LAADAH

(Laʹa·dah).

A descendant of Judah and the second named of Shelah’s two sons. He is referred to as “the father of Mareshah.”​—1Ch 4:21.

LABAN

(Laʹban) [White].

1. The grandson of Abraham’s brother Nahor. He was the son of Bethuel and the brother of Rebekah (Ge 24:15, 29; 28:5), and he was the father of Leah and Rachel. (Ge 29:16) Laban resided at the city of Haran in Paddan-aram, an area of Mesopotamia.​—Ge 24:10; 27:43; 28:6; 29:4, 5.

Laban is called “the son of Bethuel the Syrian [literally, “the Aramaean”].” He is also referred to as “Laban the Syrian.” (Ge 28:5; 25:20; 31:20, 24) This designation is fitting in view of the fact that he was a resident of Paddan-aram, which means “Plain (Flatland) of Aram (Syria).” Laban was a Semite dwelling in a region occupied by persons speaking Aramaic, a Semitic language.

To the vicinity just mentioned, aged Abraham sent his servant to find a wife for Isaac. (Ge 24:1-4, 10) When Laban heard Rebekah’s account of her encounter with Abraham’s servant and saw the gifts she had been given, he went running to the servant, addressed him as one blessed by Jehovah, and extended hospitality to him. (Ge 24:28-32) Laban subsequently took a leading part in the negotiations concerning the marriage of Rebekah, the approval for the marriage coming from both him and his father, Bethuel.​—Ge 24:50-61.

Years later, to escape Esau’s vengeance and to obtain a wife, Jacob traveled to the home of his uncle Laban at Haran. (Ge 27:41–28:5) By this time Laban had two daughters, Leah and Rachel (Ge 29:16), and possibly also sons. (Ge 31:1) Laban made an agreement with Jacob that for seven years of service he would receive Laban’s younger daughter Rachel as wife. However, Laban tricked Jacob on his wedding night by substituting the older daughter Leah for Rachel, brushing Jacob’s protests aside by appealing to local custom and then offering Rachel to Jacob as a second wife, if Jacob would serve him for an additional seven years.​—Ge 29:13-28.

When Jacob finally wished to depart, Laban urged him to remain and continue serving him for wages. (Ge 30:25-28) The agreement was that Jacob could keep for himself all the speckled and color-patched sheep, the dark-brown sheep among the young rams, and any color-patched and speckled she-goats. (Ge 30:31-34) But Jacob’s later words to Leah and Rachel and also to Laban (Ge 31:4-9, 41) indicate that during succeeding years Laban frequently altered this original agreement when it turned out that Jacob’s flocks were increasing greatly. Laban’s attitude toward Jacob was not the same as formerly, and at Jehovah’s direction Jacob decided to return to his homeland with his family and flocks.​—Ge 31:1-5, 13, 17, 18.

On the third day after Jacob’s secret departure, Laban learned of it and pursued Jacob, catching up with him in the mountainous region of Gilead. However, a warning from God prevented Laban from harming Jacob. (Ge 31:19-24) When they met, Laban and Jacob quarreled. Jacob pointed to his 20 years of faithful service and hard work and showed how Laban had dealt with him unfairly, changing his wages ten times.​—Ge 31:36-42.

Laban was very concerned about retrieving the teraphim, or household idols, which Rachel, unknown to Jacob, had stolen. These he was unable to find, for Rachel kept them concealed. Laban may have become influenced in his religious ideas by the moon-worshiping people among whom he dwelt, and this may be indicated by his use of omens and his possession of teraphim. However, it should be noted that it was likely more than merely religious reasons that made Laban so anxious to locate and retrieve the teraphim. Tablets unearthed at Nuzi near Kirkuk, Iraq, reveal that, according to the laws of patriarchal times in that particular area, possession of such household idols by a woman’s husband could give him the right to appear in court and claim the estate of his deceased father-in-law. Hence, Laban may have thought that Jacob himself stole the teraphim in order to dispossess Laban’s own sons later. This may explain why, on failing to locate the household gods, Laban was anxious to conclude an agreement with Jacob that would ensure that Jacob would not go back with the household gods after Laban’s death to deprive his sons of their inheritance.​—Ge 31:30-35, 41-52.

Laban made a covenant of family peace with Jacob, and to memorialize it, a stone pillar and a heap of stones were set up. Using Hebrew, Jacob called the heap Galeed, meaning “Witness Heap.” Laban called it Jegar-sahadutha, using an Aramaic, or Syrian, expression having the same meaning. It was also called “The Watchtower.” (Ge 31:43-53) After bidding his grandchildren and daughters farewell, Laban returned home, and the Bible record makes no further mention of him.​—Ge 31:54, 55.

2. A place mentioned at Deuteronomy 1:1 in relation to “the desert plains in front of Suph.” The exact location of Laban is unknown.

LABDANUM

(labʹda·num).

A soft, black or dark-brown gum that exudes from the leaves and branches of several varieties of Cistus, or rockrose. The gum has a bitter taste but a fragrant odor. It is used in perfumes and, at one time, was also extensively employed in medicine. With reference to this substance the ancient Greek historian Herodotus (III, 112) wrote: “It is gathered from the beards of he-goats, where it is found sticking like gum, having come from the bushes on which they browse. It is used in many sorts of unguents [ointments], and is what the Arabs burn chiefly as incense.”​—Translation by G. Rawlinson.

The Hebrew word nekhoʼthʹ designates this item carried by a caravan of Ishmaelites to whom Joseph was sold and one of the fine products that Jacob told his sons to take as a gift to one who was ruler in Egypt. (Ge 37:25; 43:11) Nekhoʼthʹ has been variously rendered “spices” (KJ), “gum” (AT, RS), “tragacanth” (Da), “resin” (Mo), and, as defined by Koehler and Baumgartner, “labdanum” (NW).​—Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden, 1958, p. 615.

LABOR

See FORCED LABOR; HIRED LABORER.

LABOR PAINS

The tribulation associated with giving birth. God expressed to the first woman, Eve, after she had sinned, what the result would be as to childbearing. If she had remained obedient, God’s blessing would have continued upon her and childbearing would have been an unmixed joy, for, “the blessing of Jehovah​—that is what makes rich, and he adds no pain with it.” (Pr 10:22) But now, as a general rule, the imperfect functioning of the body would bring pain. Accordingly, God said (as often the things that he permits are said to be done by him): “I shall greatly increase the pain of your pregnancy; in birth pangs you will bring forth children.”​—Ge 3:16.

The Hebrew expression in this passage of Scripture is, literally, “your pain and your pregnancy” and is rendered by some translations “thy sorrow and thy conception.” (KJ; Yg) But the grammatical form used is called hendiadys, in which two words are connected by “and” though one thing is meant. Modern translations render the expression accordingly. (AT; Mo; RS) So it is not stated that conception would necessarily increase, but that the pain would.

It is true that the pain of pregnancy and childbearing may be relieved by medical treatment and may even be prevented to some extent by care and preparatory methods. But, generally, childbirth remains a physically distressing experience.​—Ge 35:16-20; Isa 26:17.

Symbolic Use. Despite labor pains associated with childbearing, there is happiness attendant upon the birth of a child. When Jesus Christ spoke intimately with his apostles on the evening before his death, he used this circumstance as an illustration. He explained to them that he was going to leave them and then went on to say: “Most truly I say to you, You will weep and wail, but the world will rejoice; you will be grieved, but your grief will be turned into joy. A woman, when she is giving birth, has grief, because her hour has arrived; but when she has brought forth the young child, she remembers the tribulation no more because of the joy that a man has been born into the world. You also, therefore, are now, indeed, having grief; but I shall see you again and your hearts will rejoice, and your joy no one will take from you.”​—Joh 16:20-22.

This painful time did come upon them for parts of three days, when they doubtless wept and ‘afflicted their souls’ by fasting. (Lu 5:35; compare Ps 35:13.) But early on the morning of the third day, Nisan 16, and for 40 days after that, the resurrected Jesus appeared to certain of the disciples. Imagine their joy! On the day of Pentecost, the 50th day from Jesus’ resurrection, God’s holy spirit was poured out upon them, and they became joyful witnesses of his resurrection, first in Jerusalem and later in distant parts of the earth. (Ac 1:3, 8) And no one could take their joy away.​—Joh 16:22.

The psalmist described a gathering of kings as they viewed the splendor and magnificence of God’s holy city Zion, with its towers and ramparts of strength. He says: “They themselves saw; and so they were amazed. They got disturbed, they were sent running in panic. Trembling itself took hold of them there, birth pangs like those of a woman giving birth.” (Ps 48:1-6) The psalm apparently describes an actual occurrence in which enemy kings were panic stricken in a projected attack on Jerusalem.

Jeremiah, in prophesying defeat to come upon mighty Babylon, told of a people from the north, the report about whom would cause the king of Babylon to have severe pains, like a woman giving birth. This was fulfilled when Cyrus came against Babylon and particularly when the mysterious handwriting appeared on the wall at Babylonian King Belshazzar’s feast. This the prophet Daniel interpreted to Belshazzar as portending the immediate fall of Babylon to the Medes and Persians.​—Jer 50:41-43; Da 5:5, 6, 28.

Concerning the coming of “Jehovah’s day,” the apostle Paul explained that it would be when the cry of “Peace and security!” is being proclaimed. Then “sudden destruction is to be instantly upon them just as the pang of distress upon a pregnant woman; and they will by no means escape.” (1Th 5:2, 3) Labor pains come suddenly, the exact day and hour not being foreknown. The pains first are about 15 to 20 minutes apart, becoming closer together as labor advances. In most cases the time of labor is relatively short, especially in its second stage, but once labor pains begin, the woman knows that a birth is approaching and that the ordeal must be undergone. There is no “escape.”

In the apostle John’s vision in Revelation he saw a heavenly woman crying out “in her pains and in her agony to give birth.” The child born was “a son, a male, who is to shepherd all the nations with an iron rod.” In spite of the dragon’s efforts to devour it, “her child was caught away to God and to his throne.” (Re 12:1, 2, 4-6) The son’s being caught away by God would denote God’s acceptance of the child as his own, even as it was customary in ancient times to present a newborn child before its father for acceptance. (See BIRTH.) It would follow that the “woman” is God’s “wife,” the “Jerusalem above,” the “mother” of Christ and his spiritual brothers.​—Ga 4:26; Heb 2:11, 12, 17.

God’s heavenly “woman” would, of course, be perfect, and the birth would be without literal pain. The labor pains would, therefore, symbolically indicate that the “woman” would realize that the birth was at hand; she would be in expectation of it shortly.​—Re 12:2.

Who would this “son, a male,” be? He was to “shepherd all the nations with an iron rod.” This was foretold of God’s Messianic King, at Psalm 2:6-9. But John saw this vision long after Christ’s birth on earth and his death and resurrection. The vision would therefore appear to refer to the birth of the Messianic Kingdom in the hands of God’s Son Jesus Christ, who, on being raised from the dead, “sat down at the right hand of God, from then on awaiting until his enemies should be placed as a stool for his feet.”​—Heb 10:12, 13; Ps 110:1; Re 12:10.

This was an expected event, and as the time drew near, the expectation of it in heaven and on earth would become great, for fulfilled prophecy would be a sure indication of its nearness. So it would be, as the apostle pointed out to Christians, with the coming of “Jehovah’s day”: “Now as for the times and the seasons, brothers, you need nothing to be written to you.” “You, brothers, you are not in darkness, so that that day should overtake you as it would thieves.”​—1Th 5:1, 4.

LACHISH

(Laʹchish).

A Judean city in the Shephelah. (Jos 15:21, 33, 39) Lachish is identified with Tell ed-Duweir (Tel Lakhish), a mound surrounded by valleys and lying some 24 km (15 mi) W of Hebron. Anciently this site occupied a strategic position on the principal road linking Jerusalem with Egypt. At one time the city covered an area of about 8 ha (20 acres) and perhaps had a population numbering between 6,000 and 7,500 persons.

At the time of Israel’s conquest of Canaan, Japhia the king of Lachish joined four other kings in a military offensive against Gibeon, a city that had made peace with Joshua. (Jos 10:1-5) In response to Gibeon’s appeal for aid, the Israelite army staged an all-night march from Gilgal. With Jehovah’s help, they defeated the Canaanite alliance, trapped the kings themselves in a cave, and thereafter executed them. (Jos 10:6-27; 12:11) Later, the city of Lachish was taken in less than two days of fighting and its inhabitants were slain. Also, Horam the king of Gezer, who came to the aid of Lachish, suffered defeat.​—Jos 10:31-35.

Some archaeologists link Israel’s campaign against Lachish with a thick layer of ash uncovered at Tell ed-Duweir, in which, among other things, a scarab of Ramses was found. But the Bible does not state that the city was burned, as it does in the case of Jericho (Jos 6:24, 25), Ai (Jos 8:28), and Hazor (Jos 11:11). Rather, Joshua 11:13 seems to indicate that the Israelites rarely burned “cities standing on their own mounds.” So there is no Scriptural basis for placing the destruction causing the ash layer in the time of Joshua and then dating the Israelite conquest of Canaan accordingly. It is also noteworthy that the Ramses to whom the scarab should be assigned cannot be definitely ascertained. At least one archaeologist attributed the scarab to Ramses III and advanced the thought that Lachish was destroyed by the Philistines in the 12th century B.C.E.

During Rehoboam’s reign (997-981 B.C.E.) Lachish was strengthened militarily. (2Ch 11:5-12) Later, in about 830 B.C.E., King Amaziah fled to Lachish to escape conspirators but was pursued and put to death there.​—2Ki 14:19; 2Ch 25:27.

Besieged by Sennacherib. Lachish was besieged by Assyrian King Sennacherib in 732 B.C.E. From there he sent Rabshakeh, Tartan, and Rabsaris with a heavy military force to Jerusalem in an effort to move King Hezekiah to surrender. Through his chief spokesman Rabshakeh, Sennacherib defied Jehovah and later sent messengers to Jerusalem with letters of continued taunt and threat designed to bring about Hezekiah’s surrender. This defiance of Jehovah God finally led to the annihilation by God’s angel of 185,000 Assyrian warriors in one night.​—2Ki 18:14, 17-35; 19:8-13, 32-35; Isa 36:1-20; 37:8-13, 33-36.

A portrayal of the siege of Lachish, from Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh, indicates that the city was encompassed by a double wall having towers at regular intervals and that palms, grapes, and figs flourished in the surrounding hilly area. The scene showing Sennacherib receiving the spoils of Lachish is accompanied by the following inscription: “Sennacherib, king of the world, king of Assyria, sat upon a nimedu -throne and passed in review the booty (taken) from Lachish (La-ki-su).”​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritchard, 1974, p. 288.

Captured by Babylonians. When the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar overran Judah (609-607 B.C.E.), Lachish and Azekah were the last two fortified cities to fall before Jerusalem was taken. (Jer 34:6, 7) What are known as the Lachish Letters (written on pottery fragments, 18 of which were found at Tell ed-Duweir in 1935 and 3 more in 1938) appear to relate to this period. Letter number IV, evidently directed by a military outpost to the commander at Lachish, reads in part: “We are watching for the signals of Lachish, according to all the indications which my lord hath given, for we cannot see Azekah.” This message suggests that Azekah had already been taken so that no signals were received from there. It is also of interest that nearly all the legible Lachish Letters contain words such as “May יהוה [Yahweh or Jehovah] cause my lord to hear this very day tidings of good!” (Lachish Ostracon IV) This shows that the divine name was then in common use.​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 322.

After Judah and Jerusalem lay desolate for 70 years, Lachish was reoccupied by the returning Jewish exiles.​—Ne 11:25, 30.

Prophetic Mention. At Micah 1:13, Lachish is addressed prophetically: “Attach the chariot to the team of horses, O inhabitress of Lachish. The beginning of sin was what she was to the daughter of Zion, for in you the revolts of Israel have been found.” These words constitute part of a picture of defeat and appear to suggest that Lachish prepare for flight. The “sin” of Lachish is not discussed elsewhere in Scripture. Perhaps a form of idolatry introduced in Jerusalem originated at Lachish. Or, the sin possibly involved Judah’s reliance on horses and chariots, which may have been received at Lachish from Egypt.

LADAN

(Laʹdan).

1. An Ephraimite ancestor of Joshua.​—1Ch 7:22, 26, 27.

2. A Gershonite Levite from whom several paternal houses originated. (1Ch 23:7-9; 26:21) He evidently was also called Libni.​—Ex 6:17.

LADDER

The only Biblical reference to a ladder is at Genesis 28:12, where the Hebrew term sul·lamʹ applies to a ladder Jacob beheld in a dream. The patriarch saw a ladder (or perhaps what looked like a rising flight of stones) stationed upon the earth, with its top reaching up to the heavens. God’s angels were ascending and descending on the ladder, and a representation of Jehovah God was above it. (Ge 28:13) This ladder with the angels upon it indicates the existence of communication between earth and heaven and that angels minister in an important way between God and those having his approval.

When Jesus said to his disciples, “Most truly I say to you men, You will see heaven opened up and the angels of God ascending and descending to the Son of man,” he may have had in mind Jacob’s vision.​—Joh 1:51.

Scaling ladders were part of siege equipment used during warfare and are frequently depicted on Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. A relief from Nineveh shows the Assyrians employing siege ladders when assaulting Lachish.

Ladders served other purposes in ancient times, as in the building trades. For instance, they are shown on the Ur-Nammu stele depicting the construction of a ziggurat. Also, in an Assyrian relief from Tell Halaf, considered to be of the ninth century B.C.E., a man is shown climbing a date-palm tree by means of a ladder.

LADY

See QUEEN.

LAEL

(Laʹel) [Belonging to God].

A Levite and the father of Eliasaph, the chieftain of the paternal house for the Gershonites during Israel’s trek in the wilderness.​—Nu 3:24.

LAHAD

(Laʹhad).

A descendant of Judah and the second named of Jahath’s two sons.​—1Ch 4:1, 2.

LAHMAM

(Lahʹmam).

A Judean city in the Shephelah. (Jos 15:20, 33, 40) It is usually identified with Khirbet el-Lahm (Horvat Lehem), about 5 km (3 mi) E of Lachish.

LAHMI

(Lahʹmi) [My Bread].

