures extant today in various libraries. The vast majority contain the Masoretic text and are of the tenth century C.E. or thereafter. The Masoretes (of the second half of the first millennium C.E.) sought to transmit the Hebrew text faithfully and made no changes in the wording of the text itself. However, to preserve the traditional pronunciation of the vowelless consonantal text, they devised systems of vowel pointing and accenting. Additionally, in their Masora, or marginal notes, they drew attention to textual peculiarities and gave corrected readings they considered necessary. It is the Masoretic text that appears in printed Hebrew Bibles of the present day.

Damaged Hebrew Scripture manuscripts used in Jewish synagogues were replaced by verified copies, and the defaced or damaged manuscripts were stored in a genizah (a synagogue storeroom or repository). Finally, when it was full, the manuscripts were removed and ceremoniously buried. Doubtless many ancient manuscripts perished in that way. But the contents of the synagogue genizah in Old Cairo were spared, probably because it was walled up and forgotten for centuries. Following the rebuilding of the synagogue in 1890 C.E., the manuscripts in its genizah were reexamined, and from there fairly complete Hebrew Scripture manuscripts and fragments (some said to be of the sixth century C.E.) found their way into various libraries.

One of the oldest extant fragments containing Biblical passages is the Nash Papyrus, found in Egypt and preserved at Cambridge, England. Evidently part of an instructional collection, it is of the second or first century B.C.E. and consists of only four fragments of 24 lines of a pre-Masoretic text of the Ten Commandments and some verses of Deuteronomy, chapters 5 and 6.

Since 1947 many Biblical and non-Biblical scrolls have been found in various areas W of the Dead Sea, and these are referred to generally as the Dead Sea Scrolls. Most significant among them are manuscripts discovered in a number of caves in and about the Wadi Qumran (Nahal Qumeran). These are also known as the Qumran texts and evidently once belonged to a Jewish religious community centered at nearby Khirbet Qumran (Horvat Qumeran). The first discovery was made by a Bedouin in a cave about 15 km (9.5 mi) S of Jericho, where he found a number of earthenware jars containing ancient manuscripts. One of these was the now-renowned Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah (1QIs⁠^a), a well-preserved leather roll of the entire book of Isaiah, except for a few gaps. (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 322) It contains a pre-Masoretic Hebrew script and has been dated toward the end of the second century B.C.E. Hence, it is about a thousand years older than the oldest extant manuscript of the Masoretic text. However, though showing some differences in spelling and grammatical construction, it does not vary doctrinally from the Masoretic text. Among the documents recovered in the Qumran area are fragments of over 170 scrolls representing parts of all Hebrew Scripture books except Esther, and in the case of some books, more than one copy exists. These manuscript scrolls and fragments are believed to range in date from about 250 B.C.E. to about the middle of the first century C.E., and they exhibit more than one type of Hebrew text, such as a proto-Masoretic text or one underlying the Greek Septuagint. Studies of such materials are still in progress.

Among notable vellum Hebrew manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures is the Cairo Karaite Codex of the Prophets. It contains the Masora and vocalization, and its colophon indicates that it was completed in about 895 C.E. by the noted Masorete Moses ben Asher of Tiberias. Another significant manuscript (of 916 C.E.) is the Petersburg Codex of the Latter Prophets. The Aleppo Sephardic Codex, once preserved at Aleppo, Syria, and now in Israel, until 1947 contained the entire Hebrew Scriptures. Its original consonantal text was corrected, punctuated, and furnished with the Masora about 930 C.E. by Aaron ben Asher, son of Moses ben Asher. The oldest dated manuscript of the complete Hebrew Scriptures in Hebrew is the Leningrad Manuscript No. B 19⁠^A, preserved in the Public Library in St. Petersburg, Russia. It was copied in 1008 C.E. “from the corrected books prepared and annotated by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher the teacher.” Another noteworthy Hebrew manuscript is a codex of the Pentateuch preserved in the British Library (Codex Oriental 4445), consisting of Genesis 39:20 to Deuteronomy 1:33 (except for Nu 7:46-73 and 9:12–10:18, which are lacking or have been supplied by a later hand) and probably dating from the tenth century C.E.

Many manuscripts of the Hebrew Scripture portion of the Bible were written in Greek. Among those of particular note is one in the collection of the Fouad Papyri (Inventory Number 266, belonging to the Société Egyptienne de Papyrologie, Cairo), containing portions of Genesis and of the second half of Deuteronomy according to the Septuagint. It is of the first century B.C.E. and shows, in various places, the divine name written in square Hebrew characters within the Greek text. Fragments of Deuteronomy, chapters 23 to 28, are found in Rylands Papyrus iii. 458 of the second century B.C.E., preserved in Manchester, England. Another leading manuscript of the Septuagint contains fragments of Jonah, Micah, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and Zechariah. In this leather scroll, dated to the end of the first century C.E., the divine name is rendered by the Tetragrammaton written in ancient Hebrew characters.​—See NW appendix, pp. 1562-1564.

Manuscripts of Christian Greek Scriptures. The Christian Scriptures were written in Koine. Though no original autograph manuscripts thereof are known to exist today, according to one calculation, there are some 5,000 extant manuscript copies, whole or in part, of these Scriptures in Greek.

Papyrus manuscripts. Biblical papyri of great importance were among papyrus codices found in Egypt about 1930, their purchase being announced in 1931. Some of these Greek codices (dating from the second to the fourth centuries C.E.) consist of parts of eight Hebrew Scripture books (Genesis, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and Esther), and three contain portions of 15 books of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Most of these Scriptural papyri were purchased by an American manuscript collector, A. Chester Beatty, and are now preserved in Dublin, Ireland. The rest were acquired by the University of Michigan and by others.

The international designation for Biblical papyri is a capital “P” followed by a small superior number. The Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 1 (P⁠⁴⁵) consists of parts of 30 leaves from a codex that probably once had about 220 leaves. P⁠⁴⁵ has portions of the four Gospels and the book of Acts. The Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 3 (P⁠⁴⁷) is a fragmentary codex of Revelation containing ten somewhat damaged leaves. These two papyri are believed to be from the third century C.E. Quite noteworthy is the Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 2 (P⁠⁴⁶) believed to be from about 200 C.E. It has 86 somewhat damaged leaves out of a codex that probably had 104 leaves originally, and it still contains nine of Paul’s inspired letters: Romans, Hebrews, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Ephesians, Galatians, Philippians, Colossians, and First Thessalonians. It is noteworthy that the letter to the Hebrews is included in this early codex. Since Hebrews does not give its writer’s name, its composition by Paul has frequently been disputed. But this letter’s inclusion in P⁠⁴⁶, evidently consisting of Paul’s letters exclusively, indicates that in about 200 C.E., Hebrews was accepted by early Christians as an inspired writing of the apostle Paul. The letter to the Ephesians appears in this codex, thus also refuting arguments that Paul did not write this letter.