The brother of Goliath the Gittite. The account at 1 Chronicles 20:5 reads, in part, “Elhanan the son of Jair got to strike down Lahmi the brother of Goliath the Gittite,” during a war with the Philistines. However, in a parallel text at 2 Samuel 21:19 the reading is: “Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim the Bethlehemite got to strike down Goliath the Gittite.” In the latter text it appears that ʼeth-lach·miʹ (in English, “Lahmi,” the Hebrew term ʼeth merely denoting that Lahmi is the object of a verb) was misread by a copyist to be behth hal·lach·miʹ (“Bethlehemite”). Therefore the original probably read, “got to strike down Lahmi,” just as the parallel text at 1 Chronicles 20:5 reads. This would make the two texts harmonize on this point. Lahmi, then, was evidently the brother of the Goliath that David killed. On the other hand, it is possible that there were two Goliaths.​—See GOLIATH.

LAISH

(Laʹish) [Lion].

1. A man from Gallim, the father of Palti (Paltiel), to whom Saul gave as a wife his daughter Michal, previously the wife of David.​—1Sa 25:44; 2Sa 3:15.

2. A northern Canaanite city destroyed by the Danites, who thereafter rebuilt it and gave it the name of Dan (Jg 18:27-29); also called Leshem.​—Jos 19:47; see DAN No. 3.

LAISHAH

(Laʹi·shah) [Lion].

A town in the territory of Benjamin identified by F.-M. Abel (Géographie de la Palestine, Paris, 1938, Vol. II, p. 368) with ʽIsawiya, about 2.5 km (1.5 mi) NNE of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Isaiah’s prophetic foreview of the rampaging Assyrian, as he advances village by village, calls on Laishah to “pay attention” to the coming attack.​—Isa 10:30.

LAKE OF FIRE

This expression occurs only in the book of Revelation and is clearly symbolic. The Bible gives its own explanation and definition of the symbol by stating: “This means the second death, the lake of fire.”​—Re 20:14; 21:8.

The symbolic quality of the lake of fire is further evident from the context of references to it in the book of Revelation. Death is said to be hurled into this lake of fire. (Re 19:20; 20:14) Death obviously cannot be literally burned. Moreover, the Devil, an invisible spirit creature, is thrown into the lake. Being spirit, he cannot be hurt by literal fire.​—Re 20:10; compare Ex 3:2 and Jg 13:20.

Since the lake of fire represents “the second death” and since Revelation 20:14 says that both “death and Hades” are to be cast into it, it is evident that the lake cannot represent the death man has inherited from Adam (Ro 5:12), nor does it refer to Hades (Sheol). It must, therefore, be symbolic of another kind of death, one that is without reversal, for the record nowhere speaks of the “lake” as giving up those in it, as do Adamic death and Hades (Sheol). (Re 20:13) Thus, those not found written in “the book of life,” unrepentant opposers of God’s sovereignty, are hurled into the lake of fire, meaning eternal destruction, or the second death.​—Re 20:15.

While the foregoing texts make evident the symbolic quality of the lake of fire, it has been used by some persons to support belief in a literal place of fire and torment. Revelation 20:10 has been appealed to, because it speaks of the Devil, the wild beast, and the false prophet as being “tormented day and night forever and ever” in the lake of fire. However, this cannot refer to actual conscious torment. Those thrown into the lake of fire undergo “the second death.” (Re 20:14) In death there is no consciousness and, hence, no feeling of pain or suffering.​—Ec 9:5.

In the Scriptures fiery torment is associated with destruction and death. For example, in the Greek Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures the word for torment (baʹsa·nos) is several times used with reference to punishment by death. (Eze 3:20; 32:24, 30) Similarly, concerning Babylon the Great, the book of Revelation says, “the kings of the earth . . . will weep and beat themselves in grief over her, when they look at the smoke from the burning of her, while they stand at a distance because of their fear of her torment [Gr., ba·sa·ni·smouʹ].” (Re 18:9, 10) As to the meaning of the torment, an angel later explains: “Thus with a swift pitch will Babylon the great city be hurled down, and she will never be found again.” (Re 18:21) So, fiery torment here is parallel with destruction, and in the case of Babylon the Great, it is everlasting destruction.​—Compare Re 17:16; 18:8, 15-17, 19.

Therefore, those who are ‘tormented forever’ (from Gr., ba·sa·niʹzo) in the lake of fire undergo “second death” from which there is no resurrection. The related Greek word ba·sa·ni·stesʹ is translated ‘jailer’ in Matthew 18:34. (RS, NW, ED; compare vs 30.) Thus those hurled into the lake of fire will be held under restraint, or “jailed,” in death throughout eternity.​—See GEHENNA; TORMENT.

LAKKUM

(Lakʹkum).

A boundary site of Naphtali. (Jos 19:32, 33) It is possibly Khirbet Kushsha (Horvat Kush), by the Jordan River just S of the Sea of Galilee.

LAMB

See SHEEP.

LAME, LAMENESS

A physical handicap that prevents a person from walking normally. Lameness may date from birth because of congenital deformities (Ac 3:2; 14:8), but most cases are caused by accidents or diseases.

Aaronic Priesthood. A lame person who was a descendant of Aaron could not serve in the priesthood, although he was allowed to eat from the things provided for the priesthood for their sustenance. (Le 21:16-23) Jehovah set a high standard of physical fitness for his priesthood, for these represented him at his sanctuary. So, too, Christ, the great High Priest, was “loyal, guileless, undefiled, separated from the sinners.”​—Heb 7:26.

Sacrifices. It was also forbidden, under the Law, to offer as a sacrifice any animal with a defect of lameness, because these foreshadowed the perfect sacrifice of Christ. (De 15:21; Le 22:19, 20) This law was violated by the apostate Israelites, for which God reproved them, saying: “When you present a lame animal [for sacrificing, you say]: ‘It is nothing bad.’ Bring it near, please, to your governor. Will he find pleasure in you, or will he receive you kindly? . . . Can I take pleasure in it at your hand?” (Mal 1:8, 13) The apostle evidently applies this requirement in a spiritual way to Christians, entreating them: “Present your bodies a sacrifice living, holy, acceptable to God, a sacred service with your power of reason.”​—Ro 12:1.

Jacob’s Lameness. When Jacob was about 97 years old, he had the experience of grappling all night with a materialized angel of God. He prevailed in detaining the angel until the angel gave him a blessing. During the contest, the angel touched the socket of Jacob’s thigh joint, throwing it out of place. The result was that Jacob walked with a limp. (Ge 32:24-32; Ho 12:2-4) Jacob thereafter had a reminder that, although he had “contended with God [God’s angel] and with men so that [he] at last prevailed,” as the angel said, he did not in reality defeat a powerful angel of God. It was only by God’s purpose and permission that Jacob was allowed to contend with the angel, so as to provide proof of Jacob’s great appreciation of the need of God’s blessing.

Consideration. The Scriptures inculcate consideration for the lame. Job remarked that, even in his prosperous state, “feet to the lame one I was.” (Job 29:15) Jesus and his disciples had compassion for the sick and lame, performing many cures of such persons.​—Mt 11:4, 5; 15:30, 31; 21:14; Ac 3:1-10; 8:5-7; 14:8-10.

Illustrative and Figurative Uses. The Jebusites illustrated their boastful confidence in the security of their citadel when they taunted David: “‘You will not come in here, but the blind and the lame ones will certainly turn you away,’ they thinking: ‘David will not come in here.’” They may have actually placed such persons on the wall as defenders, as is stated by Josephus (Jewish Antiquities, VII, 61 [iii, 1]), and this may be the reason why David said: “Anyone striking the Jebusites, let him, by means of the water tunnel, make contact with both the lame and the blind, hateful to the soul of David!” These lame and blind ones were the symbol of the Jebusites’ insult to David and, more seriously, their taunt against the armies of Jehovah. David hated the Jebusites, along with their lame and blind, for such arrogance. He may actually have been calling the Jebusite leaders themselves ‘the lame and blind,’ in derision.​—2Sa 5:6-8.

As to the statement in verse 8, “That is why they say: ‘The blind one and the lame one will not come into the house,’” several explanations have been offered. In the text this statement is not attributed to David and may mean that others developed this proverbial saying with regard to those who, like the Jebusites, boasted or were overconfident of their secure position. Or, the saying might have meant, ‘No one who holds intercourse with disagreeable people like the Jebusites will enter.’ Others would render the text, “because the blind and the lame continued to say, He shall not come into this house,” or, “Because they had said, even the blind and the lame, He shall not come into the house.”​—Barrett’s Synopsis of Criticisms, London, 1847, Vol. II, Part II, p. 518; KJ margin.

On a later occasion, Elijah asked the Israelites: “How long will you be limping upon two different opinions? If Jehovah is the true God, go following him; but if Baal is, go following him.” At that time the Israelites were claiming to worship Jehovah but at the same time were worshiping Baal. Their course was unsteady and halting, like that of a lame man. During the contest that ensued, when the prophets of Baal were vainly trying from morning till noon to get their god to answer them, “they kept limping around the altar that they had made.” This may be a mocking description of the ritualistic dance or hobble of the fanatical Baal worshipers, or it may be that they limped because of their tiredness from the long, futile ritual.​—1Ki 18:21-29.

Limping, lameness, and stumbling are used in figures of speech to denote halting irregularity or unsteadiness in one’s course of life, purpose, or speech. Bildad, supposedly warning Job of dangers ahead for him, said of a person taking a wicked course: “Disaster stands ready to make him limp.” (Job 18:12) In a similar figure David and Jeremiah spoke of their enemies as waiting for them to make an unsteady step, watching for them to limp, so that, as Jeremiah’s foes said, “we may prevail against him and take our revenge upon him.” (Jer 20:10; Ps 38:16, 17) The enemies of Jesus Christ wanted to see him stumble, or limp, in his speech so as to entrap him.​—Mt 22:15.

Proverbial usage. “As one that is mutilating his feet [which would make him lame], as one that is drinking mere violence, is he that is thrusting matters into the hand of someone stupid,” said wise King Solomon. Truly, the man employing a stupid person to handle any project for him is doing crippling violence to his own interests. He is certain to see his proposed work collapse, with damage to himself.​—Pr 26:6.

The Proverbs continue with a like illustration: “Have the legs of the lame one drawn up water? Then there is a proverb in the mouth of stupid people.” (Pr 26:7) In ancient times, especially in cities built upon mounds, it was often necessary to climb down a ladder or a long stairway to bring water up from a well. A stupid person trying to speak or apply a proverb is as clumsy and ineffective as a lame man trying to carry water up a stairway.

God’s ancient nation. In speaking of the restoration of his people, Jehovah promised to strengthen them to leave Babylon and to undertake the hazardous journey back to desolated Jerusalem. Any spiritual lameness, hesitancy, or indecision would be removed. Through the prophet Isaiah, God encouraged them: “At that time the lame one will climb up just as a stag does.” (Isa 35:6) God’s nation had limped and suffered a fall into captivity, but “in that day,” said Jehovah, “I will gather her that was limping; . . . and I shall certainly make her that was limping a remnant, and her that was removed far off a mighty nation.”​—Mic 4:6, 7; Zep 3:19.

Further comforting his people, Jehovah promised, as their King, to protect them from aggressors. He described the helplessness of Zion’s enemies as a ship with its tacklings loosed, its mast wobbling, and its sail gone. Then he said: “At that time even spoil [of the enemy] in abundance will have to be divided up; the lame ones themselves will actually take a big plunder.” There would be so much spoil that even those not usually able to have part in taking plunder would at that time be able to share.​—Isa 33:23.

Consideration for spiritually lame ones. The Christian writer of the letter to the Hebrews pointed out that among them were many spiritually immature ones, who should be making better progress. (Heb 5:12-14) Then, after speaking of discipline, he said: “Keep making straight paths for your feet, that what is lame may not be put out of joint, but rather that it may be healed.” (Heb 12:13) Even stronger ones should carefully watch how they walk in their Christian course, so that the weaker, spiritually “lame” ones would not stumble or injure themselves. If those stronger in faith used their spiritual freedom to do certain things that were lawful, those weaker in faith might be stumbled by their actions.​—Ro 15:1.

The apostle Paul sets forth as an example of this principle the matter of eating and drinking. (Ro 14:13-18, 21) In this passage he counsels, in part: “Make this your decision, not to put before a brother a stumbling block or a cause for tripping.” He says: “It is well not to eat flesh or to drink wine or do anything over which your brother stumbles.”​—Compare 1Co 8:7-13.

On the other hand, the apostle shows, a Christian should strengthen his own spiritual ‘legs’ so that he will not limp or be stumbled by what occurs or by what someone else does. He should make himself strong so as to keep steady in the Christian course. Paul says: “Let the one eating not look down on the one not eating, and let the one not eating not judge the one eating, for God has welcomed that one.” (Ro 14:3) This principle was expressed by the psalmist: “Abundant peace belongs to those loving your law, and for them there is no stumbling block.” (Ps 119:165) Those loving God’s law will not be caused to limp with spiritual lameness over any matter.

Complete Healing. Lameness has caused many tears. Just as Jesus Christ healed many lame and maimed persons when he was on earth, even restoring dried-up body parts (Mr 3:1, 5; compare Lu 22:50, 51), by means of “a new heaven” God’s Son will again perform similar cures. This he will accomplish completely as High Priest and King appointed by God, wiping out every tear from the eyes of humankind.​—Mt 8:16, 17; Re 21:1, 4.

LAMECH

(Laʹmech).

1. The son of Methushael and a descendant of Cain. (Ge 4:17, 18) His lifetime and Adam’s overlapped. Lamech had two wives, Adah and Zillah, at the same time and is the first polygamist of Bible record. (Ge 4:19) By Adah he had sons named Jabal, “the founder of those who dwell in tents and have livestock,” and Jubal, “the founder of all those who handle the harp and the pipe.” (Ge 4:20, 21) By Zillah, Lamech became the father of Tubal-cain, “the forger of every sort of tool of copper and iron,” and a daughter named Naamah.​—Ge 4:22.

The poem that Lamech composed for his wives (Ge 4:23, 24) reflects the violent spirit of that day. Lamech’s poem ran: “Hear my voice, you wives of Lamech; give ear to my saying: A man I have killed for wounding me, yes, a young man for giving me a blow. If seven times Cain is to be avenged, then Lamech seventy times and seven.” Evidently Lamech was presenting a case of self-defense, pleading that his act was not one of deliberate murder, like that of Cain. Lamech claimed that, in defending himself, he had killed the man who struck and wounded him. Therefore, his poem stood as a plea for immunity against anyone desiring to get revenge against him for killing his attacker.

It appears that none of Cain’s descendants, which would include Lamech’s offspring, survived the Flood.

2. A descendant of Seth; son of Methuselah and father of Noah. (Ge 5:25, 28, 29; 1Ch 1:1-4) The lifetimes of this Lamech and Adam likewise overlapped. Lamech had faith in God, and after calling his son’s name Noah (probably meaning “Rest; Consolation”), he uttered the words: “This one will bring us comfort from our work and from the pain of our hands resulting from the ground which Jehovah has cursed.” (Ge 5:29) These words found fulfillment when the curse on the ground was lifted during Noah’s lifetime. (Ge 8:21) Lamech had other sons and daughters. He lived 777 years, dying about five years before the Flood. (Ge 5:30, 31) His name is listed in the genealogy of Jesus Christ at Luke 3:36.

LAMEDH

[ל] (laʹmedh).

The 12th letter in the Hebrew alphabet. Laʹmedh corresponds generally to the English “l.” In the Hebrew, the psalmist uses this letter at the beginning of each of the eight verses at Psalm 119:89-96.

LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF

In Biblical days lamentations, or dirges, were composed and chanted for deceased friends (2Sa 1:17-27), devastated nations (Am 5:1, 2), and ruined cities (Eze 27:2, 32-36). The book of Lamentations furnishes an inspired example of such mournful composition. It consists of five lyrical poems (in five chapters) lamenting the destruction of Jerusalem at Babylonian hands in 607 B.C.E.

The book acknowledges that Jehovah justly brought punishment upon Jerusalem and Judah because of the error of his people. (La 1:5, 18) It also highlights God’s loving-kindness and mercy and shows that Jehovah is good to the one hoping in him.​—La 3:22, 25.

Name. In the Hebrew this book is named by the opening word ʼEh·khahʹ!, which means “How!” The Septuagint translators called the book Threʹnoi, meaning “Dirges; Laments.” In the Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b) it is identified by the term Qi·nohthʹ, meaning “Dirges; Elegies,” and it is called Lamentationes (Latin) by Jerome. The English name Lamentations comes from this latter title.

Place in the Bible Canon. In the Hebrew canon the book of Lamentations is usually counted in among the five Meghil·lohthʹ (Rolls), consisting of The Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. However, in ancient copies of the Hebrew Scriptures the book of Lamentations is said to have followed the book of Jeremiah, as it does in English Bibles of today.

Writer. In the Greek Septuagint this book is introduced with the words: “And it occurred that, after Israel had been taken captive and Jerusalem had been desolated, Jeremiah sat down weeping and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem and said.” The Targums also identify Jeremiah as the writer, introducing it as follows: “Jeremiah the prophet and great priest said.” The introduction in the Clementine recension of the Latin Vulgate is: “And it occurred that, after Israel had been led away into captivity and Jerusalem was deserted, Jeremiah the prophet sat weeping and wailed with this lamentation over Jerusalem; and sighing with a bitter spirit, and moaning woefully, he said.”

Style. The five chapters of the book of Lamentations consist of five poems, the first four of which are acrostics. The Hebrew alphabet has 22 distinct letters (consonants) and in each of the first four chapters of Lamentations successive verses begin with different ones of the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Chapters 1, 2, and 4 each have 22 verses arranged alphabetically according to the Hebrew alphabet, verse 1 beginning with the first Hebrew letter ʼaʹleph, verse 2 commencing with the second letter, behth, and so forth, to the end of the alphabet. Chapter 3 has 66 verses, and in it three successive verses begin with the same Hebrew letter before passing on to the next letter.

In chapters 2, 3, and 4 there is a reversal of the letters ʽaʹyin and peʼ (there they are not in the same order as in Lamentations 1 and Ps 119). But this does not mean that the inspired writer of Lamentations made a mistake. It has been observed in a consideration of this matter: “Still less does the irregularity in question permit of being attributed to an oversight on the part of the composer . . . , for the irregularity is repeated in three poems. It is rather connected with another circumstance. For we find in other alphabetic poems also, especially the older ones, many deviations from the rule, which undeniably prove that the composers bound themselves rigorously by the order of the alphabet only so long as it fitted in to the course of thought without any artificiality.” (Commentary on the Old Testament, by C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, 1973, Vol. VIII, The Lamentations of Jeremiah, p. 338) Among examples then cited are Psalm 34, where the waw verse is lacking, and Psalm 145, which omits the nun verse. The fact that strict adherence to the alphabetic arrangement of Hebrew letters is not present in these inspired writings should cause no concern. While the use of acrostics undoubtedly served as a memory aid, the message was of primary importance, and thought content took precedence over any literary device.

Lamentations chapter 5 is not an acrostic poem, though it does contain 22 verses, the same number as the distinct letters of the Hebrew alphabet.

Time of Composition. The vividness of Lamentations shows that the book was written shortly after Jerusalem’s fall in 607 B.C.E., while the events of the Babylonian siege and burning of Jerusalem were still fresh in the mind of Jeremiah. There is general agreement that the book of Lamentations was penned soon after Jerusalem’s fall, and it is reasonable to conclude that the writing of it was completed in 607 B.C.E.

Fulfillment of Prophecy. Fulfilled in Jerusalem’s experience as vividly portrayed in the book of Lamentations were the words of Deuteronomy 28:63-65. The fulfillment of various other divine prophecies and warnings is also shown in this book. For example, compare Lamentations 1:2 with Jeremiah 30:14; Lamentations 2:17 with Leviticus 26:17; Lamentations 2:20 with Deuteronomy 28:53.

Contents. In the first chapter, beginning with verse 12, Jeremiah personifies Jerusalem, God’s covenant “woman” Zion, as speaking. (Isa 62:1-6) She is now desolate, as though widowed and bereft of her children, a captive woman put into forced labor as a slave. In chapter 2, Jeremiah himself speaks. In chapter 3, Jeremiah pours out his feelings, transferring them to the figure of the nation as an “able-bodied man.” In chapter 4, Jeremiah continues his lament. In the fifth chapter, the inhabitants of Jerusalem are pictured as speaking. The expressions of acknowledgment of sin, the hope and confidence in Jehovah, and the desire to turn to the right way, as portrayed throughout, were not the actual feelings of the majority of the people. However, there was a remnant like Jeremiah. So the view expressed in the book of Lamentations is a true evaluation of Jerusalem’s situation as God saw it.

The book of Lamentations is therefore a true and valuable record, inspired by God.

[Box on page 193]

HIGHLIGHTS OF LAMENTATIONS

Five poems lamenting the tragedy that befell Jerusalem and its inhabitants in 607 B.C.E. at the hands of the Babylonians

Written by Jeremiah immediately after the destruction of Jerusalem

Jerusalem is personified as a widow bereaved of her children, with no one to give comfort (1:1-22)

She acknowledges that her sin against Jehovah is the reason for her distress

She prays for the Almighty to punish those who rejoice over her suffering

Jehovah has acted in anger against Jerusalem (2:1-22)

He has thrown Jerusalem down “from heaven to earth”

He has spurned his sanctuary and shown no respect for king and priest

As a result, passersby are amazed at what has happened to the city that was “the perfection of prettiness”

The “able-bodied man,” representing the nation, speaks of his affliction, yet expresses hope (3:1-66)

He describes his present desperate situation

Nevertheless, he is confident that Jehovah will hear his people’s prayers and show mercy

Terrible effects of the siege of Jerusalem (4:1-22)

Death by the sword was better than death from the famine; women even ate their own children

Fleeing survivors were relentlessly pursued in mountainous and wilderness regions

Jehovah is petitioned to note the people’s suffering and to restore them to favor (5:1-22)

His people’s hereditary possession has been given to strangers

They have been shamed and debased

They pray for Jehovah to bring them back to himself even though he rejected them with indignation

LAMP

A vessel used to produce artificial light. It has a wick for burning flammable liquids such as oil, the wick drawing up the fluid by capillary attraction to feed the flame. Wicks were made of flax (Isa 42:3; 43:17), peeled rush, or hemp. Olive oil was the fluid generally burned in ancient lamps (Ex 27:20), though oil from the terebinth tree was also used.

The five discreet virgins of Jesus’ illustration each had a lamp and a receptacle containing oil. (Mt 25:1-4) Those who came to arrest Jesus were also carrying lamps and torches.​—Joh 18:3.

Ordinarily, household lamps were made of earthenware, although bronze lamps have also been discovered in Palestine. The common Canaanite lamp was shaped like a saucer, having a rounded bottom and vertical rim. (PICTURES, Vol. 2, p. 952) Its rim was slightly pinched on one side, where the wick rested. Sometimes the rim was pinched at the four corners, providing four places for wicks. In time, lamps were made in somewhat different shapes, some being closed except for two holes, one on top (near the center) for filling the vessel with oil and the other being a spout for holding the wick. Certain lamps had a loop handle at the end opposite the spout, sometimes in a horizontal, but more often in a vertical position. The Greco-Roman type frequently bore mythological human or animal forms, but the Jews made lamps bearing such designs as vine leaves or scrolls.

Early saucer lamps were generally a shade of brown. Varieties made in the first century C.E. were of various colors, including light brown, red orange, and gray. Also, there were those of Roman times that were covered with red glaze.

The lamps generally used in homes and other buildings might be placed in a niche in the wall, or on a shelf on a wall or pillar, or they might be suspended from the ceiling by means of a cord. Sometimes they were placed on clay, wooden, or metal stands. Such lampstands permitted the light to radiate throughout the room.​—2Ki 4:10; Mt 5:15; Mr 4:21.

The use of candles is not mentioned in the Bible. Lamp oil, a liquid, was used to produce light. Hence, frequent rendering by the King James Version of the Hebrew ner and the Greek word lyʹkhnos as “candle” is inappropriate, as at Job 29:3 and Luke 11:33, where modern translations (such as AT, NW, RS) fittingly use “lamp.”

Sanctuary Use. In Israel’s tabernacle, the lampstand was made of gold and differed in design from common household lampstands. Made according to Jehovah God’s instructions (Ex 25:31), it was ornamented with alternating knobs and blossoms and had three branches on each side of a central shaft, thus providing for seven holders in which small lamps were placed. Only fine beaten olive oil was used in these lamps. (Ex 37:17-24; 27:20) Later, Solomon had ten golden lampstands and a number of silver lampstands made for temple use.​—1Ki 7:48, 49; 1Ch 28:15; 2Ch 4:19, 20; 13:11.

Jehovah a Lamp and Source of Light. Jehovah is the paramount Source of light and guidance. David, after being delivered out of the hand of his enemies and of Saul, said: “You are my lamp, O Jehovah, and it is Jehovah that makes my darkness shine.” (2Sa 22:29) In the Psalms a slightly different expression is used: “You yourself will light my lamp, O Jehovah,” there picturing Jehovah as the one kindling the lamp that David carried to light his way.​—Ps 18:28.

Jesus Christ. In the heavenly New Jerusalem, as seen by the apostle John in vision, “night will not exist.” The city’s light is not that of the sun and moon, for Jehovah God’s glory directly lights up the city, just as the cloud of light that the Hebrews called the Shechinah illuminated the Most Holy of the ancient tabernacle and temple. (Le 16:2; compare Nu 9:15, 16.) And the Lamb, Jesus Christ, is its “lamp.” This “city” will shed its spiritual light down upon the nations, the inhabiters of the “new earth,” for their guidance.​—Re 21:22-25.

Kings of the Line of David. Jehovah God established King David on the throne of Israel, and David proved to be a wise guide and leader of the nation, under God’s direction. He was therefore called “the lamp of Israel.” (2Sa 21:17) In his kingdom covenant with David, Jehovah promised: “Your very throne will become one firmly established to time indefinite.” (2Sa 7:11-16) Accordingly, the dynasty, or family line, of rulers from David through his son Solomon was as a “lamp” to Israel.​—1Ki 11:36; 15:4; 2Ki 8:19; 2Ch 21:7.

When King Zedekiah was dethroned and taken captive to Babylon to die there, it appeared that “the lamp” was extinguished. But Jehovah had not abandoned his covenant. He merely held rulership on the throne in abeyance “until he comes who has the legal right.” (Eze 21:27) Jesus Christ, the Messiah, the “son of David,” was heir to that throne forever. Thus “the lamp” of David will never go out. Jesus is therefore an everlasting lamp as the one who possesses the Kingdom forever.​—Mt 1:1; Lu 1:32.

God’s Word. Because “man must live, not on bread alone, but on every utterance coming forth through Jehovah’s mouth” (Mt 4:4), His commandments are like a lamp, lighting the way of God’s servants in the darkness of this world. The psalmist declared: “Your word is a lamp to my foot, and a light to my roadway.” (Ps 119:105) King Solomon said: “For the commandment is a lamp, and a light the law is, and the reproofs of discipline are the way of life.”​—Pr 6:23.

The apostle Peter had seen many prophecies concerning Jesus Christ fulfilled, and he had been personally present at Jesus’ transfiguration on the mountain. In view of all of this, Peter could say: “Consequently we have the prophetic word made more sure; and you are doing well in paying attention to it as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until day dawns and a daystar rises, in your hearts.” (2Pe 1:19) The Christian was encouraged, therefore, to allow the light of God’s prophetic Word to illuminate his heart. Then it would furnish guidance in the safe way “until day dawns and a daystar rises.”

God’s Servants. In the year 29 C.E., John the son of Zechariah, a priest, came, announcing: “Repent, for the kingdom of the heavens has drawn near.” (Mt 3:1, 2; Lu 1:5, 13) Israel had turned away from obedience to the Law, and John was sent preaching repentance and pointing to the Lamb of God. He succeeded in turning many of the sons of Israel back to Jehovah their God. (Lu 1:16) Consequently, Jesus said of John: “That man was a burning and shining lamp, and you for a short time were willing to rejoice greatly in his light. But I have the witness greater than that of John, for the very works that my Father assigned me to accomplish, the works themselves that I am doing, bear witness about me that the Father dispatched me.”​—Joh 5:35, 36.

Jesus also said to his disciples: “You are the light of the world. A city cannot be hid when situated upon a mountain. People light a lamp and set it, not under the measuring basket, but upon the lampstand, and it shines upon all those in the house. Likewise let your light shine before men, that they may see your fine works and give glory to your Father who is in the heavens.” (Mt 5:14-16) The servant of God should appreciate the reason for which he is given the light, and he should realize that it would be utterly foolish and disastrous for him to refuse to let it shine from him as from a lamp.

Other Figurative Uses. What a person depends upon to light his way is symbolized by a lamp. With such a figure the proverb contrasts the righteous and the wicked, saying: “The very light of the righteous ones will rejoice; but the lamp of the wicked ones​—it will be extinguished.” (Pr 13:9) The light of the righteous continually becomes more brilliant, but however brilliantly the lamp of the wicked appears to shine and however prosperous his way may seem as a consequence, God will see to it that he ends up in darkness, where his foot will certainly stumble. Such an outcome is ahead for the person calling down evil on his father and mother.​—Pr 20:20.

One’s ‘lamp being extinguished’ also means that there is no future for him. Another proverb says: “There will prove to be no future for anyone bad; the very lamp of wicked people will be extinguished.”​—Pr 24:20.

Bildad, when implying that Job was hiding some secret wickedness, said of the wicked: “A light itself will certainly grow dark in his tent, and in it his own lamp will be extinguished.” Farther on in his argument Bildad adds: “He will have no posterity and no progeny among his people.” In the light of the fact that Solomon was said to be a lamp that God gave to David his father, the putting out of one’s lamp may carry the thought that such a person would have no progeny to take over his inheritance.​—Job 18:6, 19; 1Ki 11:36.

One’s eye is, figuratively, a “lamp.” Jesus said: “The lamp of the body is the eye. If, then, your eye is simple [sincere; all one way; in focus; generous], your whole body will be bright; but if your eye is wicked, your whole body will be dark.” (Mt 6:22, 23, ftn) The eye is like a lamp, because with it the body can walk about without stumbling and without bumping into anything. Jesus, of course, had in mind ‘the eyes of the heart’ (Eph 1:18), as his words in the context show.

Proverbs 31:18, in saying of the good wife: “Her lamp does not go out at night,” uses a figurative expression meaning that she works industriously at night and even rises before dawn for further work.​—Compare Pr 31:15.

According to Proverbs 20:27, “the breath of earthling man is the lamp of Jehovah, carefully searching all the innermost parts of the belly.” By what a person “breathes out,” or gives vent to, whether good or bad expressions, he reveals, or sheds light on, his personality or inmost self.​—Compare Ac 9:1.

LAMPSTAND

A stand or support for an oil-burning lamp or lamps. Though mentioning lampstands in homes and other buildings (2Ki 4:10; Da 5:5; Lu 8:16; 11:33), the Bible’s emphasis is primarily on the lampstands associated with true worship.

In the Tabernacle. Jehovah directed Moses in vision to make for use in the tabernacle a lampstand (Heb., menoh·rahʹ; Gr., ly·khniʹa) ‘of pure gold, of hammered work.’ Together with its lamps and utensils it was to weigh one talent. (Ex 25:31, 39, 40; 37:17, 24; Nu 8:4; Heb 9:2) This would equal about 34 kg (92 lb t), with a value, in modern terms, of $385,350.

Design. This luminary for “the Holy Place,” the anterior compartment of the tabernacle (Heb 9:2), was composed of a central stem, with six branches. These branches curved upward from opposite sides of the main shaft. The central shaft, or stem, was decorated with four sculptured cups shaped like almond flowers, with knobs and flower blossoms alternating. The kind of flower represented in the flower blossoms is not certain; the Hebrew word used can mean any flower. The branches each had three cups, with knobs and flowers alternating. The description may indicate that the knobs on the central stem came at the point where the branches joined the stem. Lamps burning fine beaten olive oil were placed at the top of the main stem and on the end of each branch. Accessories consisted of snuffers, fire holders, and oil vessels.​—Ex 25:31-38; 37:18-23; Le 24:2; Nu 4:9.

The actual construction of the lampstand was done under the oversight of Bezalel of the tribe of Judah and Oholiab of the tribe of Dan. (Ex 31:1-11; 35:30-35) These men were doubtless good craftsmen, possibly learning the trade while slaves in Egypt. But Jehovah now put his spirit upon them so that the work could be perfectly done, exactly according to the pattern revealed and spoken to Moses.​—Ex 25:9, 40; 39:43; 40:16.

Use. Moses “placed the lampstand in the tent of meeting in front of the table, on the side of the tabernacle to the south.” Evidently it was parallel with the south side of the tent (left-hand side as one entered), opposite the table of showbread. The light shone “on the area in front of the lampstand,” thus illuminating the Holy Place, which contained also the golden altar of incense.​—Ex 40:22-26; Nu 8:2, 3.

At the time Moses completed setting up the tabernacle, on Nisan 1, 1512 B.C.E., he followed Jehovah’s instructions to light the lamps. (Ex 40:1, 2, 4, 25) Later on, Aaron did so (Nu 8:3), and thereafter he (and future high priests) set the lampstand in order “from evening to morning before Jehovah constantly.” (Le 24:3, 4) When Aaron dressed the lamps “morning by morning” and when he lit them “between the two evenings,” he also offered incense on the golden altar.​—Ex 30:1, 7, 8.

The lampstand, with the other tabernacle utensils, was transported during the wilderness journey by the Kohathite family of the tribe of Levi. First, however, the priests had to cover the articles, because, as Jehovah warned, nonpriestly persons “must not come in to see the holy things for the least moment of time, and so they have to die.” The lampstand with its accessories was covered with a blue cloth and then put into a covering of sealskin and put onto a bar for carrying.​—Nu 4:4, 9, 10, 15, 19, 20.

In the account relating King David’s bringing the ark of the covenant to Mount Zion, there is no mention of the lampstand. Evidently it remained in the tabernacle in the various locations where the tabernacle came to be situated.

In the Temples. David gave to Solomon the architectural plans for the temple, which plans he had received by inspiration. These included directions for lampstands of gold and lampstands of silver. (1Ch 28:11, 12, 15, 19) There were ten golden lampstands, and they were placed “five to the right and five to the left,” or five on the south side and five on the north side as one faced east, in the Holy of the temple. (1Ki 7:48, 49; 2Ch 4:20) All ten of these were “of the same plan.” (2Ch 4:7) They were perhaps much larger than the one that had been in the tabernacle, commensurate with the increased dimensions of the temple and its other furnishings, such as “the molten sea.” (2Ch 3:3, 4; 1Ki 7:23-26) The silver lampstands were undoubtedly used in courtyards or rooms other than the Holy and the Most Holy, for the furnishings of these two rooms were of gold. As in the tabernacle, the lamps of the golden lampstands were lighted up “evening by evening,” constantly.​—2Ch 13:11.

When the temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 607 B.C.E., the lampstands were among the gold and silver items taken from the house of Jehovah.​—Jer 52:19.

Temple rebuilt by Zerubbabel. The Scriptures provide no information about lampstands in the temple rebuilt by Zerubbabel. However, Josephus says that Antiochus (Epiphanes) “stripped the temple, carrying off . . . the golden lampstands.” (Jewish Antiquities, XII, 250 [v, 4]) The Apocryphal book of Maccabees mentions a “lamp-stand” being removed, necessitating the making of a new one.​—1 Maccabees 1:21-23; 4:49, 50, JB.

Temple rebuilt by Herod. The magnificence of the temple rebuilt by Herod would give basis for assuming that this temple must also have contained lampstands equal in beauty and costliness to those in Solomon’s temple. We have no mention of them in the Scriptures, however. Evidence of such a lampstand is found in its mention by Josephus and its representation on a bas-relief in an interior vault of the triumphal Arch of Titus in Rome. On this arch are depicted certain items taken from Jerusalem when it was destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. Josephus claimed to have been an eyewitness of this triumphal procession of Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus. Josephus speaks of the procession carrying “a lampstand, likewise made of gold, but constructed on a different pattern from those which we use in ordinary life. Affixed to a pedestal was a central shaft, from which there extended slender branches, arranged trident-fashion, a wrought lamp being attached to the extremity of each branch; of these there were seven.”​—The Jewish War, VII, 148, 149 (v, 5).

No one can say for certain today whether the lampstand depicted on the Arch of Titus looks exactly the same as the original from the temple in Jerusalem. Differences in opinion concern mainly the form of the base, made up of two parallel polygonal cases, the smaller one above the larger. One viewpoint is that the Roman representation on the arch is accurate but that Herod himself had changed its design from the traditional Jewish form of a triangular, or tripod, base in a “westernizing” campaign to please the Romans. Other scholars disagree that the representation is exact. Decorative panels on the base display eagles and sea monsters, which they cite as an apparent violation of the second commandment.