At the John Rylands Library, Manchester, England, there is a small papyrus fragment of John’s Gospel (some verses of chapter 18) cataloged as Rylands Papyrus 457. It is internationally designated as P⁠⁵². This is the oldest extant manuscript fragment of the Christian Greek Scriptures, having been written in the first half of the second century, possibly about 125 C.E., and thus only a quarter of a century or so after John’s death. The fact that a copy of John’s Gospel was evidently circulating in Egypt (the place of the fragment’s discovery) by that time shows that the good news according to John was really recorded in the first century C.E. and by John himself, not by some unknown writer well along in the second century C.E., after John’s death, as some critics once claimed.

The most important addition to the collection of Biblical papyri since the discovery of the Chester Beatty Papyri was the acquisition of the Bodmer Papyri, published between 1956 and 1961. Particularly noteworthy are Papyrus Bodmer 2 (P⁠⁶⁶) and Papyrus Bodmer 14, 15 (P⁠⁷⁵), both written about 200 C.E. Papyrus Bodmer 2 contains a large part of the Gospel of John, while Papyrus Bodmer 14, 15 has much of Luke and John and is textually very close to Vatican Manuscript No. 1209.

Vellum manuscripts. Bible manuscripts written on vellum sometimes include both the Hebrew and Christian Greek Scripture portions of the Bible, though some are only of the Christian Scriptures.

Codex Bezae, designated by the letter “D,” is a valuable manuscript of the fifth century C.E. Though its actual place of origin is unknown, it was acquired in France in 1562. It contains the Gospels, the book of Acts, and only a few other verses, and is an uncial manuscript, written in Greek on the left-hand pages, with a parallel Latin text appearing on the right-hand pages. This codex is preserved at Cambridge University in England, having been presented to that institution by Theodore Beza in 1581.

Codex Claromontanus (D₂) is likewise written in Greek and Latin on opposite pages, Greek on the left and Latin on the right. It contains Paul’s canonical letters, including Hebrews, and is considered to be of the sixth century. It was reportedly found in the monastery at Clermont, France, and was acquired by Theodore Beza, but it is now preserved at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.

Among more recently discovered vellum manuscripts of the Christian Greek Scriptures is Codex Washingtonianus I, containing the Gospels in Greek (in the common Western order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark). It was obtained in 1906 in Egypt and is preserved at the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. The international symbol of this codex is “W,” and it is thought to have been written in the fifth century C.E., except that apparently, because of damage, part of John was replaced in the seventh century C.E. Codex Washingtonianus II, having the symbol “I,” is also in the Freer Collection and contains portions of Paul’s canonical letters, including Hebrews. This codex is believed to have been written in the fifth century C.E.

Hebrew and Christian Greek Scriptures. The most important and most complete extant Bible manuscripts in Greek were written on vellum in uncial letters.

Vatican Manuscript No. 1209. The Vatican Manuscript No. 1209 (Codex Vaticanus), designated internationally by the symbol “B,” is an uncial codex of the fourth century C.E., possibly produced in Alexandria, and it originally contained the entire Bible in Greek. A corrector of later date retraced the letters, perhaps because the original writing had faded, except that he skipped letters and words he considered incorrect. Originally this codex probably had approximately 820 leaves, of which 759 remain. Most of Genesis is gone, as well as a part of Psalms, Hebrews 9:14 to 13:25, and all of First and Second Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Revelation. Codex Vaticanus is preserved at the Vatican Library in Rome, Italy, and is known to have been there as early as the 15th century. However, Vatican Library authorities made access to the manuscript extremely difficult for scholars and did not publish a full photographic facsimile of the entire codex until 1889-1890.

Sinaitic Manuscript. The Sinaitic Manuscript (Codex Sinaiticus) is also of the fourth century C.E., but Codex Vaticanus may be a little older. The Sinaitic Manuscript is designated by the symbol א (ʼaʹleph, first letter in the Hebrew alphabet), and while it evidently once contained the entire Bible in Greek, part of the Hebrew Scriptures has been lost. However, it has all the Christian Greek Scriptures. Likely this codex originally consisted of 730 leaves, at least, though the whole or parts of just 393 are now verified to be extant. It was discovered (one portion in 1844 and another in 1859) by the Bible scholar Konstantin von Tischendorf at the Monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai. Forty-three leaves of this codex are kept in Leipzig, portions of three leaves are at St. Petersburg, Russia, and 347 leaves are preserved at the British Library in London. It has been reported that 8 to 14 more leaves were discovered in the same monastery in 1975.

Alexandrine Manuscript. The Alexandrine Manuscript (Codex Alexandrinus), designated by the letter “A,” is a Greek uncial manuscript containing most of the Bible, including the book of Revelation. Of possibly 820 original leaves, 773 have been preserved. This codex is generally considered to be of the first half of the fifth century C.E., and it is also preserved in the British Library.​—PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 336.

Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus. The Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus (Codex Ephraemi), designated internationally by the letter “C,” is also generally considered to have originated in the fifth century C.E. It is written in Greek uncials on vellum and is a rewritten codex, a palimpsest manuscript. The original Greek text was removed, and a number of leaves were then written over with discourses of Ephraem Syrus (the Syrian), rendered in Greek. This was done probably during the 12th century, when there was a scarcity of vellum. However, the underlying text has been deciphered. While “C” evidently once contained all the Scriptures in Greek, just 209 leaves remain, 145 being of the Christian Greek Scriptures. Hence, this codex now contains only portions of Hebrew Scripture books and parts of all books of the Christian Greek Scriptures except Second Thessalonians and Second John. It is preserved at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.

Reliability of the Bible Text. Appreciation of the reliability of the Bible is greatly enhanced when it is realized that, by comparison, there are only very few extant manuscripts of the works of classical secular writers and none of these are original, autograph manuscripts. Though they are only copies made centuries after the death of the authors, present-day scholars accept such late copies as sufficient evidence of the authenticity of the text.