Some conclude that the original temple lampstand stood on three legs, basing this in part on the numerous representations of the lampstand from different parts of Europe and the Middle East dating from the third to the sixth centuries that show a tripod base, a few with animal feet. The oldest representation of the lampstand appears on coins of Antigonus II, who reigned 40-37 B.C.E. Though not well preserved, one specimen seems to indicate that the base consisted of a plate with feet. In 1969, a representation of the temple lampstand was found incised in plaster in a house excavated in the old city of Jerusalem. The schematic drawing indicates seven branches and a triangular base, all ornamented with knobs separated by two parallel lines. In the Tomb of Jason, discovered in Jerusalem in 1956 and dated to the beginning of the first century B.C.E., archaeologists found designs of a seven-branched lampstand scratched into plaster. The lower sections seem to be stuck into a box or stand.

Thus, on the basis of these archaeological findings, some object to the appearance of the base of the lampstand on the Arch of Titus and suggest among other possibilities that the carvings are a Roman artist’s conception influenced by Jewish designs familiar to him from other sources.

Figurative Use. The prophet Zechariah saw in vision an unusual golden lampstand. As with the lampstand prepared for the tabernacle, it had seven lamps, but these lamps had seven pipes, which scholars understand in a distributive sense to mean a pipe to each lamp. Also, on top of the lampstand there was a bowl. Apparently a continuous supply of oil was provided for the lamps through the pipes leading to them. The oil evidently came from the two olive trees the prophet saw alongside the lampstand.​—Zec 4:2, 3, 12.

Jehovah God, through the glorified Jesus Christ, gave to the apostle John a vision in which he saw “seven golden lampstands, and in the midst of the lampstands someone like a son of man.” This one, whose description reveals him to be Jesus Christ, explained to John that the lampstands meant seven congregations. (Re 1:1, 12, 13, 20) These visionary lampstands were probably like the one that lighted the tabernacle so that the priests could perform their duties there. The use of such to represent congregations is in harmony with Jesus’ words to those who are dedicated servants of God: “You are the light of the world.” (Mt 5:14) As the One “who walks in the midst of the seven golden lampstands,” he oversees all their activity as lightbearers.​—Re 2:1.

In counseling the congregation at Ephesus, Christ warned that he would remove the lampstand from its place, unless they repented. This would doubtless mean that they would no longer be used to shed the light of truth in that area, but that their light would go out.​—Re 2:1-5; compare Mt 6:22, 23.

The final mention of lampstands in the Bible bears certain similarities to Zechariah’s vision. “Two witnesses” who were to prophesy in sackcloth were said to be symbolized by “the two olive trees and the two lampstands.”​—Re 11:3, 4.

LANCE

See ARMS, ARMOR.

LANDOWNER

From very early times, property rights of landowners or landholders (Heb., beʽa·limʹ, literally, owners) have been recognized. Abraham bargained with Ephron the Hittite for a burial place for his wife Sarah, finally buying a field for a stated sum, the transaction being legalized before the townspeople. (Ge 23:1-20) During a famine in Egypt, Joseph bought land for Pharaoh from Egyptian landowners, in exchange for food. (Ge 47:20-26) God’s faithful servant Job, living in the land of Uz, possessed inheritable property, doubtless including land, that he gave to his sons and daughters. (Job 1:4; 42:15) However, Jehovah is the Supreme Landowner, and his dealings demonstrate that humans are accountable to him for the way they use his property.​—Ps 24:1; 50:10-12.

In Israel. When Jehovah brought Israel into Canaan he exercised his right as Lord and Owner of the whole earth to dispossess the Canaanites, who were, in effect, squatters on the land. (Jos 3:11; 1Co 10:26) The period of God’s tolerating their holding the land had run out. Although more than 450 years previously God had promised the land to Abraham’s seed, he had told Abraham: “The error of the Amorites [a term sometimes used for all the Canaanite tribes] has not yet come to completion.” (Ge 15:7, 8, 12-16) Therefore, as the Christian martyr Stephen told the Jews, God “did not give [Abraham] any inheritable possession in it, no, not a footbreadth; but he promised to give it to him as a possession, and after him to his seed, while as yet he had no child.”​—Ac 7:5.

Israel was not to fight wars of aggression, continuing to expand its territory by taking the property of surrounding nations. Jehovah warned Israel that they must respect the property rights of certain nations to whom he had assigned land. These nations were Edom, Moab, and Ammon, related to the Israelites through Esau (Edom) and Lot (Moab and Ammon).​—De 2:4, 5, 9, 19.

Promised Land held in trust. Even the people Israel, to whom God had given the land for them to enjoy as landowners, were told by Jehovah that they were not actually owners of it but only held it in trust. He said concerning the sale of a family land estate: “So the land should not be sold in perpetuity, because the land is mine. For you are alien residents and settlers from my standpoint.” (Le 25:23) God had ousted the Canaanites from the land for their disgusting practices. He warned he would also take away all title from Israel and drive them out of the land if they followed such practices, and when they later did, they were sent into exile. (Le 18:24-30; 25:18, 19; 26:27-33; Jer 52:27) After 70 years of desolation of their land, from 607 to 537 B.C.E., God mercifully reestablished them, but this time under Gentile domination. Eventually, in 70 C.E., the Romans completely destroyed Jerusalem and scattered its people.

Within the nation, tribes were assigned sections of the land or cities inside the boundaries of other tribes. Priests and Levites had cities with pasture grounds. (Jos 15-21) In turn, within the tribes families were allotted inheritances. These divisions became smaller as families subdivided their own allotments because of increase in numbers. This resulted in thorough cultivation and use of the land. Inheritances were not allowed to circulate from one tribe to another. To prevent this, women who inherited land (because there were no living brothers) had to marry within the tribe to hold their inheritance.​—Nu 36:1-12.

If a man died without having a son, his brother (or, if no brothers, his nearest of kin) could marry his widow to bring forth offspring from her. The man marrying the widow could also repurchase the dead man’s inheritance, if it had been sold. (Ru 4:9, 10, 13-17) The woman’s firstborn would take the name, not of his actual father, but of the widow’s first husband, thus possessing the land inheritance and keeping the man’s name alive over his inheritance in Israel.​—De 25:5, 6.

The Jubilee year. God had said to Israel: “No one should come to be poor among you.” (De 15:4, 5) The Jubilee year, as long as observed, prevented the nation from sinking into a situation where only two classes existed, the very rich and the very poor. On every 50th year (counted from the time of Israel’s entering Canaan), every man returned to his inheritance, and any land he had sold was to be restored to him. Because of this law, the price of land decreased every year as the Jubilee approached. Actually, the buyer, in a sense, only leased the land, the price depending on the number of crops until the Jubilee year. (Le 25:13-16, 28) Even a buyer of another’s inheritance could not necessarily hold it until the Jubilee. If the original owner acquired enough money, he could repurchase the land. Also, any repurchaser (close relative) could repurchase it for the original owner.​—Le 25:24-27.

A man could not be forced to sell his property. Neither did the principle of eminent domain apply in Israel. This was illustrated in the refusal of Naboth to sell a field of his inheritance to King Ahab.​—1Ki 21:1-4, 17-19; compare Eze 46:18.

The Levites. As a protection to the Levites, their fields could not be sold; this was because Levites had no individual land inheritance​—they had been given only houses in the Levite cities and the pasture grounds surrounding them. If a Levite sold his house in a Levite city, the right of repurchase continued for him, and in the Jubilee, at the latest, it was returned to him.​—Le 25:32-34.

As the productive land yielded fruitage, the Great Proprietor of all the land was not to be left out of the picture. By means of the tithing arrangement, a tenth of the produce was to be used to support the Levites in their important functions related to Jehovah’s worship, thus spiritually benefiting all Israel.​—Nu 18:21-24; De 14:22-29.

The sanctuary. The sanctuary of Jehovah could also become a landholder by reason of fields “sanctified” to Jehovah; that is, the produce of these fields went to the sanctuary for a period of time designated by the owner or possessor. (Le 27:16-19) If a field that was “sanctified” by the owner was not repurchased, but was sold to another man, that field would become the permanent possession of the sanctuary at the time of the Jubilee. (Le 27:20, 21) Also, fields “devoted” to the sanctuary by their owners remained the permanent possession of the sanctuary.​—Le 27:28.

In the Christian Congregation. The Bible makes it clear that individual property rights were recognized in the Christian congregation. When the congregation was established, on Pentecost day, 33 C.E., many Jews and proselytes of the Jewish religion from other lands had gathered at Jerusalem to observe the festival. A large number of these were present to hear Peter’s discourse and began to be believers in Christ. (Ac 2:1, 5, 9-11, 41, 42, 47) They remained to learn more. So the Christians voluntarily sold possessions and distributed the proceeds to help these visiting ones and others who were needy. They had “all things in common.” (Ac 2:44-46) This was not socialism or communism, but a voluntary sharing for the purpose of aiding persons interested in the good news and in furthering the spread of it.

Later, for similar reasons, and partly because of persecution of the Christians by Jerusalem’s rulers, this practice continued, under the spirit and undeserved kindness of God. Fields were sold and the proceeds brought to the apostles, who administered the assistance program. (Ac 4:31-37) But each Christian’s property was his own and his rights were inviolable; he was under no compulsion to put property into a common pool. It was counted as a privilege to do so, not a duty. It was right motive that dominated and moved these generous Christians.

In the case of Ananias and Sapphira, however, a hypocritical show was made in order to get plaudits and honor of men. They conspired together to sell a field and to give only part of the proceeds to the apostles, with the claim that they were generously giving up all the possession. Peter, by direction of holy spirit, discerned what they were doing. He did not say, ‘Why did you not give us all the money you received for the field?’ as if they were under obligation to do so. Rather, he said: “Ananias, why has Satan emboldened you to play false to the holy spirit and to hold back secretly some of the price of the field? As long as it remained with you did it not remain yours, and after it was sold did it not continue in your control? Why was it that you purposed such a deed as this in your heart? You have played false, not to men, but to God.”​—Ac 5:1-4.

About three hours later, when Sapphira came in, not knowing what had happened, she made the same claim, and Peter replied: “Why was it agreed upon between you two to make a test of the spirit of Jehovah?” (Ac 5:7-9) Their sin was in lying to Jehovah, making a mockery of him and his congregation, as if God’s spirit were not upon it. (Ga 6:7) It was not that they were compelled to part with their property in some sort of communal arrangement.

Jehovah’s Ownership Must Be Recognized. Since Jehovah is the Owner of all the land, the landowner on earth must respect his possession and use it properly. Otherwise it will become a ruin and he will eventually suffer complete loss of it. (Pr 24:30-34) Even nations must recognize this fact. (Isa 24:1-6; Jer 23:10) Eventually those who ignore this principle will themselves be ruined.​—Re 11:18.

Recognition of God’s real ownership will also prevent one from trying to gain possession of land in a greedy or wrongful way. (Pr 20:21; 23:10, 11) When Israel departed from God’s law, there were men against whom God expressed condemnation, saying: “Woe to the ones joining house to house, and those who annex field to field until there is no more room and you men have been made to dwell all by yourselves in the midst of the land!”​—Isa 5:8; Mic 2:1-4.

On the other hand, Jesus said: “Happy are the mild-tempered ones, since they will inherit the earth.” (Mt 5:5; Ps 37:9, 22, 29) He taught his followers to pray to God: “Let your kingdom come. Let your will take place, as in heaven, also upon earth.” (Mt 6:10) Under the Kingdom sovereignty of the Great Landowner himself, those holding land in trust for him in faithfulness are to experience the full joy of ownership in complete security. God stated his viewpoint of proper conditions as regards land ownership when he gave restoration prophecies through the mouths of Isaiah and Micah. These indicate what situation he will bring about when his ‘will takes place on earth.’ He said of his people: “They will certainly build houses and have occupancy; and they will certainly plant vineyards and eat their fruitage. They will not build and someone else have occupancy; they will not plant and someone else do the eating.” “And they will actually sit, each one under his vine and under his fig tree, and there will be no one making them tremble.”​—Isa 65:21, 22; Mic 4:4; see PEOPLE OF THE LAND (EARTH).

LANGUAGE

Any means, vocal or other, by which feelings or thoughts are expressed or communicated. Generally, however, language means a body of words and the methods of combining these as understood by a community of people. The Hebrew and Greek words for “tongue” signify “language.” (Jer 5:15, ftn; Ac 2:11, Int) The Hebrew term for “lip” is used in a similar way.​—Ge 11:1, ftn.

Language, of course, is most intimately associated with the mind, which employs the speech organs​—throat, tongue, lips, and teeth—​as its instruments. (See TONGUE.) Thus, the Encyclopædia Britannica (1959 edition) states: “Thinking and words go together. For thinking, to be clear, has to rely upon names [or nouns] and their various associations with one another. . . . While some minor reservations are justifiable there is an overwhelming mass of evidence . . . that fortifies the contention stated above​—no words, no thinking.” (Vol. 5, p. 740) Words are man’s principal means of receiving, storing, manipulating, and transmitting information.

Origin of Speech. The first human, Adam, was created with a vocabulary, as well as with the ability to coin new words and thus expand his vocabulary. Without a God-given vocabulary the newly created man would have been no more able to comprehend verbal instructions from his Creator than were the unreasoning animals. (Ge 1:27-30; 2:16-20; compare 2Pe 2:12; Jude 10.) So, while only intelligent man of all earth’s creatures has the ability of true speech, language did not originate with man but with man’s All-Wise Creator, Jehovah God.​—Compare Ex 4:11, 12.

On the origin of language, the well-known lexicographer Ludwig Koehler wrote: “There has been, especially in former times, much speculation as to how human speech ‘came into being’. Writers strove to explore ‘animal language’. For animals also are able to express audibly by sounds and groups of sounds their feelings and sensations, such as contentment, fear, emotion, threat, anger, sexual desire and satisfaction in its fulfilment, and perhaps many other things. However manifold these [animal] expressions may be, . . . they lack concept and thought, the essential domain of human language.” After showing how men can explore the physiological aspect of human speech, he adds: “But what actually happens in speech, how the spark of perception kindles the spirit of the child, or of mankind generally, to become the spoken word, eludes our grasp. Human speech is a secret; it is a divine gift, a miracle.”​—Journal of Semitic Studies, Manchester, 1956, p. 11.

Language had been employed for untold ages prior to man’s appearance on the universal scene. Jehovah God communicated with his heavenly firstborn Son and evidently used him in communicating with his other spirit sons. Hence that firstborn Son was called “the Word.” (Joh 1:1; Col 1:15, 16; Re 3:14) The apostle Paul made inspired reference to “tongues of men and of angels.” (1Co 13:1) Jehovah God speaks to his angelic creatures in their ‘tongue’ and they ‘carry out his word.’ (Ps 103:20) Since He and his spirit sons are not reliant upon an atmosphere (which makes possible the sound waves and vibrations necessary for human speech), angelic language is obviously beyond human conception or attainment. As God’s messengers, angels therefore employed human language to talk with men, and angelic messages are recorded in Hebrew (Ge 22:15-18), Aramaic (Da 7:23-27), and Greek (Re 11:15), the cited texts being written in those languages respectively.

What accounts for the diversity of languages?

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), about 6,000 tongues are spoken today throughout the earth. Some are spoken by hundreds of millions of persons, others by fewer than a thousand. Though the ideas expressed and communicated may be basically the same, there are many ways to express them. The Bible history alone explains the origin of this strange diversity in human communication.

Up until some point after the global Flood, all mankind “continued to be of one language [literally, “lip”] and of one set of words.” (Ge 11:1) The Bible indicates that the language later called Hebrew was that original “one language.” (See HEBREW, II.) As will be shown, this does not mean that all other languages stemmed from and are related to Hebrew but that Hebrew preceded all other languages.

The Genesis account describes the uniting of some part of the post-Flood human family in a project that opposed God’s will as stated to Noah and his sons. (Ge 9:1) Instead of spreading out and ‘filling the earth,’ they determined to centralize human society, concentrating their residence on a site in what became known as the Plains of Shinar in Mesopotamia. Evidently this was also to become a religious center, with a religious tower.​—Ge 11:2-4.

Almighty God gave their presumptuous project a setback by breaking up their unity of action, accomplishing this by confusing their common language. This made impossible any coordinated work on their project and led to their scattering to all parts of the globe. The confusion of their language would also hinder or slow down future progress in a wrong direction, a God-defying direction, since it would limit mankind’s ability to combine its intellectual and physical powers in ambitious schemes and also make it difficult to draw upon the accumulated knowledge of the different language groups formed​—knowledge, not from God, but gained through human experience and research. (Compare Ec 7:29; De 32:5.) So, while it introduced a major divisive factor into human society, the confusion of human speech actually benefited human society in retarding the attainment of dangerous and hurtful goals. (Ge 11:5-9; compare Isa 8:9, 10.) One has only to consider certain developments in our own times, resulting from accumulated secular knowledge and man’s misuse thereof, to realize what God foresaw long ago would develop if the effort at Babel were allowed to go unhindered.

Philology, the comparative study of languages, generally classifies languages into distinct “families.” The “parent” language of each major family usually has not been identified; much less is there any evidence pointing to any one “parent” language as the source of all the thousands of tongues now spoken. The Bible record does not say that all languages descended, or branched off, from Hebrew. In what is commonly called the Table of Nations (Ge 10), the descendants of Noah’s sons (Shem, Ham, and Japheth) are listed and in each case are grouped ‘according to their families, according to their tongues, in their lands, by their nations.’ (Ge 10:5, 20, 31, 32) It appears, therefore, that, when miraculously confusing human language, Jehovah God produced, not dialects of Hebrew, but a number of completely new languages, each capable of expressing the full range of human feeling and thought.

Thus, after God confused their language, not only did the builders at Babel lack “one set of words” (Ge 11:1), one common vocabulary, but they also lacked a common grammar, a common way of expressing the relationship between words. Professor S. R. Driver stated: “Languages, however, differ not only in grammar and roots, but also . . . in the manner in which ideas are built up into a sentence. Different races do not think in the same way; and consequently the forms taken by the sentence in different languages are not the same.” (A Dictionary of the Bible, edited by J. Hastings, 1905, Vol. IV, p. 791) Thus, different languages require quite different thought patterns, making it difficult for a new learner to ‘think in the language.’ (Compare 1Co 14:10, 11.) This is also why a literal translation of something said or written in an unfamiliar language may seem illogical, often causing persons to say, “But it doesn’t make sense!” So, it appears that, when Jehovah God confused the speech of those at Babel, he first blotted out all memory of their previous common language and then introduced into their minds not only new vocabularies but also changed thought patterns, producing new grammars.​—Compare Isa 33:19; Eze 3:4-6.

We find, for example, that certain languages are monosyllabic (made up of words of only one syllable), such as Chinese. By contrast, the vocabularies of a number of other languages are formed largely by agglutination, that is, by joining words placed side by side, as in the German word Hausfriedensbruch, which means literally “house peace breakage,” or, in a form more understandable to the English-speaking mind, “trespass.” In some languages syntax, the order of the words in the sentence, is very important; in others it matters little. So, too, some languages have many conjugations (verb forms); others, such as Chinese, have none. Countless differences could be cited, each requiring an adjustment in mental patterns, often with great effort.