Extant Hebrew manuscripts of the Scriptures were prepared with great care. Respecting the text of the Hebrew Scriptures, scholar W. H. Green observed: “It may be safely said that no other work of antiquity has been so accurately transmitted.” (Archaeology and Bible History, by J. P. Free, 1964, p. 5) The late Bible text scholar Sir Frederic Kenyon made this reassuring statement in the introduction to his seven volumes entitled The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri: “The first and most important conclusion derived from the examination of them [the Papyri] is the satisfactory one that they confirm the essential soundness of the existing texts. No striking or fundamental variation is shown either in the Old or the New Testament. There are no important omissions or additions of passages, and no variations which affect vital facts or doctrines. The variations of text affect minor matters, such as the order of words or the precise words used. . . . But their essential importance is their confirmation, by evidence of an earlier date than was hitherto available, of the integrity of our existing texts. In this respect they are an acquisition of epoch-making value.”​—London, 1933, Fasciculus I, p. 15.

Concerning the Christian Greek Scriptures, Sir Frederic Kenyon stated: “The interval then between the dates of original composition and the earliest extant evidence becomes so small as to be in fact negligible, and the last foundation for any doubt that the Scriptures have come down to us substantially as they were written has now been removed. Both the authenticity and the general integrity of the books of the New Testament may be regarded as finally established.”​—The Bible and Archæology, 1940, pp. 288, 289.

Centuries ago, Jesus Christ, “the faithful and true witness” (Re 3:14), repeatedly and emphatically confirmed the genuineness of the Hebrew Scriptures, as did his apostles. (Lu 24:27, 44; Ro 15:4) Extant ancient versions, or translations, further bespeak the exactness of the preserved Hebrew Scriptures. Manuscripts and versions of the Christian Greek Scriptures bear unassailable testimony to the marvelous preservation and accurate transmission of that portion of God’s Word. We are therefore now favored with an authentic, thoroughly reliable Bible text. A thoughtful examination of preserved manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures bears eloquent testimony to their faithful preservation and permanence, giving added meaning to the inspired statement: “The green grass has dried up, the blossom has withered; but as for the word of our God, it will last to time indefinite.”​—Isa 40:8; 1Pe 1:24, 25.

(Maʹoch).

Father of Achish, king of the Philistine city of Gath, with whom David and his 600 men found refuge from Saul. (1Sa 27:1-3) He may be the same person as the Maacah of 1 Kings 2:39, though such identification is not positive. The name Maacah is quite similar to Maoch, and it is possible that Achish, who was ruling when David was outlawed, was still the Philistine king of Gath at the commencement of Solomon’s rule.

(Maʹon).

1. A descendant of Caleb through Shammai. Maon may have been the father of Beth-zur’s inhabitants or the principal man or founder of that city.​—1Ch 2:42, 45.

2. A city in the mountainous region of Judah. (Jos 15:20, 48, 55) Israel’s King Saul pursued David and his men into the wilderness area surrounding Maon. But news of a Philistine raid forced Saul to abandon the chase. (1Sa 23:24-28) Later, David’s men were treated inhospitably by Nabal, a rich landowner apparently residing at Maon. (1Sa 25:2-11) This city is identified with Tell Maʽin (Horvat Maʽon [Bi-Yehuda]) atop a high hill about 13 km (8 mi) SSE of Hebron.

(Maʹra) [Bitter].

The name Mara was suggested by Elimelech’s widow for herself to express the bitterness she experienced because of being bereaved of her husband and her sons Mahlon and Chilion. Naomi had left Bethlehem with a husband and two sons (Ru 1:1, 2), but returned from Moab as a saddened, childless widow. At that time her old friends, the women of Bethlehem, asked: “Is this Naomi?” Still grief stricken, she replied: “Do not call me Naomi [meaning “My Pleasantness”]. Call me Mara [meaning “Bitter”], for the Almighty has made it very bitter for me. I was full when I went, and it is empty-handed that Jehovah has made me return.”​—Ru 1:19-21.

(Maʹrah) [Bitterness].

One of Israel’s early encampments in the Sinai Peninsula. It was named “Marah” because of the unpalatable water found there. (Ex 15:23; Nu 33:8) Although having only recently been delivered from the Egyptians at the Red Sea, the Israelites gave way to faithless murmuring when they were unable to drink the water at Marah. Thereafter, at Jehovah’s direction, Moses cast a tree into the water, and the water became sweet. The Bible does not specify the kind of tree, and so there is no basis for identifying it. Of course, Jehovah could have directed Moses to a particular variety having natural properties for sweetening the water. But there is no need to seek a scientific or natural explanation, as the healing of the water was doubtless miraculous.​—Ex 15:23-25; compare 2Ki 2:19-22; 4:38-41.

Jehovah used the circumstances at Marah to test the Israelites as to their faith in his ability to care for them. Since bad water can cause disease (2Ki 2:19), the sweetening of the water illustrated Jehovah’s ability to preserve the Israelites from the maladies experienced by the Egyptians. The “regulation” Jehovah then taught the Israelites was: Obedience to him as their God would prevent their being afflicted by the maladies he put upon the Egyptians.​—Ex 15:25, 26.

Marah is usually identified with ʽEin Hawwara 80 km (50 mi) SSE of modern Suez, just a few miles inland from the Red Sea.

A crystalline limestone (calcium carbonate) of close grain that varies in color, texture, and crystal structure, and that is capable of taking a high polish. Its color ranges from snow white to numerous shades of gray, brown, yellow, red, green, and black. Streaks, or veins, are due to impurities of metal oxides and carbonaceous matter.

Marble apparently was not found in Palestine. Lebanon produced a variety of marbles; but in the Aegean island of Paros and in Arabia, the choicest specimens were found. The Shulammite maiden, in describing her beloved shepherd companion to the ladies-in-waiting at the court of King Solomon, said: “His legs are pillars of marble based on socket pedestals of refined gold.” (Ca 5:15) The Persian palace at Shushan in the days of Queen Esther had marble pillars, and its pavement in part was made of black marble. (Es 1:6) Marble is also listed as one of the precious commodities of “the traveling merchants of the earth” who weep over Babylon the Great’s fall into destruction.​—Re 18:11, 12.

It is uncertain whether Solomon made use of marble in his building program. Josephus says “white marble” was used, but the Hebrew word usually translated “marble” at 1 Chronicles 29:2 probably denotes “alabaster” and is thus rendered in some translations. (JB, NW; Jewish Antiquities, VIII, 64 [iii, 2]) This is in agreement with A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament by Brown, Driver, and Briggs (1980, p. 1010), and Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, by Koehler and Baumgartner (Leiden, 1958, p. 966).

(Marʹe·al).

A boundary location of Zebulun. (Jos 19:10, 11) Some tentatively identify it with Tell Ghalta (Tel Reʽala), about 6 km (3.5 mi) ENE of Jokneam in the Valley of Jezreel.