Apparently the original languages resulting from divine action at Babel in course of time produced related dialects, and the dialects frequently developed into separate languages, their relationship to their “sister” dialects or to the “parent” language sometimes becoming almost indistinguishable. Even Shem’s descendants, who apparently did not figure among the crowd at Babel, came to speak not only Hebrew but also Aramaean, Akkadian, and Arabic. Historically, various factors have contributed to the change in languages: separation due to distance or geographic barriers, wars and conquests, a breakdown in communications, and immigration by those of another language. Because of such factors ancient major languages have fragmented, certain tongues have partially merged with others, and some languages have disappeared completely and have been replaced by those of the invading conquerors.

Language research provides evidence in harmony with the preceding information. The New Encyclopædia Britannica says: “The earliest records of written language, the only linguistic fossils man can hope to have, go back no more than about 4,000 or 5,000 years.” (1985, Vol. 22, p. 567) An article in Science Illustrated of July 1948 (p. 63) states: “Older forms of the languages known today were far more difficult than their modern descendants . . . man appears not to have begun with a simple speech, and gradually made it more complex, but rather to have gotten hold of a tremendously knotty speech somewhere in the unrecorded past, and gradually simplified it to the modern forms.” Linguist Dr. Mason also points out that “the idea that ‘savages’ speak in a series of grunts, and are unable to express many ‘civilized’ concepts, is very wrong,” and that “many of the languages of non-literate peoples are far more complex than modern European ones.” (Science News Letter, September 3, 1955, p. 148) The evidence is thus against any evolutionary origin of speech or of ancient languages.

Concerning the focal point from which the spreading of ancient languages began, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Oriental language scholar, observed: “If we were to be thus guided by the mere intersection of linguistic paths, and independently of all reference to the scriptural record, we should still be led to fix on the plains of Shinar, as the focus from which the various lines had radiated.”​—The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1855, Vol. 15, p. 232.

Among the major “families” listed by modern philologists are: Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Afro-Asian, Japanese and Korean, Dravidian, Malayo-Polynesian, and Black African. There are many tongues that till now defy classification. Within each of the major families there are many subdivisions, or smaller families. Thus, the Indo-European family includes Germanic, Romance (Italic), Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Celtic, Albanian, and Armenian. Most of these smaller families, in turn, have several members. Romance languages, for example, embrace French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian.

From Abraham Onward. Abraham the Hebrew evidently had no difficulty in conversing with the Hamitic people of Canaan. (Ge 14:21-24; 20:1-16; 21:22-34) No use of interpreters is mentioned, but then, neither is such use mentioned when Abraham went to Egypt. (Ge 12:14-19) He probably knew Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) because of having lived in Ur of the Chaldeans. (Ge 11:31) Akkadian for a time was an international language. It is possible that the people of Canaan, living in relative proximity to the Semitic peoples of Syria and Arabia, were to a degree bilingual. Then, too, the alphabet gives clear evidence of its being of Semitic origin, and this could also have exercised considerable influence toward the use of Semitic tongues by persons of other language groups, particularly rulers and officials.​—See CANAAN, CANAANITE No. 2 (Language); WRITING.

Jacob also apparently communicated easily with his Aramaean relatives (Ge 29:1-14), though their terminology differed on occasion.​—Ge 31:46, 47.

Joseph, who likely learned Egyptian while a slave of Potiphar, employed an interpreter when first talking with his Hebrew brothers upon their arrival in Egypt. (Ge 39:1; 42:6, 23) Moses, raised in Pharaoh’s courts, doubtless knew several languages, Hebrew, Egyptian, probably Akkadian, and perhaps others.​—Ex 2:10; compare verses 15-22.

Aramaic in time replaced Akkadian as the lingua franca, or international language, being used even in correspondence with Egypt. However, by the time of Assyrian King Sennacherib’s attack on Judah (732 B.C.E.), Aramaic (ancient Syrian) was not understood by the majority of Jews, though Judean officials understood it. (2Ki 18:26, 27) So, too, the Chaldean language of the Semitic Babylonians, who finally conquered Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E., sounded like those “stammering with their lips” to the Jews. (Isa 28:11; Da 1:4; compare De 28:49.) Although Babylon, Persia, and other world powers carved out huge empires and brought under their control people of many languages, they did not eliminate the divisive barrier of language differences.​—Da 3:4, 7; Es 1:22.

Nehemiah showed great concern upon learning that the sons of mixed marriages among the returned Jews did not know “Jewish” (Hebrew). (Ne 13:23-25) His concern was for pure worship, as he recognized the importance of understanding the Sacred Scriptures (till then available only in Hebrew) when these were read and discussed. (Compare Ne 13:26, 27; 8:1-3, 8, 9.) Oneness of language in itself would also be a unifying force among the people. The Hebrew Scriptures doubtless were a major factor in the stability of the Hebrew language. During the thousand-year period of their being written, virtually no change in language is noted.

When Jesus was on earth, Palestine had become, to a considerable extent, a polyglot, or multilingual, region. There is solid evidence that the Jews still retained their use of Hebrew, but Aramaic and Koine were also spoken. Latin, too, appeared on official inscriptions of the Roman rulers of the land (Joh 19:20) and was doubtless heard from Roman soldiers stationed there. As to the language generally spoken by Jesus, see ARAMAIC; also HEBREW, II.

On the day of Pentecost, 33 C.E., the holy spirit was poured out on the Christian disciples in Jerusalem, and they suddenly began speaking in many languages that they had never studied and learned. Jehovah God had demonstrated at Babel his miraculous ability to place different vocabularies and different grammars in the minds of people. At Pentecost he did so again but with a major difference, for the Christians suddenly gifted with the power to speak new languages did not forget their original tongue, Hebrew. God’s spirit here was also effecting a very different purpose, not of confusing and scattering but of enlightening and drawing together persons of honest heart into Christian unity. (Ac 2:1-21, 37-42) From then on God’s covenant people were a multilingual people, but the barrier created by language difference was overcome because their minds were filled with the common or mutual language of the truth. In unity they spoke in praise of Jehovah and his righteous purposes by Christ Jesus. Thus, the promise at Zephaniah 3:9 saw a fulfillment as Jehovah God gave “peoples the change to a pure language, in order for them all to call upon the name of Jehovah, in order to serve him shoulder to shoulder.” (Compare Isa 66:18; Zec 8:23; Re 7:4, 9, 10.) For this to be so, they should “all speak in agreement” and be “fitly united in the same mind and in the same line of thought.”​—1Co 1:10.

The ‘purity’ of the language spoken by the Christian congregation was also because of its being free from words expressing malicious bitterness, anger, wrath, screaming, and similar abusive language, as well as being free from deceit, obscenity, and corruptness. (Eph 4:29, 31; 1Pe 3:10) Christians were to put language to its most exalted use, praising their Creator and upbuilding their neighbor with wholesome, truthful speech, especially the good news about God’s Kingdom. (Mt 24:14; Tit 2:7, 8; Heb 13:15; compare Ps 51:15; 109:30.) As the time neared for God to execute his judicial decision upon all the nations of the world, Jehovah would enable many more to speak that pure language.

The Bible began to be written in the Hebrew language, and some portions were later recorded in Aramaic. Then, in the first century of the Common Era, the remainder of the Sacred Scriptures were written in Koine, or common Greek (though Matthew wrote his Gospel first in Hebrew). By then a translation had also been made of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. Called the Septuagint, it was not an inspired translation but, nevertheless, was used by the Christian writers of the Bible in numerous quotations. (See INSPIRATION.) So, too, the Christian Greek Scriptures and eventually the whole Bible came to be translated into other languages, among the earliest being Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Persian. As of the present time, the Bible, the whole or in part, is available in well over 3,000 languages. This has facilitated the proclamation of the good news and thus has contributed to overcoming the barrier of language divisions for the purpose of uniting people of many lands in pure worship of their Creator.

LAODICEA

(La·o·di·ceʹa), Laodiceans (La·o·di·ceʹans).

A city in the western part of Asia Minor, the ruins of which lie near Denizli, about 150 km (90 mi) E of Ephesus. It was known earlier as Diospolis and Rhoas but was evidently rebuilt in the third century B.C.E. by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II and named after his wife Laodice. Situated in the fertile valley of the Lycus River, Laodicea lay at the junction of major trade routes and was linked by roads with cities such as Ephesus, Pergamum, and Philadelphia.

Laodicea enjoyed great prosperity as a manufacturing city and as a banking center. Indicative of the city’s great wealth is the fact that when it suffered extensive earthquake damage in the reign of Nero, it was able to rebuild without any financial assistance from Rome. (Tacitus’ Annals, XIV, XXVII) The glossy black wool of Laodicea and the garments made therefrom were widely known. The seat of a famous medical school, this city probably also produced the eye medicine known as Phrygian powder. One of the main deities venerated at Laodicea was Asclepius, a god of medicine.

This city had a major disadvantage. Unlike the nearby city of Hierapolis, with its hot springs famed for their healing properties, and Colossae, with its refreshing cold water, Laodicea had no permanent water supply. From a considerable distance away, water had to be piped to Laodicea and likely was lukewarm on reaching the city. For the initial part of the distance the water was conveyed by means of an aqueduct and then, closer to the city, through cubical stone blocks that were bored through the middle and cemented together.

Laodicea seems to have had a considerable number of Jews. According to a letter from Laodicean magistrates (as quoted by Josephus), the Jews, in compliance with the injunction of Gaius Rabirius, were allowed to observe their Sabbaths and other sacred rites. (Jewish Antiquities, XIV, 241-243 [x, 20]) At least some of the Jews there were quite wealthy. This may be deduced from the fact that, when Governor Flaccus ordered the confiscation of the annual contributions that were meant for the temple at Jerusalem, the amount reportedly was found to be more than 20 pounds of gold.

In the first century C.E., a Christian congregation existed at Laodicea and apparently met in the home of Nympha, a Christian sister there. Doubtless the efforts of Epaphras contributed to the establishment of that congregation. (Col 4:12, 13, 15) Also, the effects of Paul’s work at Ephesus likely reached as far as Laodicea. (Ac 19:10) Although not ministering there personally, Paul was nevertheless concerned about the Laodicean congregation and even wrote a letter to them. (Col 2:1; 4:16) However, some scholars believe that Paul’s letter may have been simply a duplicate of the one he sent to Ephesus. Of course, that is only a theory, an effort to account for the fact that the Bible contains no letter from Paul to the Laodiceans, although Paul wrote to them. The letter to Laodicea may simply have contained information not necessary for us today, or it may have repeated points adequately covered in other canonical letters.

The congregation at Laodicea was one of the seven in Asia Minor to which the glorified Jesus Christ, in a revelation to John, addressed personal messages. (Re 1:11) At that time, toward the close of the first century C.E., the Laodicean congregation had little to commend it. Though materially rich, it was spiritually poor. Instead of the literal gold handled by the Laodicean bankers, instead of the garments of glossy black wool made locally, instead of the eye medicine doubtless produced by the Laodicean medical profession, instead of the boiling hot medicinal waters from the springs of nearby Hierapolis, the Laodicean congregation needed things like these in a spiritual sense. It needed “gold refined by fire” to enrich its personality (compare 1Co 3:10-14; 1Pe 1:6, 7), white outer garments to give it an irreproachable Christian appearance with no unchristian features that were as shameful as bodily nakedness. (Compare Re 16:15; 19:8.) It needed to have spiritual “eyesalve” applied to take away its blindness to Bible truth and Christian responsibilities. (Compare Isa 29:18; 2Pe 1:5-10; 1Jo 2:11.) It could buy these things from Christ Jesus, the one knocking at the door, if it let him in hospitably to entertain him. (Compare Isa 55:1, 2.) It needed to become stimulatingly hot (compare Ps 69:9; 2Co 9:2; Tit 2:14) or refreshingly cold (compare Pr 25:13, 25), but not to stay lukewarm.​—Re 3:14-22.

LAPPIDOTH

(Lapʹpi·doth) [possibly, Torches; Lightning Flashes].

The husband of the Israelite prophetess Deborah.​—Jg 4:4.

LASEA

(La·seʹa).

A Cretan city near the harbor called Fair Havens. (Ac 27:8) Lasea is usually identified with ruins situated about 8 km (5 mi) E of modern Kaloi Limniones (Fair Havens).

LASHA

(Laʹsha).

A place mentioned in the earliest Canaanite boundary description. (Ge 10:19) Its exact location is uncertain. Either Lasha was “near” Zeboiim (NW; JP [1962 ed.]) or the Canaanite boundary extended from the area around Zeboiim “as far as” Lasha. (AT; RS; JB) On the basis of Jerome’s identification and Jewish tradition, many place Lasha at Callirrhoe, near the eastern shore of the Dead Sea below the Wadi Zarqa Maʽin. Others link Lasha with Laish (Dan).

LASSHARON

(Las·sharʹon).

A royal Canaanite city whose king was defeated by the Israelites under Joshua. (Jos 12:7, 8, 18) Lassharon is often linked with the district called Sarona, situated, according to Eusebius, between Mount Tabor and the Sea of Galilee. Possibly modern Sarona (Sharona), about 10 km (6 mi) SW of Tiberias, marks the ancient site.

LAST DAYS

In Bible prophecy, “last days” or comparable expressions such as “final part of the days” were used to designate a time when events of history culminate. (Eze 38:8, 16; Da 10:14) The content of the prophecy fixes the starting point of the “final part of the days” when the foretold events would begin to occur. Those living at the time of the prophecy’s fulfillment could therefore be spoken of as living in the “last days” or the “final part of the days.” Depending upon the nature of the prophecy, this may be a period covering just a few years or many and can apply to widely separated time periods.

Jacob’s Deathbed Prophecy. When Jacob said to his sons, “Gather yourselves together that I may tell you what will happen to you in the final part of the days” or “in days to come” (AT), he meant in that future time when his words would begin undergoing fulfillment. (Ge 49:1) Over two centuries earlier Jehovah had stated to Jacob’s grandfather Abram (Abraham) that his offspring would suffer affliction for 400 years. (Ge 15:13) Therefore, in this case, the future time referred to by Jacob as “the final part of the days” could not begin until after the 400 years of affliction ended. (For details on Genesis 49, see the articles on the sons of Jacob under their respective names.) A later application of the prophecy that would involve the spiritual “Israel of God” could also be expected.​—Ga 6:16; Ro 9:6.

Balaam’s Prophecy. It was before the Israelites entered the Promised Land that the prophet Balaam said to Moab’s King Balak: “Do come, let me advise you what this people [Israel] will do to your people afterward in the end of the days. . . . A star will certainly step forth out of Jacob, and a scepter will indeed rise out of Israel. And he will certainly break apart the temples of Moab’s head and the cranium of all the sons of tumult of war.” (Nu 24:14-17) In the initial fulfillment of this prophecy, the “star” proved to be King David, the subduer of the Moabites. (2Sa 8:2) Evidently, therefore, in that fulfillment of this particular prophecy, “the end of the days” began with David’s becoming king. Since David foreshadowed Jesus as Messianic King, the prophecy would also apply to Jesus at the time when he subdues his enemies.​—Isa 9:7; Ps 2:8, 9.

The Prophecy of Isaiah and Micah. At Isaiah 2:2 and Micah 4:1 the words “final part of the days” introduce a prophecy about the time when people from all nations would stream to “the mountain of the house of Jehovah.” In a typical fulfillment, between 29 C.E. and 70 C.E., during the final part of the days of the Jewish system of things, Jehovah’s worship was exalted above the lofty elevation that pagan nations gave to their false gods. The King, Jesus Christ, made “a breakthrough” in elevating true worship, and he was followed, first by a remnant of the nation of Israel, and then by people from all nations. (Isa 2:2; Mic 2:13; Ac 10:34, 35) In an antitypical fulfillment, in the final part of the days of this system of things, Jehovah’s worship has been elevated heaven high. The King, Jesus Christ, has led the remnant of spiritual Israel to pure worship, and they have been followed by a great crowd out of all nations.​—Re 7:9.

Last Days of the Jewish System of Things. Less than three and a half years before the non-Jews became part of the Christian congregation, God’s spirit was poured out on faithful Jewish disciples of Jesus Christ. At that time Peter explained that this was in fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy, saying: “‘And in the last days,’ God says, ‘I shall pour out some of my spirit upon every sort of flesh . . . And I will give portents in heaven above and signs on earth below, blood and fire and smoke mist; the sun will be turned into darkness and the moon into blood before the great and illustrious day of Jehovah arrives.’” (Ac 2:16-20) In this case “the last days” preceded “the great and illustrious day of Jehovah,” which “day” apparently brought “the last days” to their conclusion. (Compare Zep 1:14-18; Mal 4:5; Mt 11:13, 14; see DAY OF JEHOVAH.) Since Peter addressed natural Jews and Jewish proselytes, his words must have had particular reference to them and evidently indicated that they were living in “the last days” of the then-existing Jewish system of things with its center of worship at Jerusalem. Earlier, Christ Jesus himself had foretold the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Lu 19:41-44; 21:5, 6), which occurred in 70 C.E.

It must have been also with reference to the end of the Jewish system of things that Christ Jesus was spoken of as appearing and carrying on his activity “at the end of the times” or “at the end of these days.” (1Pe 1:20, 21; Heb 1:1, 2) This is confirmed by the words of Hebrews 9:26: “But now he [Jesus] has manifested himself once for all time at the conclusion of the systems of things to put sin away through the sacrifice of himself.”

Last Days Associated With the Apostasy. The words “last days” or comparable expressions are sometimes used in connection with the apostasy that was to be experienced within the Christian congregation. Wrote the apostle Paul to Timothy: “The inspired utterance says definitely that in later periods of time some will fall away from the faith, paying attention to misleading inspired utterances and teachings of demons.” (1Ti 4:1; compare Ac 20:29, 30.) In a later letter to Timothy, Paul again discussed this point and spoke of future “last days.” Because of the abandonment of right conduct by people then, these were to be “critical times hard to deal with” or, more literally, ‘fierce appointed times.’ (Int) After describing in detail the wayward course and perverted attitudes to prevail among persons living at that time, Paul continued: “From these arise those men who slyly work their way into households and lead as their captives weak women loaded down with sins, led by various desires, always learning and yet never able to come to an accurate knowledge of truth.” (2Ti 3:1-7) Next Paul contrasted such corrupt persons with Timothy, who had closely followed the apostle’s teaching, and encouraged him to ‘continue in the things that he had learned and been persuaded to believe.’ (2Ti 3:8-17; see also 2Ti 4:3-5.) Thus from the context it is clear that the apostle was informing Timothy well in advance about future developments among professed Christians and describing what fruitage such apostasy would finally yield.

Similarly, the apostle Peter provided advance knowledge to fellow Christians about pressures from within the congregation: “There will also be false teachers among you. These very ones will quietly bring in destructive sects and will disown even the owner that bought them, bringing speedy destruction upon themselves. Furthermore, many will follow their acts of loose conduct.” (2Pe 2:1, 2) This same warning is echoed in Jude’s words encouraging Christians “to put up a hard fight for the faith”: “As for you, beloved ones, call to mind the sayings that have been previously spoken by the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ, how they used to say to you: ‘In the last time there will be ridiculers, proceeding according to their own desires for ungodly things.’” (Jude 3, 17, 18) Toward the close of the first century C.E., apostate elements were clearly in evidence. In our day the full fruitage of such apostasy is clearly evident; the “last days” to which Paul referred have arrived.

“The Conclusion of the System of Things.” However, as Jesus Christ had foretold, the apostasy did not take in the entire body of Christians; the true, loyal ones were to be as “wheat” associated with “weeds.” After Christ’s presence begins, invisible, in spirit, and during “the conclusion of the system of things” then existing, a clear separation and demarcation was to be made evident. The “weeds,” “the sons of the wicked one,” were to be ‘collected out of the kingdom of the Son of man.’ This cleaning out of the true Christian congregation would leave a field of clean wheat; the false, imitation Christians would be outside the true Christian congregation. Whereas the weedlike ones would finally be pitched into “the fiery furnace,” the wheatlike ones would “shine as brightly as the sun in the kingdom of their Father.” (Mt 13:24-30, 37-43) This definitely pointed to the concluding portion of the system of things under Satan’s wicked rule, preceding its destruction.

Furthermore, the illustration suggested that the apostasy would bear its full fruitage of wickedness during “the conclusion of the system of things” under Satan’s control. Reasonably, therefore, at that time the conditions described by the writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures as marking “the last days” would be in evidence on a large scale among professed Christians. There would be increasing lawlessness and disobedience to parents. Persons would be “lovers of pleasures rather than lovers of God, having a form of godly devotion but proving false to its power.” (2Ti 3:2-5) Also, there would be “ridiculers with their ridicule, proceeding according to their own desires and saying: ‘Where is this promised presence of his? Why, from the day our forefathers fell asleep in death, all things are continuing exactly as from creation’s beginning.’”​—2Pe 3:3, 4.

The prophetic illustration of Jesus also showed that time had to pass before the weedlike ones would become fully manifest, finally to be destroyed. Since the apostles knew this, their use of “last days” and like expressions in connection with the apostasy did not mean that they expected Jesus’ presence and the subsequent destruction of the ungodly right away. As Paul pointed out to the Thessalonians: “However, brothers, respecting the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered together to him, we request of you not to be quickly shaken from your reason nor to be excited either through an inspired expression or through a verbal message or through a letter as though from us, to the effect that the day of Jehovah is here. Let no one seduce you in any manner, because it will not come unless the apostasy comes first and the man of lawlessness gets revealed, the son of destruction.”​—2Th 2:1-3.

“Last Day.” The Bible also refers to a “last day,” during which the resurrection of the dead is to take place. (Joh 6:39, 40, 44; 11:24; compare Da 12:13.) At John 12:48 this “last day” is associated with a time of judgment. Obviously, therefore, it denotes a time of a far more distant future than the end of the apostolic period.​—Compare 1Th 4:15-17; 2Th 2:1-3; Re 20:4-6, 12.

LAST SUPPER

See LORD’S EVENING MEAL.

LATIN

A language belonging to the Indo-European family and the parent of the Romance languages, namely, Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Romanian. The last half of the second century C.E. saw a move on the part of the religious powers of Rome to have Latin replace Greek as the language of the Roman bishopric. Among the results of this was the production of the Latin Vulgate, by Jerome of the fourth and fifth centuries C.E., second only to the Greek Septuagint as a noted ancient Bible translation.

Latin was the language of Imperial Rome and hence, when Jesus Christ was on earth, it was the official language of Palestine, though not the popular language of the people. It is therefore not surprising to find some Latinisms in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The word “Latin” itself occurs but once in the Bible, at John 19:20, where we are told that the inscription placed above Jesus on the torture stake was written in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.

Latin in the Christian Greek Scriptures occurs in various forms. They contain over 40 proper Latin names of persons and places, such as Aquila, Luke, Mark, Paul, Caesarea, and Tiberias. In this part of the Bible are found Greek equivalents of some 30 Latin words of military, judicial, monetary, and domestic nature, such as centurio (Mr 15:39, army officer), denarius (Mt 20:2), and speculator (Mr 6:27, body guardsman). Certain Latin expressions or idioms also occur, such as “wishing to satisfy the crowd” (Mr 15:15) and “taking sufficient security.” (Ac 17:9) The syntax, or pattern of phrases and sentences, sometimes suggests Latin influence. However, the amount of this is disputed by various scholars.

Latinisms are found mostly in Mark and Matthew, Mark having used them more than any other Bible writer. This lends credence to the belief that he wrote his Gospel in Rome and mainly for Gentiles, particularly the Romans. Paul made little use of Latinisms; none occur in the Greek Septuagint.

The appearance of Latinisms in the Scriptures is of more than academic interest to Bible lovers. It is in keeping with what the Bible shows about Palestine’s being occupied by Rome when Jesus Christ was on earth. Further, the use of these Latinisms by the best secular Greek writers of the same period argues that the Christian Scriptures were indeed produced during the times about which they tell. This fact, therefore, further testifies to the authenticity of the Christian Greek Scriptures.

LATTICE

A framework consisting of crossed strips of wood, or laths, forming a network and generally used to cover a window. For centuries window lattices have been common in the Middle East. They have served to keep houses cool by blocking out the direct rays of the sun, while allowing for ventilation, and they also have contributed favorably to the general appearance of buildings. Some houses of Biblical times had ground-floor windows facing an inner courtyard and others facing the street. The latter were usually high up on the wall or in the roof chamber and were latticed.

A person in the house could look out through a latticed window and see what was taking place out of doors without being seen from the outside. In the song of Deborah and Barak, the mother of slain Sisera is represented as futilely looking out from a window and watching for her son “from the lattice.” (Jg 5:1, 28) It was from a window through a lattice that it was possible for an observer to look down on “a young man in want of heart” as he came in contact with a prostitute. (Pr 7:6-13) Also, in The Song of Solomon (2:9), reference is made to “gazing through the windows, glancing through the lattices.”

Some window lattices were evidently hinged so that they could be opened or closed. The windows of Daniel’s roof chamber, from which he could be seen praying to Jehovah three times daily, may have had lattices that could be opened or shut.​—Da 6:10.

LAUGHTER

The Hebrew words for laughter (tsechoqʹ and the parallel form sechoqʹ) are, according to Gesenius, onomatopoeic, that is, they are imitative of the sound of laughter (as are the written English interjections “ho-ho” and “ha-ha”). Isaac’s name, Yits·chaqʹ, also meaning “Laughter,” has this same mimetic quality.

Both Abraham and Sarah laughed at the angelic announcements that they would have a son in their old age. Abraham was not reproved for laughing but Sarah was, and she even tried to deny her laughter. It therefore appears that Abraham’s laughter was the result of joy at the amazing prospect of having a son by Sarah in his old age. But Sarah’s laughter evidently was because the same amazing prospect struck her as somewhat humorous; the thought of a woman of her age, till now sterile, having a child apparently brought a somewhat incongruous picture to her mind. (Ge 17:17; 18:9-15) In neither case, however, did the laughter represent scorn or deliberate mocking, and both are recorded as demonstrating faith in God’s promise. (Ro 4:18-22; Heb 11:1, 8-12) When this son was born, the parents were no doubt delighted, for this had been their hearts’ desire for years. Abraham named their son, after which Sarah said: “God has prepared laughter for me: everybody hearing of it will laugh at me.” (Ge 21:1-7) Others were undoubtedly amazed and delighted on hearing of the good news of Abraham and Sarah’s blessing at the hand of Jehovah.

When Appropriate. Jehovah is “the happy God” and wants his servants to be happy. (1Ti 1:11) However, the Scriptures show that laughter is fitting only at certain times. There is “a time to weep and a time to laugh.” (Ec 3:1, 4) The wise man, King Solomon, counsels us: “Go, eat your food with rejoicing and drink your wine with a good heart, because already the true God has found pleasure in your works.” However, there is no real cause for rejoicing if one’s activity shows disregard for the righteous ways of God.​—Ec 9:7.

When Inappropriate. The thing of importance is to live so that one achieves a good name with Jehovah. Therefore, in this system of things, laughter may at times be most inappropriate, even harmful. Solomon, in his experiment “to lay hold on folly until I could see what good there was to the sons of mankind in what they did,” said in his heart: “Do come now, let me try you out with rejoicing. Also, see good.” But he discovered that this was a vain pursuit. He found that mirth and laughter in themselves are not truly satisfying, for they fail to produce real and lasting happiness. There must be a true foundation for enduring, upbuilding joy. Solomon voiced his feelings: “I said to laughter: ‘Insanity!’ and to rejoicing: ‘What is this doing?’”​—Ec 2:1-3.

Solomon illustrates the wisdom of not merely living for the pursuit of enjoyment. He says: “Better is it to go to the house of mourning than to go to the banquet house, because that is the end of all mankind; and the one alive should take it to his heart.” This is no recommendation for sadness as superior to rejoicing. It refers to a specific time, to the time when a person has died and the house is in mourning. Go there to console the sad survivors rather than callously forget them and feast and revel. Visiting the mourners would not only comfort the bereaved but also induce the visitor to remember life’s brevity, to know that the death that has come to this house will come to all soon enough and that those living should keep it in mind. It is while a person is still living that he can make a good name, not when he is dying. And a good name with God is the only thing of real value to the dying.​—Ec 7:2; Ge 50:10; Joh 11:31.

Solomon goes on to say: “Better is vexation than laughter, for by the crossness of the face the heart becomes better.” (Ec 7:3) Laughter is good medicine, but there are times when we must soberly view our life and the way we are living it. If we see we are wasting too much time in frivolous feasting and not making a good name by doing good works, we have reason to be vexed with ourselves, to be sorry, and to change; it will make our heart better. It will help us make a good name so that the day of our death or the time of our final inspection by God and Christ will be better for us than the day of our birth.​—Ec 7:1.

“The heart of the wise ones is in the house of mourning, but the heart of the stupid ones is in the house of rejoicing,” Solomon goes on to say. “Better is it to hear the rebuke of someone wise than to be the man hearing the song of the stupid ones.” (Ec 7:4, 5) The wise heart in a house where one has died is attuned to the seriousness that is natural in a house of bereavement, and it influences the wise heart to watch how one’s life is lived, but the careless mood in a place of revelry appeals to the foolish heart and causes life to be faced with a shallow, reckless spirit. If a person is straying from right paths, the rebuke of a wise man will put him back in the way of life by correcting him and enabling him to make a good name for himself. But how can hearing a fool’s song or empty flattery that conceals faults and hardens us in a wrong course be helpful? It would induce us to keep on making a bad name, not correcting us into ways leading to a good name with Jehovah.

“For as the sound of thorns under the pot, so is the laughter of the stupid one; and this too is vanity.” (Ec 7:6) Thorns flame up quickly but are just as quickly burned to ashes. They may not last long enough to finish cooking what is in the pot, in such a case not accomplishing the task for which the fire is lit. Their showy, noisy, blazing crackling thus proves futile and vain. And so are the frivolous gigglings and follies of the fool. Also, the very sound of a fool’s laughter grates on the ears, being inappropriate for the time or the occasion, and tends to discourage rather than encourage. It helps no one to advance in the serious task of making a good name that God will remember and thereby to ensure that ‘the day of death will be better than the day of birth.’

Laughter Changed to Mourning. In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus Christ said: “Happy are you who weep now, because you will laugh,” and, “Woe, you who are laughing now, because you will mourn and weep.” (Lu 6:21, 25) Jesus was evidently pointing out that those who were sad because of bad religious conditions then prevailing in Israel could have their weeping changed to laughter by faith in Him, whereas those enjoying laughter and life with no concern for the future would find their laughter changed to mourning. (Compare Lu 16:19-31.) In writing to Christians, Jesus’ half brother James urged worldly-minded Christians: “Give way to misery and mourn and weep. Let your laughter be turned into mourning, and your joy into dejection. Humble yourselves in the eyes of Jehovah, and he will exalt you.” (Jas 4:4, 9, 10) Such exaltation would bring genuine happiness.

To Express Derision. Laughter figures prominently in the Scriptures as an expression of derision. The Hebrew verb tsa·chaqʹ (laugh) also has the meaning “poke fun; make a laughingstock.”​—Ge 21:9; 39:14.

Even members of the animal creation are depicted as laughing in scorn. The female ostrich is represented as laughing at the pursuing horse and its rider (because of her speed), and the horse as laughing at dread when going into battle (because of his strength and fearlessness). (Job 39:13, 18, 19, 22) Leviathan (the crocodile) is said to laugh at the rattling of a javelin, because of his heavy armor.​—Job 41:1, 29.

Servants of God have had to endure much derisive laughter against them. Job said: “One who is a laughingstock to his fellowman I become.” (Job 12:4; 30:1) Jeremiah was an object of laughter all day long among his contemporaries. (Jer 20:7) Jesus Christ himself was laughed at scornfully before raising the daughter of Jairus from death. (Mt 9:24; Mr 5:40; Lu 8:41-53) Yet, all who knew the strength and wisdom of God and were obedient to him had good reason to be happy.​—Mt 5:11, 12.

Jehovah God is described as laughing in derision at the nations, at their boastful words, which come to nothing, and at the confusion their foolish course against him brings. (Ps 59:8) He knows his own power and purposes, and he laughs at the puny, futile opposition they bring against him and his people. (Ps 2:1-4) A wise person surely wants to avoid having Jehovah laugh at him. (Pr 1:26) While Jehovah has no pleasure in the death of the wicked (Eze 18:23, 32), he is unworried over their plots against his people and laughs because he sees the day of deliverance for the righteous, in which the schemes of the wicked will fail and wickedness will be ended forever.​—Ps 37:12, 13, 20.

LAUNDRYMAN

One who in Bible times washed used clothing and who also processed new cloth by bleaching and shrinking it and removing the oils in preparation for dyeing. In Hebrew the term is evidently from a root meaning “trample,” that is, to wash by stamping with the feet to loosen the dirt. (Mal 3:2; see BATHING.) The Greek word for “clothes cleaner” (gna·pheusʹ) is related to gnaʹphos (prickly teasel; carding comb) and refers to one who dresses new cloth or washes and scours soiled garments.

Clothes cleaners of ancient times were likely able to whiten their clothing considerably by cleaning and bleaching. Yet, when describing the incomparable whiteness of Jesus’ garments at the transfiguration scene, Mark says: “His outer garments became glistening, far whiter than any clothes cleaner on earth could whiten them.”​—Mr 9:3.

Alkali. In Hebrew the word for alkali is neʹther, a carbonate of soda, also called natron. It is termed “mineral alkali,” to distinguish it from “vegetable alkali.” Natron was a native grade of the chemical, commercial grades of which are known as soda ash and sal soda. Its effervescence when mixed with a weak acid is alluded to at Proverbs 25:20. Though in some translations it is called “niter,” it should not be confused with modern niter (nitre), also called saltpeter, which may be either potassium or sodium nitrate.

By itself or as a soap builder this alkali is a very effective cleaner. This fact adds force to Jehovah’s words as to the depth of Israel’s sinfulness: “Though you should do the washing with alkali and take to yourself large quantities of lye, your error would certainly be a stain before me.”​—Jer 2:22.

The ancient world obtained this alkali from several sources of supply​—from lakes or from deposits in Syria, India, Egypt, and along the southeastern shores of the Dead Sea. It is reported that, in addition to using it as a detergent, the Egyptians and others substituted it for yeast in breadmaking, employed it as a tenderizer when boiling meat, mixed it with vinegar for a toothache cure, and used it in embalming.

Lye. The Hebrew word bo·rithʹ, translated “lye” (in some translations, “soap”), refers to a vegetable alkali as distinguished from neʹther, the so-called mineral alkali. The distinction was not one of chemical composition but, rather, was based on the difference in the source of supply. At Jeremiah 2:22 both words occur in the same verse. Chemically the lye of Bible times was sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate, depending on whether the vegetation from which the ashes were obtained was grown near the sea on saline soil or grown inland. The chemicals in the ashes were separated by leaching or filtering with water. This lye is different from the modern-day chemical termed “lye,” the very caustic potassium hydroxide. The ancient laundryman’s lye was used not only for clothes cleaning (Mal 3:2) but also for the reduction of such metals as lead and silver.​—Isa 1:25.

Potash. The Hebrew word bor is translated “potash” (NW), “soap” (Yg), “lye” (AT), at Job 9:30. There it is spoken of as being used for cleansing the hands. This cleanser is thought to be either potassium carbonate or sodium carbonate. The way it was made gives it the name potash: wood ashes were first leached, then the solution was boiled down in pots.

LAUNDRYMAN’S FIELD

Apparently an area close to the city of Jerusalem where laundrymen worked.

Isaiah and his son Shear-jashub were to meet King Ahaz by the “highway of the laundryman’s field”; later, Sennacherib’s emissaries came to the same vicinity. (2Ki 18:17; Isa 7:3; 36:2) While this “highway of the laundryman’s field” was obviously outside the city, it was near enough that the taunts of Sennacherib’s messengers could be heard by those on the city walls.​—2Ki 18:18, 26, 27; Isa 36:1, 2.

A “conduit” is mentioned in connection with the “highway of the laundryman’s field.” This could not refer to what is called Hezekiah’s tunnel, as that had not yet been constructed in Ahaz’ day. The conduit therefore seems to have been one that ran through the torrent valley of Kidron down to the S end of the City of David. The laundryman’s field appears to have been located either in this part of the valley or somewhat farther S, near the suggested site of En-rogel.

LAUREL

[Heb., ʼoʹren].

An evergreen, often growing as a shrub but capable of heights up to some 15 m (50 ft). The entire tree (leaves, bark, roots, and fruit) contains an oil long employed in medicine. The leaves are oblong and leathery, with a glossy upper side.