(Ma·reʹsha[h]) [Place at the Head (Summit)].

1. A descendant of Judah who is called the “father” of Hebron. (1Ch 2:3, 42) While it might be concluded that Mareshah was the ancestor of the inhabitants of the city of Hebron, this is unlikely since the Hebron here mentioned had sons and thus was evidently a person.​—1Ch 2:43.

2. A descendant of Judah through Shelah. Laadah is identified as “the father of Mareshah.” (1Ch 4:21) While it is possible that this Mareshah (or his father Laadah) founded the town of Mareshah, or that he is the same person as the Judahite mentioned above, there is no certainty about these matters.

3. One of a group of nine cities in the Shephelah region of Judah (Jos 15:44), Mareshah occupied a position of strategic importance beside one of the valleys forming a natural route from the coastal plain up into the mountains and to Hebron. It is identified with Tell Sandahannah (Tel Maresha), about 1.5 km (1 mi) S of Beit Jibrin (Bet Guvrin).

King Rehoboam, successor to Solomon, made a fortress city of Mareshah, thereby strengthening Judah’s defense against attack from that avenue of approach. (2Ch 11:5, 8) Zerah the Ethiopian swept up from the S with his huge force of a million men and was met at Mareshah by the army of King Asa, and the battle, resulting in a Judean victory by divine assistance, was fought in that area. Asa pursued the defeated Ethiopian force about 35 km (22 mi) to Gerar, SW of Mareshah. (2Ch 14:9-13) Mareshah, also Maresha, was the hometown of the prophet Eliezer, who correctly foretold the failure of King Jehoshaphat’s joint maritime enterprise with Ahaziah of Israel. (2Ch 20:35-37) Micah’s prophecy, warning apostate Judah and Israel of impending punishment, makes specific reference to Mareshah.​—Mic 1:15.

In the postexilic period, Mareshah became known as Marisa and continued to be a site of considerable importance, though it became a Sidonian colony and later an Idumean stronghold. It was finally destroyed by the Parthians in 40 B.C.E.

One who navigates or assists in the operation of a ship; a sailor or seaman. (1Ki 9:26, 27; Eze 27:8, 9; Re 18:17-19) The life of ancient mariners was a perilous one. In a storm-tossed sea they were practically helpless. Wrote the psalmist: “Because of the calamity their very soul finds itself melting. They reel and move unsteadily like a drunken man, and even all their wisdom proves confused. And they begin crying out to Jehovah in their distress.”​—Ps 107:26-28.

Acts 27:15-19 contains a vivid account of the measures taken by mariners during a storm. The skiff, which was towed along and evidently served as a lifeboat when needed, was hoisted aboard. Helps, possibly ropes or chains, were used to undergird the boat, that is, were passed around the hull of the ship and tightened on deck. The gear was lowered. This may mean that the mainsail was reduced. Items were thrown overboard to lighten the vessel, serving to increase the ship’s buoyancy.​—Compare Jon 1:5; Ac 27:38; see SHIP.

The Roman surname of the son of Mary of Jerusalem. His Hebrew name was John, meaning “Jehovah Has Shown Favor; Jehovah Has Been Gracious.” (Ac 12:12, 25) Mark was a cousin of Barnabas, was his traveling companion and that of other early Christian missionaries, and was inspired to write the Gospel bearing his own name. (Col 4:10) Mark is the John Mark mentioned in the book of Acts and the John of Acts 13:5, 13.

He was evidently an early believer in Christ. His mother’s home was used as a place of worship by the early Christian congregation, which may mean that both she and Mark became Jesus’ followers before Christ’s death. (Ac 12:12) Since Mark alone mentions the scantily clad young man who fled on the night of Jesus’ betrayal, there is reason to believe that Mark himself was that young man. (Mr 14:51, 52) So it seems likely that Mark was present when the holy spirit was poured out on the some 120 disciples of Christ on Pentecost 33 C.E.​—Ac 1:13-15; 2:1-4.

After they had carried out the relief ministration in Jerusalem, Barnabas and Saul (Paul) “returned and took along with them John, the one surnamed Mark.” It appears that Mark served as their attendant, perhaps caring for their physical needs while they traveled. (Ac 12:25; 13:5) For some undisclosed reason, when they arrived at Perga in Pamphylia, “John [Mark] withdrew from them and returned to Jerusalem.” (Ac 13:13) When Paul later set out on his second missionary journey, though Barnabas was determined to take Mark along, Paul “did not think it proper to be taking this one along with them, seeing that he had departed from them from Pamphylia and had not gone with them to the work.” “A sharp burst of anger” ensued, and they separated; Barnabas took Mark with him to Cyprus and Paul took Silas with him through Syria and Cilicia.​—Ac 15:36-41.

Some time thereafter, however, whatever breach there was between Paul, Barnabas, and Mark was evidently healed, for Mark was with Paul in Rome and joined him in sending greetings to the Colossian Christians (c. 60-61 C.E.). Paul spoke favorably of him, saying: “Aristarchus my fellow captive sends you his greetings, and so does Mark the cousin of Barnabas, (concerning whom you received commands to welcome him if ever he comes to you).” (Col 4:10) Mark is also among those mentioned by Paul as sending greetings to Philemon when the apostle wrote to him from Rome (also c. 60-61 C.E.). (Phm 23, 24) Later (c. 65 C.E.), when Paul was again a prisoner in Rome, he specifically asked Timothy to “take Mark and bring him with you, for he is useful to me for ministering.”​—2Ti 4:11.

John Mark also associated with Peter in Babylon, for he is mentioned as sending greetings in the apostle’s first letter (written c. 62-64 C.E.). Peter calls him “Mark my son,” perhaps indicating the strong bond of Christian affection that existed between them. (1Pe 5:13; compare 1Jo 2:1, 7.) Thus, Mark, once the cause of difficulty, gained the commendation and trust of prominent servants of God and enjoyed the yet greater privilege of being inspired to write an account of Jesus’ ministry.​—See JOHN No. 4; MARK, GOOD NEWS ACCORDING TO.

Among non-Israelites, animals and even slaves were branded with a mark as an indication of ownership. In the case of humans, such property marks were placed on a conspicuous part of the body, such as the forehead. Worshipers of false gods at times identified themselves as such by having the mark of their deity on their forehead. However, Jehovah’s law to Israel prohibited disfiguring humans with tattoo marks. This served to counteract any idolatrous practices and taught due regard for God’s creation.​—Le 19:28; see BRAND MARK.

Figurative Use. The Scriptures allude to marks made on humans and refer to these in a figurative sense. In Ezekiel’s vision a man with a secretary’s inkhorn was commissioned to go through Jerusalem and to ‘put a mark [Heb., taw] on those who were sighing and groaning over all the detestable things that were being done in the midst of it.’ This action on their part showed that they were righteous persons, servants belonging to Jehovah, and therefore worthy of preservation at the time for the execution of Jehovah’s judgment. The figurative mark on their forehead testified to that fact.​—Eze 9; compare Eze 9:4, ftn; 2Pe 2:6-8.

On the other hand, in John’s vision persons receiving the mark (or, engraving) of the wild beast on their forehead or on their hand were in line for destruction. The mark on the forehead publicly identified them as worshipers of the wild beast and therefore as slaves to it. They were thus shown to be opposers of God, for the wild beast received its authority from the dragon, Satan the Devil. The mark on the hand would logically signify active support of the wild beast, the hand being used to accomplish work.​—Re 13:1, 2, 16-18; 14:9, 10; 16:1, 2; 20:4.

See also BOUNDARY MARK.

The divinely inspired record of the ministry of Jesus Christ written by John Mark. This account of “the good news about Jesus Christ” begins with the work of Christ’s forerunner, John the Baptizer, and concludes with a report of the circumstances surrounding Jesus’ resurrection. Hence, it covers the time from the spring of 29 to the spring of 33 C.E.​—Mr 1:1.

This Gospel, the shortest of all four, is a rapid-moving and descriptive record of the ministry of Jesus Christ as the miracle-working Son of God. Frequent is the use of “immediately” or “at once.” (Mr 1:10, 12, 18, 21, 29) The account is almost evenly divided between conversation and action.

Source of Information. Ancient tradition indicates that Peter provided the basic information for Mark’s Gospel, and this would agree with the fact that Mark was associated with Peter in Babylon. (1Pe 5:13) According to Origen, Mark composed his Gospel “in accordance with Peter’s instructions.” (The Ecclesiastical History, Eusebius, VI, XXV, 3-7) In his work, “Against Marcion” (IV, V), Tertullian says that the Gospel of Mark “may be affirmed to be Peter’s, whose interpreter Mark was.” (The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. III, p. 350) Eusebius gives the statement of “John the presbyter” as quoted by Papias (c. 140 C.E.): “And the Presbyter used to say this, ‘Mark became Peter’s interpreter and wrote accurately all that he remembered, not, indeed, in order, of the things said or done by the Lord. . . . Mark did nothing wrong in thus writing down single points as he remembered them. For to one thing he gave attention, to leave out nothing of what he had heard and to make no false statements in them.’”​—The Ecclesiastical History, III, XXXIX, 12-16.

John Mark evidently also had other sources of information. Since Jesus’ early disciples met in the home of his mother (Ac 12:12), Mark must have been acquainted with persons other than Peter who had known Jesus Christ well, individuals who had seen him doing his work and had heard him preach and teach. Probably being the “certain young man” whom those arresting Christ tried to seize but who “got away naked,” Mark himself was apparently not totally without personal contact with Jesus.​—Mr 14:51, 52.

Evidently Written With Non-Jews in Mind. While the good news according to Mark would interest and benefit Jewish readers, apparently it was not written specifically for them. It seems to have been composed primarily for non-Jewish readers, especially the Romans. Its conciseness and abrupt character have been viewed as particularly suitable for the intellect of Roman readers. Latin terms are sometimes transliterated into Greek, as when the Greek word prai·toʹri·on is used for the Latin term praetorium. (Mr 15:16, Int) Also, the Greek word ken·ty·riʹon is employed for the Latin word centurio, an officer in command of a hundred soldiers.​—Mr 15:39, Int.

The account contains explanations that would not have been necessary for Jewish readers. It indicates that the Jordan was a river and shows that the temple could be seen from the Mount of Olives. (Mr 1:5; 13:3) It mentions that the Pharisees practiced “fasting” and that the Sadducees “say there is no resurrection.” (2:18; 12:18) This Gospel also explains that the Passover victim was sacrificed on “the first day of unfermented cakes” and that “Preparation” was “the day before the sabbath.”​—14:12; 15:42.

Whereas it would not normally have been necessary to explain Semitic terms for Jewish readers in general, Mark’s Gospel provides many of such explanations. Interpretations are given for “Boanerges” (“Sons of Thunder”), “Talʹi·tha cuʹmi” (“Maiden, I say to you, Get up!”), “corban” (“a gift dedicated to God”), and “Eʹli, Eʹli, laʹma sa·bach·thaʹni?” (“My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”).​—Mr 3:17; 5:41; 7:11; 15:34.

Time and Place of Composition. According to ancient tradition, Mark’s Gospel was first made public in Rome, this being the testimony of such early writers as Clement, Eusebius, and Jerome. Mark was in Rome during Paul’s first imprisonment there. (Col 4:10; Phm 1, 23, 24) Thereafter he was with Peter in Babylon. (1Pe 5:13) Then, during Paul’s second imprisonment in Rome, Paul asked that Timothy come soon and bring Mark with him. (2Ti 4:11) Probably Mark did then return to Rome. Since no mention is made of Jerusalem’s destruction in fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy, Mark must have compiled his account before that event in 70 C.E. His presence in Rome at least once, and likely twice, during the years 60-65 C.E. suggests that Mark may have completed his Gospel there sometime during those years.

Some Unique Features of Mark’s Account. Though largely covering material similar to that of Matthew and Luke, Mark also provides supplementary details. Some of these illuminate how Jesus felt about certain things. He was ‘grieved at the insensibility of the hearts’ of persons who objected to his healing a man’s withered hand on the Sabbath. (Mr 3:5) When Jesus received a poor reception from people in his home territory, “he wondered at their lack of faith.” (6:6) And he “felt love” for the rich young man who asked about the requirements for gaining everlasting life.​—10:21.

Also unique with Mark’s account are certain points regarding the end of Jesus’ earthly life. He reports that at Jesus’ trial the false witnesses were not in agreement. (Mr 14:59) The passerby impressed into service to carry Jesus’ torture stake was Simon of Cyrene, “the father of Alexander and Rufus.” (15:21) And Mark relates that Pilate made sure that Jesus was dead before granting permission for Joseph of Arimathea to take the body for burial.​—15:43-45.

One of the four illustrations of Jesus found in Mark’s Gospel is unique. (Mr 4:26-29) The account mentions at least 19 miracles performed by Jesus Christ. Two of these (the healing of a deaf man who also had a speech impediment and the cure of a certain blind man) are contained only in Mark’s Gospel.​—Mr 7:31-37; 8:22-26.