This tree is mentioned as the last of several trees in Isaiah 44:14; it is the only reference to the tree in the Hebrew Scriptures. Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (by L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden, 1958, p. 88) identifies the name with the laurel tree (Laurus nobilis), also commonly called the sweet bay tree. (See also The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 2, p. 293.) The Laurus nobilis is found from the coast on up into the middle mountain regions of Palestine and grows in other Mediterranean countries as well.

Laurel leaves were used by the ancient Greeks to form wreaths, which they placed on the heads of victors in the Pythian Games and also extended to those holding certain offices as a symbol of distinction.

LAW

“1. The principles and regulations emanating from a government and applicable to a people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies recognized and enforced by judicial decision. 2. Any written or positive rule, or collection of rules, prescribed under the authority of the state or nation.” (The American College Dictionary, edited by C. L. Barnhart, 1966) “A divine commandment or a revelation of the will of God . . . the whole body of God’s commandments or revelations: the will of God . . . : a rule of right living or good conduct esp[ecially] when conceived as having the sanction of God’s will, of conscience or the moral nature, or of natural justice.”​—Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1981.

The word “law,” in the Hebrew Scriptures, is translated primarily from the Hebrew word toh·rahʹ, related to the verb ya·rahʹ, meaning “direct, teach, instruct.” In some cases it is translated from the Aramaic term dath. (Da 6:5, 8, 15) Other words translated in the King James Version as “law” are mish·patʹ (judicial decision, judgment), and mits·wahʹ (commandment). In the Greek Scriptures the word noʹmos, from the verb neʹmo (deal out, distribute), is translated “law.”

Jehovah God is designated as the Source of law, the Supreme Lawgiver (Isa 33:22), the Sovereign, delegating authority (Ps 73:28; Jer 50:25; Lu 2:29; Ac 4:24; Re 6:10), without whose permission or allowance no authority can be exercised. (Ro 13:1; Da 4:35; Ac 17:24-31) His throne is established on righteousness and judgment. (Ps 97:1, 2) The stated will of God becomes law to his creatures.​—See LEGAL CASE.

Law to Angels. Angels, higher than man, are subject to the law and commandments of God. (Heb 1:7, 14; Ps 104:4) Jehovah even commanded and restricted his adversary Satan. (Job 1:12; 2:6) Michael the archangel recognized and respected Jehovah’s position as Supreme Judge when he said, in dispute with the Devil: “May Jehovah rebuke you.” (Jude 9; compare Zec 3:2.) The glorified Jesus Christ has all the angels placed under his authority by Jehovah God. (Heb 1:6; 1Pe 3:22; Mt 13:41; 25:31; Php 2:9-11) Thus, by Jesus’ command, an angelic messenger was sent to John. (Re 1:1) Yet, at 1 Corinthians 6:3 the apostle Paul speaks of the spiritual brothers of Christ as designated to judge angels, evidently because they are to share in some way in executing judgment upon wicked spirits.

Law of Divine Creation. One of the definitions of law given in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary is “the observed regularity of nature.” As Creator of all things in heaven and earth (Ac 4:24; Re 4:11), Jehovah has established laws governing all created things. Job 38:10 speaks of a “regulation” on the sea; Job 38:12, of ‘commanding the morning’; and Job 38:31-33 calls attention to star constellations and to “the statutes of the heavens.” The same chapter points to God as governing the light, snow, hail, clouds, rain, dew, and lightning. Continuing to chapters 39 through 41, God’s care for the animal kingdom is shown, and the birth, life cycles, and habits of animals are attributed to regulations laid down by God, not to any evolutionary “adaptation.” In fact, in the very creating of life-forms, God incorporated the law that each was to bring forth “according to its kind,” making evolution impossible. (Ge 1:11, 12, 21, 24, 25) Man also brought forth sons “in his likeness, in his image.” (Ge 5:3) At Psalm 139:13-16 the embryonic growth of a child in the womb is spoken of, its parts being written down “in [Jehovah’s] book” before any of them actually existed. Job 26:7 describes Jehovah as “hanging the earth upon nothing.” Scientists today attribute the earth’s position in space primarily to the interaction of the law of gravity and the law of centrifugal force.

Law to Adam. In the garden of Eden, Adam and Eve were commanded by God concerning their duties (1) to fill the earth, (2) to subdue it, and (3) to have in subjection all other living creatures of earth, sea, and air. (Ge 1:28) They were given laws as to their diet, granting them the seed-bearing vegetation and fruit as food. (Ge 1:29; 2:16) However, Adam was given a command that prohibited eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and bad (Ge 2:17); this command was transmitted to Eve. (Ge 3:2, 3) Adam is referred to as a transgressor and a trespasser because he violated a stated law.​—Ro 5:14, 17; 4:15.

Laws to Noah; Patriarchal Law. Noah was given commandments relative to the building of the ark and the saving of his family. (Ge 6:22) After the Flood he was given laws that allowed the adding of flesh to man’s diet; declared the sacredness of life and therefore of blood, in which is the life; prohibited the eating of blood; condemned murder; and instituted capital punishment for this crime.​—Ge 9:3-6.

The patriarch was a family head and ruler. Jehovah is designated as the great Family Head, or Patriarch, “the Father, to whom every family in heaven and on earth owes its name.” (Eph 3:14, 15) Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are outstanding examples of patriarchs. These were especially dealt with by Jehovah. Abraham was given the command to circumcise all the males of his household as a sign of God’s covenant with him. (Ge 17:11, 12) He observed Jehovah’s “commands,” “statutes,” and “laws.” He knew Jehovah’s way to do righteousness and judgment and he laid these commands on his household.​—Ge 26:4, 5; 18:19.

The laws that governed the patriarchs were also generally understood and partially reflected in the laws of the nations at that time, all of which nations sprang from the three sons of Noah, the patriarch. For example, the Pharaoh of Egypt knew that it was wrong to take another man’s wife (Ge 12:14-20), as did the kings of the Philistines in the cases of Sarah and Rebekah.​—Ge 20:2-6; 26:7-11.

In the days of Moses, the Israelites were in slavery to Egypt. They had voluntarily gone into Egypt during Jacob’s lifetime but were enslaved after Jacob’s son, the prime minister Joseph, had died. So, in effect, they were sold into slavery for nothing. Jehovah, in harmony with the patriarchal law of redemption and of the priority of the firstborn son, told Pharaoh, by the mouth of Moses and Aaron: “Israel is my son, my firstborn. And I say to you: Send my son away that he may serve me. But should you refuse to send him away, here I am killing your son, your firstborn.” (Ex 4:22, 23) No redemption price was necessary for this release, nor was any given to Egypt. And when the Israelites left their slave masters, the Egyptians, “Jehovah gave the people favor in the eyes of the Egyptians, so that these granted them what was asked; and they stripped the Egyptians.” (Ex 3:21; 12:36) They had entered the land with the approval of the Pharaoh, not as captives of war to be enslaved, but as free people. The enslavement had been unjust, so evidently Jehovah was seeing to it that they were now given wages for their labor.

The family was held responsible for violations of law by individual members. The patriarchal head was the responsible representative; he was blamed for wrongs of his family and was required to punish individual wrongdoers in the family.​—Ge 31:30-32.

Marriage and birthright. Parents governed the arrangement of marriage for their sons and daughters. (Ge 24:1-4) The paying of a bride-price was common. (Ge 34:11, 12) Among the worshipers of Jehovah, intermarriage with idolaters was disobedience and was against the interests of the family.​—Ge 26:34, 35; 27:46; 28:1, 6-9.

The birthright was reserved for the firstborn, belonging to him by inheritance. This included receiving a double portion of the estate. However, it could be transferred by the family head, the father. (Ge 48:22; 1Ch 5:1) The oldest son normally became the patriarchal head when the father died. Sons, after marriage, could establish households separate from the father’s headship and could themselves become family heads.

Morals. Fornication was disgraceful and punishable, especially in cases of engaged persons or married persons (adultery). (Ge 38:24-26; 34:7) Brother-in-law marriage was practiced when a man died without a son. His brother then had the responsibility to take the widow as his wife, and the firstborn of their union would inherit the dead man’s estate and carry on his name.​—De 25:5, 6; Ge 38:6-26.

Property. Generally there seems to have been no holding of individual property, aside from a few personal belongings; all herds, household goods, and equipment were held in common by the family.​—Ge 31:14-16.

On the basis of related historical evidence, some scholars believe that, in transferring land, the buyer was shown the land from a vantage point, the exact boundaries being designated. When the buyer said, “I see,” he indicated legal acceptance. When Jehovah gave Abraham the promise of receiving the land of Canaan, Abraham was first told to look in all four directions. Abraham did not say, “I see,” perhaps because God said that he would give the Promised Land to Abraham’s seed, later on. (Ge 13:14, 15) Moses, as the legal representative of Israel, was told to “see” the land, which, if the view just discussed is correct, would indicate legal transfer of the land to Israel, for them to take it under Joshua’s leadership. (De 3:27, 28; 34:4; consider also Satan’s offer to Jesus at Mt 4:8.) Another action appearing to have similar legal flavor was: walking across the land or entering it for the purpose of taking possession. (Ge 13:17; 28:13) In certain ancient documents, the number of trees on a piece of land was listed at each real-estate sale.​—Compare Ge 23:17, 18.

Custody. Legal responsibility came when an individual promised to keep or ‘guard’ a person, animal, or thing. (Ge 30:31) Reuben, as the firstborn of Jacob, was responsible in the case of Joseph’s disappearance. (Ge 37:21, 22, 29, 30) The custodian was to give sufficient care to what was in his charge. He had to restore animals stolen, but not those that died of themselves or that were lost through events beyond his control, such as a raid by armed sheep rustlers. If an animal was killed by a wild beast, evidence of the torn animal had to be produced to clear the custodian of responsibility.​—Ge 37:12-30, 32, 33; Ex 22:10-13.

Slavery. Slaves might be purchased or might be such through birth to slave parents. (Ge 17:12, 27) Slaves could enjoy a very honored position in the patriarchal household, as was the case with Abraham’s servant Eliezer.​—Ge 15:2; 24:1-4.

Law of God to Israel​—The Law of Moses. Jehovah gave Israel the Law through Moses as mediator, in the Wilderness of Sinai, 1513 B.C.E. At the inauguration of the Law at Mount Horeb there was an awe-inspiring demonstration of Jehovah’s power. (Ex 19:16-19; 20:18-21; Heb 12:18-21, 25, 26) The covenant was validated by the blood of bulls and goats. The people presented communion offerings, and they heard the book of the covenant read to them, after which they agreed to be obedient to all that Jehovah had spoken. Many of the earlier patriarchal laws were incorporated in the Law given through Moses.​—Ex 24:3-8; Heb 9:15-21; see COVENANT.

The first five books of the Bible (Genesis through Deuteronomy) are often referred to as the Law. Sometimes this term is used with reference to the entire inspired Hebrew Scriptures. Generally, however, the Jews considered the entire Hebrew Scriptures to be composed of three sections, “the law of Moses,” “the Prophets,” and “Psalms.” (Lu 24:44) Commands that came through the prophets were binding upon Israel.

Jehovah was identified in the Law as absolute Sovereign and also as King in a special way. Since Jehovah was both God and King of Israel, disobedience to the Law was both a religious offense and lèse-majesté, an offense against the Head of State, which in this case was against the King Jehovah. David, Solomon, and their successors on the throne of Judah were said to sit on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1Ch 29:23) Human kings and rulers in Israel were bound by the Law, and when they became despotic they were law violators accountable to God. (1Sa 15:22, 23) Kingship and priesthood were separate, this separation constituting a balance of power and a safeguard against tyranny. It kept the Israelites ever mindful that Jehovah was their God and real King. Each individual’s relationship to God and to his fellowman was defined by the Law, and each individual could approach God through the priestly arrangement.

The Law gave the Israelites the opportunity to become “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex 19:5, 6) The Law’s demands of exclusive devotion to Jehovah, its absolute prohibition of any form of interfaith, and its regulations concerning religious cleanness and diet constituted a “wall” to keep the nation outstandingly separate from other nations. (Eph 2:14) A Jew could hardly enter a Gentile tent or house or eat with Gentiles without becoming religiously unclean. In fact, when Jesus was on earth, even entering a Gentile house or building was thought to make a Jew unclean. (Joh 18:28; Ac 10:28) The sanctity of life and the dignity and honor of the family, of marriage, of person, were protected. Additional effects, which could be considered incidental to the religious separation that the Law covenant accomplished, were the health benefits and the protection from diseases common to the nations around the Israelites. The laws of moral cleanness, physical sanitation, and diet undoubtedly had a salutary effect when they were obeyed.

But the real purpose of the Law was, as stated by the apostle Paul, “to make transgressions manifest, until the seed should arrive.” It was a “tutor leading to Christ.” It pointed to Christ as the objective aimed at (“Christ is the end of the Law”). It revealed that all humans, including the Jews, are under sin and that life cannot be obtained by “works of law.” (Ga 3:19-24; Ro 3:20; 10:4) It was “spiritual,” from God, and “holy.” (Ro 7:12, 14) At Ephesians 2:15 it is called “the Law of commandments consisting in decrees.” It was a standard of perfection, marking the one who could keep it as perfect, worthy of life. (Le 18:5; Ga 3:12) Since imperfect humans could not keep the Law, it showed that “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” (Ro 3:23) Only Jesus Christ kept it blamelessly.​—Joh 8:46; Heb 7:26.

The Law also served as “a shadow of the good things to come,” and things connected with it were “typical representations,” causing Jesus and the apostles to call upon it often to explain heavenly things and matters concerning Christian doctrine and conduct. Therefore, it provides an essential and necessary field of study for the Christian.​—Heb 10:1; 9:23.

Jesus said that the whole Law hung upon the two commandments, to love God and to love one’s neighbor. (Mt 22:35-40) It is interesting that in the book of Deuteronomy (where the Law was modified somewhat to govern Israel’s new circumstances upon settling in the Promised Land) the Hebrew words for “love,” “loved,” and so forth, appear more than 20 times.

The Ten Words (Ex 34:28), or the Ten Commandments, were the basic part of the Law but were combined with about 600 other laws, all of which were of equal force and binding power upon the Israelites. (Jas 2:10) The first four of the Ten Commandments defined man’s relationship to God; the fifth, to God and to parents; and the last five, to one’s fellowman. These last five were named in apparent order of severity of harm done to one’s fellowman: murder, adultery, stealing, bearing false witness, and covetousness or selfish desire. The tenth commandment makes the Law unique in comparison with the laws of all other nations in that it prohibits selfish desire, a command in reality enforceable only by God. It actually got at the cause of violation of all the other commandments.​—Ex 20:2-17; De 5:6-21; compare Eph 5:5; Col 3:5; Jas 1:14, 15; 1Jo 2:15-17.

The Law contained many principles and guiding statutes. The judges were given latitude to investigate and consider motives and attitude of violators, along with the circumstances surrounding the violation. A deliberate, disrespectful, or unrepentant violator received the full penalty. (Nu 15:30, 31) In other cases a lighter judgment might be determined. For example, whereas a murderer was to be put to death without fail, an accidental manslayer could receive mercy. (Nu 35:15, 16) The owner of a bull that habitually gored people and that killed a man might die; or the judges might impose a ransom. (Ex 21:29-32) The difference between a deliberate thief and a wrongdoer who voluntarily confessed evidently accounts for the difference between the penalty stated at Exodus 22:7 and that of Leviticus 6:1-7.

Law of Conscience. The Bible shows this results from persons having ‘the law written in their hearts.’ Those not under a direct law from God, such as the Law given through Moses, are shown to be “a law to themselves,” for their consciences cause them to be “accused or even excused” in their own thoughts. (Ro 2:14, 15) Many just laws in pagan societies reflect this conscience, originally placed in their forefather Adam and passed down through Noah.​—See CONSCIENCE.

At 1 Corinthians 8:7 the apostle Paul says that lack of accurate Christian knowledge could result in a weak conscience. Conscience can be a good guide or a poor one, depending upon the knowledge and training of the individual. (1Ti 1:5; Heb 5:14) One’s conscience can be defiled and, therefore, can mislead. (Tit 1:15) Some, by constantly going contrary to conscience, cause it to become like insensitive scar tissue, and consequently no safe guide to follow.​—1Ti 4:1, 2.

“Law of the Christ.” Paul wrote: “Go on carrying the burdens of one another, and thus fulfill the law of the Christ.” (Ga 6:2) While the Law covenant was terminated at Pentecost, 33 C.E. (“since the priesthood is being changed, there comes to be of necessity a change also of the law”; Heb 7:12), Christians come “under law toward Christ.” (1Co 9:21) This law is called “the perfect law that belongs to freedom,” “the law of a free people,” “the law of faith.” (Jas 1:25; 2:12; Ro 3:27) Such a new law had been foretold by God through the prophet Jeremiah when he spoke of a new covenant and the writing of his law on the hearts of his people.​—Jer 31:31-34; Heb 8:6-13.

Like Moses, the mediator of the Law covenant, Jesus Christ is Mediator of the new covenant. Moses wrote the Law in code form, but Jesus did not personally put a law down in writing. He talked and put his law into the minds and hearts of his disciples. Neither did his disciples set down laws in the form of a code for Christians, classifying the laws into categories and subheadings. Nonetheless, the Christian Greek Scriptures are full of laws, commands, and decrees that the Christian is bound to observe.​—Re 14:12; 1Jo 5:2, 3; 4:21; 3:22-24; 2Jo 4-6; Joh 13:34, 35; 14:15; 15:14.

Jesus gave instruction to his disciples to preach the ‘good news of the kingdom.’ His command is found at Matthew 10:1-42; Luke 9:1-6; 10:1-12. At Matthew 28:18-20 a new command was given to Jesus’ disciples to go, not to the Jews only, but to all nations, to make disciples and baptize them with a new baptism, “in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the holy spirit, teaching them to observe all the things I have commanded you.” Thus, with divine authorization Jesus taught and issued commands while on earth (Ac 1:1, 2) as well as after his ascension. (Ac 9:5, 6; Re 1:1-3) The entire book of Revelation consists of prophecies, commands, admonition, and instruction to the Christian congregation.

The “law of the Christ” covers the whole course and scope of the Christian’s life and work. By the help of God’s spirit the Christian can follow the commands in order to be judged favorably by that law, for it is “the law of that spirit which gives life in union with Christ Jesus.”​—Ro 8:2, 4.

“Law of God.” The apostle Paul speaks of the Christian’s fight as influenced by two factors, “the law of God,” or “the law of that spirit which gives life” on one side and “sin’s law,” or “the law of sin and of death,” on the other. Paul describes the conflict, saying that fallen flesh infected with sin is enslaved to “sin’s law.” “The minding of the flesh means death,” but “God, by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and concerning sin, condemned sin in the flesh.” With the help of God’s spirit the Christian can win the fight​—by exercising faith in Christ, putting to death the practices of the body, and living according to the spirit’s direction—​and can gain life.​—Ro 7:21–8:13.