References to the Hebrew Scriptures. Although Mark appears to have written primarily for the Romans, this record does contain references to and quotations from the Hebrew Scriptures. The work of John the Baptizer is shown to have been a fulfillment of Isaiah 40:3 and Malachi 3:1. (Mr 1:2-4) Also to be found in the account are instances of Jesus’ applying, quoting from, or alluding to the Hebrew Scriptures. These include: Giving God mere lip service (Mr 7:6, 7; Isa 29:13); honoring parents (Mr 7:10; Ex 20:12; 21:17); the creation of man and woman and the institution of marriage (Mr 10:6-9; Ge 1:27; 2:24); various commandments (Mr 10:19; Ex 20:12-16; Le 19:13); Jesus’ comments regarding the temple (Mr 11:17; Isa 56:7; Jer 7:11); his statement about being rejected (Mr 12:10, 11; Ps 118:22, 23); Jehovah’s words to Moses at the burning thornbush (Mr 12:26; Ex 3:2, 6); the two great commandments on love (Mr 12:29-31; De 6:4, 5; Le 19:18); the prophetic words of Jehovah to David’s Lord on the subjugation of foes (Mr 12:36; Ps 110:1); the scattering of Jesus’ disciples (Mr 14:27; Zec 13:7); Jesus’ statement on being forsaken by God (Mr 15:34; Ps 22:1); his instructions to a healed leper (Mr 1:44; Le 14:10, 11); and his prophetic statement regarding the disgusting thing causing desolation (Mr 13:14; Da 9:27).

The references to the Hebrew Scriptures in Mark’s account amply illustrate that Jesus Christ had confidence in them and used those Scriptures in his ministry. The Gospel also provides a basis for becoming better acquainted with the Son of man, who “came, not to be ministered to, but to minister and to give his soul a ransom in exchange for many.”​—Mr 10:45.

Long and Short Conclusions. Some have thought that Mark 16:8, which ends with the words “and they told nobody anything, for they were in fear,” is too abrupt to have been the original ending of this Gospel. However, that need not be concluded in view of Mark’s general style. Also, the fourth-century scholars Jerome and Eusebius agree that the authentic record closes with the words “for they were in fear.”​—Jerome, letter 120, question 3, as published in Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna and Leipzig, 1912, Vol. LV, p. 481; Eusebius, “Ad Marinum,” I, as published in Patrologia Graeca, Paris, 1857, Vol. XXII, col. 937.

There are a number of manuscripts and versions that add a long or a short conclusion after these words. The long conclusion (consisting of 12 verses) is found in the Alexandrine Manuscript, the Codex Ephraemi Syri rescriptus, and the Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis. It also appears in the Latin Vulgate, the Curetonian Syriac, and the Syriac Peshitta. But it is omitted in the Sinaitic Manuscript, the Vatican Manuscript No. 1209, the Sinaitic Syriac codex, and the Armenian Version. Certain late manuscripts and versions contain the short conclusion. The Codex Regius of the eighth century C.E. has both conclusions, giving the shorter conclusion first. It prefixes a note to each conclusion, saying that these passages are current in some quarters, though it evidently recognized neither of them as authoritative.

In commenting on the long and short conclusions of the Gospel of Mark, Bible translator Edgar J. Goodspeed noted: “The Short Conclusion connects much better with Mark 16:8 than does the Long, but neither can be considered an original part of the Gospel of Mark.”​—The Goodspeed Parallel New Testament, 1944, p. 127.

[Box on page 339]

HIGHLIGHTS OF MARK

Mark’s concise, fast-moving account of Jesus’ life, presenting Jesus as the miracle-working Son of God

The shortest Gospel, it was the third to be written (c. 60-65 C.E.), evidently with non-Jews in mind

Jesus conducts a vigorous campaign of Kingdom preaching

Jesus is baptized and begins preaching, “The kingdom of God has drawn near” (1:9-11, 14, 15)

He invites Simon, Andrew, James, and John to leave the fishing business and be his followers (1:16-21)

After preaching in the synagogue at Capernaum, he proceeds to preach throughout the whole of Galilee (1:21, 22, 35-39)

Levi, a tax collector, responds to invitation to be Jesus’ follower (2:14-17)

Jesus forms a group of 12 apostles to preach (3:13-19)

He uses many illustrations when teaching about the Kingdom of God so that only worthy ones get the full sense of what he says (4:1-34)

Jesus encounters lack of faith while witnessing in his home territory (6:1-6)

He steps up the preaching activity by sending out his apostles (6:7-13)

His activity reaches into Phoenicia and the Decapolis (7:24, 31)

Jesus is transfigured in Kingdom glory (9:1-8)

Outside Jerusalem, he prophesies about ‘the coming of the Son of man with great power and glory’ (13:1-37)

The miracle-working Son of God

At the synagogue in Capernaum, he frees a man from demon possession; afterward, he heals Simon’s mother-in-law and cures many others of various afflictions (1:23-34, 40-42)

By curing a paralytic, Jesus demonstrates his power to forgive sins (2:1-12)

Sufferers crowd in from all parts seeking relief (3:1-12)

After calming a storm on the Sea of Galilee, he expels demons from a man and allows them to enter a herd of swine (4:35–5:17)

He heals a woman suffering from a flow of blood and resurrects Jairus’ daughter (5:21-43)

After feeding 5,000 with two fishes and five loaves, Jesus walks on the windswept Sea of Galilee (6:35-52)

He casts a demon from the daughter of a Syrophoenician woman and cures a deaf man having a speech impediment (7:24-37)

He feeds 4,000 with seven loaves; at Bethsaida, he restores sight to a blind man (8:1-9, 22-26)

From a speechless, deaf boy, Jesus expels a demon that had resisted the disciples; he restores sight to a blind beggar at Jericho (9:14-29; 10:46-52)

He curses a fig tree, which subsequently withers (11:12-14, 20)

Opposers of God’s Son are unsuccessful

After Satan’s efforts at temptation in the wilderness, angels minister to Jesus (1:12, 13)

When scribes of the Pharisees criticize his eating with tax collectors and sinners, Jesus refutes them (2:15-17)

Later the Pharisees object to his disciples plucking heads of grain on the Sabbath and Jesus’ healing on the Sabbath; they join the Herodians in wanting to destroy him (2:23–3:6)

Jesus convincingly refutes the accusation that he expels demons by means of Satan (3:20-30)

Jesus’ forerunner John the Baptizer is beheaded, but Jesus continues to teach (6:14-29, 34)

Pharisees and scribes protest that his disciples disregard their tradition about hand washing; Jesus exposes their hypocrisy and explains the real source of uncleanness (7:1-23)

Pharisees question Jesus regarding divorce in order to test him, but without success (10:1-12)

Chief priests, scribes, and older men challenge Jesus’ authority after he cleanses the temple, but he silences them (11:15-18, 27-33)

He tells the parable of the vineyard to expose the opposition of the religious leaders to God’s will and their intent to kill Jesus; these seek to seize him but fear the crowd (12:1-12)

Pharisees and Herodians ask Jesus whether it is right to pay taxes to Caesar; Sadducees pose a difficult question about the resurrection. All fail to trap Jesus (12:13-27)

Judas betrays Jesus; disciples stumbled; Jesus is arrested and the Sanhedrin judges him worthy of death; nevertheless, he foretells he will ‘sit at the right hand of power and come with the clouds of heaven’ (14:1, 2, 10, 11, 17-21, 27-65)

Pilate is pressured into condemning Jesus to death; Jesus dies on the stake and is buried (15:1-47)

Angels announce the resurrection of Jesus (16:1-8)

An open area that served as a center for buying and selling and as a place of public assembly in cities and towns of the ancient Middle East and the Roman world. In Greek and Roman cities, statues and public buildings, including religious edifices, surrounded the open area. It appears that some judicial matters were handled in marketplaces. (Compare Ac 16:19-21.) Also, news, both local and foreign, could be obtained in the marketplace, for it was there that persons congregated and spoke about the latest happenings.​—Compare Ac 17:17-21.

In the marketplaces of Palestine, children could be found playing games. (Mt 11:16; Lu 7:32) Unemployed men as well as those who were willing to be hired for a day might be standing around. (Compare Mt 20:3, 4.) The proud scribes and Pharisees wanted to be noticed by the throngs there and to be greeted in accord with their assumed high station. (Mt 23:2, 6, 7; Mr 12:38; Lu 11:43; 20:46) Upon returning from the market, the tradition-keeping Pharisees and other Jews cleansed themselves by sprinkling before ever eating anything.​—Mr 7:3, 4.

While on earth, Christ Jesus healed persons in the marketplaces. (Mr 6:56) And the apostle Paul, at Athens, daily reasoned “in the marketplace with those who happened to be on hand.”​—Ac 17:16, 17; see APPIUS, MARKETPLACE OF.

(Maʹroth) [from a root meaning “be bitter”].

A town mentioned by the prophet Micah in his prophecy foretelling Jehovah’s punishment of Jerusalem and Judah. (Mic 1:12) The location is undetermined; some would identify it with Maarath of Joshua 15:59.

The union of a man and a woman as husband and wife according to the standard set out by God. Marriage is a divine institution, authorized and established by Jehovah in Eden. Marriage brings into being the family unit, the family circle. Its basic purpose was the reproducing of the members of the human family, to bring into existence more creatures of the human kind. Jehovah the Creator made male and female and ordained marriage as the proper arrangement for the multiplication of the human race. (Ge 1:27, 28) The first human wedding was performed by Jehovah, as described at Genesis 2:22-24.

Marriage was designed to form a permanent bond of union between man and woman, that they might be mutually helpful to each other. Living together in love and confidence, they could enjoy great happiness. Jehovah created woman as a mate for man by using the man’s rib as a base, thereby making woman man’s closest fleshly relative on earth, his own flesh. (Ge 2:21) As Jesus pointed out, it was not Adam but God who said, “That is why a man will leave his father and his mother and he must stick to his wife and they must become one flesh.” The wording of this text makes it evident that monogamy was the original standard for marriage in the eyes of Jehovah God.​—Mt 19:4-6; Ge 2:24.

Marriage was the normal way of life among the Hebrews. There is no word for bachelor in the Hebrew Scriptures. The basic purpose of marriage being to have children, the statement of blessing by Rebekah’s family is understandable: “May you become thousands times ten thousand” (Ge 24:60), also Rachel’s appeal to Jacob: “Give me children or otherwise I shall be a dead woman.”​—Ge 30:1.

Marriage was a matter affecting the family, and not only the family but the entire tribe or patriarchal community, for it could have an effect on the strength of the tribe as well as its economy. It was natural and seemed necessary, therefore, that the selection of a wife and the arrangement of all contractual and financial matters connected with it should be decided upon by the parents or guardians involved, though the consent of the parties was sometimes sought (Ge 24:8) and romantic attachments often accompanied the arrangements. (Ge 29:20; 1Sa 18:20, 27, 28) The initial steps or proposals were generally made by the parents of the young man, but sometimes by the father of the girl, especially if there was a difference of rank.​—Jos 15:16, 17; 1Sa 18:20-27.

It seems to have been generally customary for a man to look for a wife within the circle of his own relations or tribe. This principle is indicated by Laban’s statement to Jacob: “It is better for me to give [my daughter] to you than for me to give her to another man.” (Ge 29:19) Especially was this observed among the worshipers of Jehovah, as exemplified by Abraham when he sent to his relatives in his own country to get a wife for his son Isaac rather than to take one from the daughters of the Canaanites among whom he was dwelling. (Ge 24:3, 4) Marriage to nonworshipers of Jehovah was frowned upon and strongly discouraged. It was a form of disloyalty. (Ge 26:34, 35) Under the Law, marriage alliances with persons of the seven Canaanite nations were prohibited. (De 7:1-4) However, a soldier might marry a captive virgin from another foreign nation after she had undergone a purification period, during which she mourned her dead parents and got rid of all features of her past religious connections.​—De 21:10-14.

Bride-Price. Before the marriage contract was concluded, the young man or the father of the young man had to pay to the girl’s father the bride-price, or marriage price. (Ge 34:11, 12; Ex 22:16; 1Sa 18:23, 25) This was doubtless regarded as compensation for the loss of the services of the daughter and for the effort and expense required of the parents in caring for and educating her. Sometimes the bride-price was paid in services to the father. (Ge 29:18, 20, 27; 31:15) In the Law there was an established purchase price for an unengaged virgin who was seduced by a man.​—Ex 22:16.

Ceremony. As to the wedding itself, the central and characteristic feature was the solemn bringing of the bride from her father’s home to her husband’s home on the date agreed upon, in which act the significance of marriage as representing admission of the bride into the family of her husband found expression. (Mt 1:24) This constituted the wedding in patriarchal days before the Law. It was altogether a civil affair. There was no religious ceremony or form, and no priest or clergyman officiated or validated the marriage. The bridegroom took the bride to his house or to the tent or house of his parents. The matter was publicly made known, acknowledged, and recorded, and the marriage was binding.​—Ge 24:67.

However, as soon as marriage arrangements had been made and the parties were engaged, they were considered bound in marriage. Lot’s daughters were still in his house, under his jurisdiction, but the men engaged to them were termed Lot’s “sons-in-law who were to take his daughters.” (Ge 19:14) Although Samson never married a certain Philistine woman but was only engaged to her, she was spoken of as his wife. (Jg 14:10, 17, 20) The Law stated that if an engaged girl committed fornication, she and the guilty man were to be put to death. If she was violated against her will, the man was to be put to death. However, any case involving an unengaged girl was handled differently.​—De 22:22-27.

Marriages were registered. Under the Law marriages, as well as births resulting from the union, were recorded in the official records of the community. For this reason we have an accurate genealogy of Jesus Christ.​—Mt 1:1-16; Lu 3:23-38; compare Lu 2:1-5.

Celebration. While the wedding itself had no formal ceremony, there was, nevertheless, a very joyous celebration of weddings in Israel. On the day of the wedding, at her own home the bride usually made elaborate preparations. First she would bathe herself and rub herself with perfumed oil. (Compare Ru 3:3; Eze 23:40.) At times assisted by woman attendants, she put on breastbands and a white robe, often richly embroidered, according to her financial status. (Jer 2:32; Re 19:7, 8; Ps 45:13, 14) She decked herself with ornaments and jewels, if she was able to do so (Isa 49:18; 61:10; Re 21:2), and then covered herself with a light garment, a form of veil, that extended from head to foot. (Isa 3:19, 23) This explains why Laban could so easily practice a deception on Jacob so that Jacob did not know that Laban was giving him Leah instead of Rachel. (Ge 29:23, 25) Rebekah put on a head covering when she approached to meet Isaac. (Ge 24:65) This symbolized the subjection of the bride to the bridegroom​—to his authority.​—1Co 11:5, 10.

The bridegroom was likewise arrayed in his best attire and often had a handsome headdress and a garland on his head. (Ca 3:11; Isa 61:10) Escorted by his friends, he would leave his house in the evening for the home of the bride’s parents. (Mt 9:15) From there the procession, accompanied by musicians and singers and usually by persons bearing lamps, moved toward the home of the bridegroom or to the house of his father.

The people along the route would take great interest in the procession. The voices of the bride and bridegroom would be heard in exultation. Some, particularly maidens bearing lamps, would join the procession. (Jer 7:34; 16:9; Isa 62:5; Mt 25:1) The bridegroom might spend considerable time at his home and, then again, some delay might take place before the procession would leave the home of the bride, so that it would thus be quite late, and some who were waiting along the way might get drowsy and fall asleep, as in Jesus’ illustration of the ten virgins. The singing and exultation might be heard quite a distance ahead, those hearing it making the cry: “Here is the bridegroom!” The attendants were ready to greet the bridegroom when he came, and those invited to the marriage supper would enter the house. After the bridegroom and his entourage had gone into the house and closed the door, it was too late for tardy guests to enter. (Mt 25:1-12; 22:1-3; Ge 29:22) It was looked upon as a gross insult to decline the invitation to the marriage feast. (Mt 22:8) The guests might be provided with robes (Mt 22:11), and their respective places at the feast were often designated by the one extending the invitation.​—Lu 14:8-10.

Friend of the Bridegroom. “The friend of the bridegroom” had a large share in the arrangements and was looked upon as bringing together the bride and groom. The friend of the bridegroom rejoiced in hearing the voice of the groom conversing with the bride and now could feel happy that his duties had been blessed with a successful conclusion.​—Joh 3:29.

Proof of Virginity. After the supper the husband took his bride into the nuptial chamber. (Ps 19:5; Joe 2:16) On the wedding night a cloth or garment was used and then kept or given to the wife’s parents so that the marks of the blood of the girl’s virginity would constitute legal protection for her in the event she was later charged with lack of virginity or of having been a prostitute prior to her marriage. Otherwise, she could be stoned to death for having presented herself in marriage as a spotless virgin and for bringing great reproach on her father’s house. (De 22:13-21) This practice of keeping the cloth has continued among some peoples in the Middle East until recent times.

Privileges and Duties. The husband was head of the house, and the final decision on matters affecting the welfare and economy of the family were left to him. If he felt that the family would be adversely affected, he could even annul a vow of his wife or daughter. This authority evidently also belonged to the man when he was engaged to a woman. (Nu 30:3-8, 10-15) The husband was the lord, master of the household, and was considered the owner (Heb., baʹʽal) of the woman.​—De 22:22.

Proverbs 31 describes some of the duties of the wife toward her husband, or owner, which included the household work, the making of and care for clothing, even some of the buying and selling, and general supervision of the household. The woman, while being in subjection and being in a sense the property of the husband, enjoyed a fine status and many privileges. Her husband was to love her, and this was true even if she was a secondary wife or one who had been taken as a captive. She was not to be mistreated and was guaranteed food, clothing, shelter, and the marriage due without diminution. Also, the husband could not constitute the son of the favorite wife as the firstborn at the expense of the son of the “hated” (or less preferred) wife. (Ex 21:7-11; De 21:11, 14-17) Faithful Hebrew men loved their wives, and if the wife was wise and acted in harmony with God’s law, often the husband would listen to her or approve of her actions.​—Ge 21:8-14; 27:41-46; 28:1-4.

Even the unengaged virgin who was seduced by an unmarried man was protected, for if the father permitted, the seducer had to marry the girl and could never divorce her all his life. (De 22:28, 29) If the wife was formally accused by her husband of not being a virgin at the time of marriage and the charge was proved false, her husband was fined and could never divorce her. (De 22:17-19) The woman who was accused of secret adultery, if innocent, was then to be made pregnant by her husband so that she could bear a child and thereby give public notice of her innocence. The dignity of the wife’s person was respected. Intercourse with her during menstruation was forbidden.​—Le 18:19; Nu 5:12-28.

Prohibited Marriages. Besides prohibition of marriage alliances with nonworshipers of Jehovah, especially with the seven nations in the land of Canaan (Ex 34:14-16; De 7:1-4), other marriages were prohibited within certain degrees of consanguinity or affinity.​—Le 18:6-17.

A high priest was prohibited from marrying a widow, a divorced or violated woman, or a prostitute; he was to marry only a virgin from his people. (Le 21:10, 13, 14) The other priests could not marry a prostitute or violated woman, nor a woman divorced from her husband. (Le 21:1, 7) According to Ezekiel 44:22, they could marry a virgin of the house of Israel or a widow who happened to be the widow of a priest.