Law of Sin and Death. The apostle Paul argues that, because of the sin of mankind’s father Adam, “death ruled as king” from Adam to the time of Moses (when the Law was given) and that the Law made transgressions manifest, making men chargeable with sin. (Ro 5:12-14; Ga 3:19) This rule, or law of sin, working in imperfect flesh exercises power over it, making it incline toward violation of God’s law. (Ro 7:23; Ge 8:21) Sin causes death. (Ro 6:23; 1Co 15:56) The law of Moses could not overcome the rule of kings sin and death, but freedom and victory come by means of the undeserved kindness of God through Jesus Christ.​—Ro 5:20, 21; 6:14; 7:8, 9, 24, 25.

“Law of Faith.” The “law of faith” is contrasted with “that of works.” Man cannot attain to righteousness by his own works or those of the Law of Moses, as though earning righteousness as pay for works, but righteousness comes by faith in Jesus Christ. (Ro 3:27, 28; 4:4, 5; 9:30-32) James says, however, that such faith will be accompanied by works that result from one’s faith and are in harmony with it.​—Jas 2:17-26.

Law of Husband. A married woman is under obligation to “the law of her husband.” (Ro 7:2; 1Co 7:39) The principle of husbandly headship holds true throughout the entire organization of God and has been in operation among those worshiping God as well as among many other peoples. God occupies the position of a husband to his “woman,” “the Jerusalem above.” (Ga 4:26, 31; Re 12:1, 4-6, 13-17) The Jewish national organization was in the relationship of a wife to Jehovah as husband.​—Isa 54:5, 6; Jer 31:32.

In patriarchal law the husband was the undisputed head of the family, the wife being in submission, though she could make recommendations subject to the husband’s approval. (Ge 21:8-14) Sarah called Abraham “lord.” (Ge 18:12; 1Pe 3:5, 6) A head covering was worn by the woman as a sign of her subjection to her husbandly head.​—Ge 24:65; 1Co 11:5.

Under the Law given to Israel the wife was in subjection. Her husband could allow or annul vows she made. (Nu 30:6-16) She did not inherit, but went along with the land inheritance, and in the event that the inheritance was repurchased by a kinsman, she was included. (Ru 4:5, 9-11) She could not divorce her husband, but the husband had the right to divorce his wife.​—De 24:1-4.

In the Christian arrangement, the woman is required to recognize the man’s position and not usurp it. The apostle Paul speaks of the married woman as being under the law of her husband as long as he is alive, but he points out that she is freed by his death, so that she is not an adulteress if she then remarries.​—Ro 7:2, 3; 1Co 7:39.

“Kingly Law.” The “kingly law” rightly has the prominence and importance among other laws governing human relationships that a king would have among men. (Jas 2:8) The tenor of the Law covenant was love; and “you must love your neighbor as yourself” (the kingly law) was the second of the commandments on which all the Law and the Prophets hung. (Mt 22:37-40) Christians, though not under the Law covenant, are subject to the law of the King Jehovah and his Son, the King Jesus Christ, in connection with the new covenant.

[Box on pages 214-220]

SOME FEATURES OF THE LAW COVENANT

THEOCRATIC GOVERNMENT

Jehovah God is the Supreme Sovereign (Ex 19:5; 1Sa 12:12; Isa 33:22)

King to sit on “Jehovah’s throne,” representing Him (1Ch 29:23; De 17:14, 15)

Other officers (chieftains of tribes; chiefs of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties, and of tens) were selected on the basis of their fear of God, as well as their trustworthiness and incorruptibility (Ex 18:21, 25; Nu 1:44)

Respect was due to all who exercised God-given authority: officers, priests, judges, parents (Ex 20:12; 22:28; De 17:8-13)

RELIGIOUS OBLIGATIONS

(These were summed up in the greatest commandment in the Law​—to love Jehovah with one’s whole heart, mind, soul, and strength; De 6:5; 10:12; Mr 12:30)

Worship was to go only to Jehovah (Ex 20:3; 22:20; De 5:7)

Love should be a powerful motivating factor in one’s relationship with God (De 6:5, 6; 10:12; 30:16)

All were to fear God so as not to disobey him (Ex 20:20; De 5:29)

God’s name was not to be taken up in a worthless way (Ex 20:7; De 5:11)

They could approach him only in the way he approved (Nu 3:10; Le 10:1-3; 16:1)

All were obligated to keep the Sabbath (Ex 20:8-11; 31:12-17)

Congregating for worship (De 31:10-13)

All males were required to assemble three times a year: Passover and Festival of Unfermented Cakes, Festival of Weeks, and Festival of Booths (De 16:16; Le 23:1-43)

Man who deliberately neglected to keep Passover was “cut off” (Nu 9:13)

Supporting priesthood

Levites received a tithe, or tenth, of all the produce of the land from the other tribes (Nu 18:21-24)

Levites had to give to the priesthood a tithe made up of the very best of what they received (Nu 18:25-29)

Offering of sacrifices (Heb 8:3-5; 10:5-10)

Various offerings outlined in the Law: regular burnt offerings (Le chap 1; Nu chap 28), communion offerings (Le chap 3; 19:5), sin offerings (Le chap 4; Nu 15:22-29), guilt offerings (Le 5:1–6:7), grain offerings (Le chap 2), drink offerings (Nu 15:5, 10), wave offerings (Le 23:10, 11, 15-17)

Practices of false religion forbidden

Idolatry (Ex 20:4-6; De 5:8-10)

Making cuts in one’s flesh for the dead or tattooing one’s body (Le 19:28)

Planting a tree as a sacred pole (De 16:21)

Bringing things detestable, devoted to destruction, into one’s house (De 7:26)

Speaking of revolt against Jehovah (De 13:5)

Advocating false worship (De 13:6-10; 17:2-7)

Going over to false worship (De 13:12-16)

Devoting offspring to false gods (Le 18:21, 29)

Spiritism, sorcery (Ex 22:18; Le 20:27; De 18:9-14)

DUTIES OF PRIESTHOOD

(In fulfilling their duties, the priests were assisted by the Levites; Nu 3:5-10)

Teach the Law of God (De 33:8, 10; Mal 2:7)

Serve as judges, applying divine law (De 17:8, 9; 19:16, 17)

Offer sacrifices on behalf of the people (Le chaps 1-7)

Use Urim and Thummim to inquire of God (Ex 28:30; Nu 27:18-21)

MEMBERSHIP IN THE CONGREGATION OF ISRAEL

Membership in congregation of Israel not limited to those born into the nation

Persons of other nations could become circumcised worshipers

Such alien residents were bound to keep all the terms of the Law covenant (Le 24:22)

Restrictions limiting membership in congregation of Israel

No man castrated by crushing testicles or having male member cut off (De 23:1)

No illegitimate son or his descendants to “tenth generation” (De 23:2)

No Ammonite or Moabite (evidently males) to time indefinite, because they would not extend hospitality but opposed Israel at the time of the Exodus from Egypt (De 23:3-6)

Sons born to Egyptians “as the third generation” could be admitted (De 23:7, 8)

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

(Laws governing legal cases highlighted Jehovah’s justice and mercy. Judges were given latitude to show mercy, depending on the circumstances. These laws also kept the nation uncontaminated and protected the welfare of each individual Israelite)

Judges

Priests, kings, and other men appointed as judges (Ex 18:25, 26; De 16:18; 17:8, 9; 1Ki 3:6, 9-12; 2Ch 19:5)

Standing before judges was regarded as standing before Jehovah (De 1:17; 19:16, 17)

Hearing cases

Ordinary cases were submitted to judges (Ex 18:21, 22; De 25:1, 2; 2Ch 19:8-10)

If lower court could not make decision, case would go to higher courts (Ex 18:25, 26; 1Ki 3:16, 28)

Exceptional or hard cases that were taken to priests:

Cases of jealousy or unchastity of wife (Nu 5:12-15)

When witness charged another with revolt (De 19:16, 17)

When a violent deed or one causing bloodshed was committed, or when decision was hard or it was disputed (De 17:8, 9; 21:5)

When man was found slain in field and murderer could not be identified (De 21:1-9)

Witnesses

At least two witnesses required to establish truth (De 17:6; 19:15; compare Joh 8:17; 1Ti 5:19)

Hands of witnesses were to be the first to come upon guilty person in putting him to death. This was deterrent to false, hasty, or careless testimony (De 17:7)

Testifying falsely

Perjury was strictly forbidden (Ex 20:16; 23:1; De 5:20)

If false accusation against another person, false witness would receive punishment schemed for accused (De 19:16-19)

Bribery, partiality in judgment

Bribery prohibited (Ex 23:8; De 27:25)

Perverting justice forbidden (Ex 23:1, 2, 6, 7; Le 19:15, 35; De 16:19)

Holding a person in custody was done only when case was difficult and had to be decided by Jehovah (Le 24:11-16, 23; Nu 15:32-36)

Punishments

Strokes​—limited to 40, to avoid disgraceful beating (De 25:1-3; compare 2Co 11:24)

Death by stoning​—then body might be put on a stake as one accursed (De 13:10; 21:22, 23)

Retaliation​—retribution, a like punishment (Le 24:19, 20)

Damages: If a person’s animal damaged the property of another person (Ex 22:5; 21:35, 36); if a person kindled fire that damaged another’s property (Ex 22:6); if a person killed another’s domestic animal (Le 24:18, 21; Ex 21:33, 34); if a person unintentionally appropriated to his own use something “holy,” such as tithes or sacrifices (Le 5:15, 16); if a person deceived an associate about something in his charge or a deposit in hand or a robbery or something found, swearing falsely concerning these things (Le 6:2-7; Nu 5:6-8)

Cities of refuge

Accidental manslayer could flee to nearest one (Nu 35:12-15; De 19:4, 5; Jos 20:2-4)

Then trial was held in jurisdiction where incident occurred

One found to be an unintentional manslayer had to live in city of refuge until the death of the high priest (Nu 35:22-25; Jos 20:5, 6)

A deliberate murderer was put to death (Nu 35:30, 31)

MARRIAGE, FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS, SEXUAL MORALITY

(The Law safeguarded Israel by preserving the sacred status of marriage and family life)

Marriage, first performed by Jehovah (Ge 2:18, 21-24)

Husband was owner of his wife but was answerable to God for how he dealt with her (De 22:22; Mal 2:13-16)

Polygamy was permitted but was regulated so as to safeguard wife and her offspring (De 21:15-17; Ex 21:10)

Marriage was compulsory after seduction (unless father of girl forbade it) (Ex 22:16, 17; De 22:28, 29)

Levirate marriage was the arrangement in which a man married his brother’s widow if his deceased brother died sonless; the man failing to do so was reproached (De 25:5-10)

Marriage alliances with aliens were forbidden (Ex 34:12-16; De 7:1-4), but marriage with captive women was permitted (De 21:10-14)

Women who were heirs of land were to marry only within tribe (Nu 36:6-9)

Divorce

Only husband was allowed to divorce (for something indecent on wife’s part); he was required to give wife written certificate of divorce (De 24:1-4)

No divorce allowed if husband had married wife after seducing her (De 22:28, 29)

Man could not remarry woman he divorced after she had married again and her second husband divorced her or died (De 24:1-4)

Adultery carried death penalty for both guilty parties (Ex 20:14; De 22:22)

Incest

An Israelite man could not marry any of the following: His mother, stepmother, or a secondary wife of his father (Le 18:7, 8; 20:11; De 22:30; 27:20); his sister or half sister (Le 18:9, 11; 20:17; De 27:22); his granddaughter (Le 18:10); his aunt (either his mother’s sister or his father’s sister) (Le 18:12, 13; 20:19); his aunt by marriage (either his father’s brother’s wife or his mother’s brother’s wife) (Le 18:14; 20:20); his daughter-in-law (Le 18:15; 20:12); his daughter, stepdaughter, stepdaughter’s daughter, stepson’s daughter, mother-in-law (Le 18:17; 20:14; De 27:23); brother’s wife (Le 18:16; 20:21), except in levirate marriage (De 25:5, 6); his wife’s sister during his wife’s lifetime (Le 18:18)

An Israelite woman could not marry any of the following: Her son or her stepson (Le 18:7, 8; 20:11; De 22:30; 27:20); her brother or half brother (Le 18:9, 11; 20:17; De 27:22); her grandfather (Le 18:10); her nephew (either her brother’s son or her sister’s son) (Le 18:12, 13; 20:19); her nephew (either her husband’s brother’s son or her husband’s sister’s son) (Le 18:14; 20:20); her father-in-law (Le 18:15; 20:12); her father, stepfather, mother’s stepfather, father’s stepfather, son-in-law (Le 18:7, 17; 20:14; De 27:23); her husband’s brother (Le 18:16; 20:21), except in levirate marriage (De 25:5, 6); her sister’s husband during her sister’s lifetime (Le 18:18)

Penalty for incest: death (Le 18:29; 20:11, 12, 14, 17, 20, 21)

Intercourse during menstruation

If a man and a woman deliberately cohabited during menstruation, they were cut off in death (Le 18:19; 20:18)

Husband who unwittingly had intercourse with wife during such uncleanness (perhaps at unexpected beginning of menstruation) was unclean seven days (Le 15:19-24)

Parent-child relationships

Parents (especially fathers) were commanded to teach children God’s Law (De 6:6-9, 20-25; 11:18-21; Isa 38:19)

Children to honor parents (Ex 20:12; 21:15, 17; Le 19:3; De 5:16; 21:18-21; 27:16)

Wearing dress of opposite sex (to deceive for immoral purposes) was prohibited (De 22:5)

Sodomy carried death penalty for both persons involved (Le 18:22; 20:13)

Bestiality resulted in death for person and beast (Ex 22:19; Le 18:23, 29; 20:15, 16; De 27:21)

Indecent assault (woman in husband’s fight grabbed hold of other man’s privates) punished by amputation of her hand, instead of penalty of like for like, out of Jehovah’s regard for her reproductive powers and her husband’s right to have children by her (De 25:11, 12)

BUSINESS PRACTICES

(The Law encouraged both honesty in business dealings and respect for the home and property of others)

Ownership of land

Land was allotted to families (Nu 33:54; 36:2)

Land not sold permanently but reverted to owner at Jubilee; its sale value was based on the number of crops until Jubilee (Le 25:15, 16, 23-28)

If there was a sale, nearest kinsman had right to buy (Jer 32:7-12)

The state did not have right to seize one’s land inheritance for public purposes simply by paying compensation (1Ki 21:2-4)

Share of Levites consisted of cities and their pasture grounds

Of the 48 cities allotted, 13 were priestly cities (Nu 35:2-5; Jos 21:3-42)

Field of pasture ground of a Levite city could not be sold; it belonged to city, not to individuals (Le 25:34)

If man sanctified (set aside the use or production of) part of a field to Jehovah (sanctuary use, priesthood), the standard for estimating its value was that the area of ground seeded by a homer of barley would be worth 50 shekels of silver; the value diminished proportionately according to number of years left until next Jubilee (Le 27:16-18)

If sanctifier wanted to buy it back, he had to add 20 percent to the estimated value (Le 27:19)

If he did not buy it back but sold it to another man, at the Jubilee it became the possession of the priest as holy to Jehovah (Le 27:20, 21)

If a man sanctified to Jehovah part of field he had purchased from another, at Jubilee it returned to original holder (Le 27:22-24)

If a man “devoted” anything of his own property (“devoted” things were permanently and solely for sanctuary use or for destruction; Jos 6:17; 7:1, 15; Eze 44:29), it could not be sold or bought back; it remained Jehovah’s (Le 27:21, 28, 29)

Redemption of property

All land returned to original possessor at time of Jubilee (with previously noted exceptions) (Le 25:8-10, 15, 16, 24-28)

Levites could redeem their houses in Levite cities at any time (Le 25:32, 33)

Jubilee year: began on Day of Atonement, in 50th year; counting started from year Israelites entered land (Le 25:2, 8-19)

Inheritance

Firstborn son inherited double share of property (De 21:15-17)

When there was no son, inheritance went to daughters. (Nu 27:6-8) If man had neither sons nor daughters, it went to his brothers, to his father’s brothers, or to his nearest blood relative (Nu 27:9-11)

Scales, weights, and measures

Jehovah demanded honesty and accuracy (Le 19:35, 36; De 25:13-15)

Cheating was detestable to him (Pr 11:1)

Debts

At end of every seven years, Hebrew brothers were released from debts (De 15:1, 2)

Could press foreigner for payment of debt (De 15:3)

Security for a loan

If a person took a person’s outer garment as security for a loan, he must not keep it overnight (The poor often slept in the garment for lack of other bedclothes) (Ex 22:26, 27; De 24:12, 13)

A person could not enter another man’s house to get a pledge or something as a security for a loan. He had to remain outside the house and let the person bring it out to him (This maintained the inviolability of the man’s domain) (De 24:10, 11)

One could not take a hand mill or its upper grindstone for security (The person then could not grind grain to feed himself and his family) (De 24:6)

MILITARY LAWS

(These laws regulated Israel’s God-ordained warfare in the Promised Land. Wars of selfish aggression or conquest beyond God-given limits were strictly forbidden)

Wars

To be only wars of Jehovah (Nu 21:14; 2Ch 20:15)

Soldiers were sanctified before going into battle (1Sa 21:1-6; compare Le 15:16, 18)

Age of soldiers

Twenty years old and upward (Nu 1:2, 3; 26:1-4)

According to Jewish Antiquities, III, 288 (xii, 4), by Josephus, they served until 50 years of age

Exemptions from military service:

Levites, as ministers of Jehovah (Nu 1:47-49; 2:33)

Man who had not inaugurated newly built house or had not used newly planted vineyard (De 20:5, 6; compare Ec 2:24; 3:12, 13)

Man who had become engaged and had not yet taken his wife. The newly married man continued exempt for one year (Man had the right to have heir and to see this heir) (De 20:7; 24:5)

Man who was fearful (He would tend to break down morale of fellow soldiers) (De 20:8; Jg 7:3)

Cleanliness was required in camp (since soldiers were sanctified for warfare) (De 23:9-14)

No women were allowed as camp followers for sex relations; relations with women were abstained from during campaign. This ensured religious and physical cleanliness (Le 15:16; 1Sa 21:5; 2Sa 11:6-11)

No raping of women among enemy was allowed, for this would be fornication; and no marriage with such women was permitted until campaign was over. This provided for religious cleanliness and it also was an inducement for enemy surrender, for they would be assured that their women would not be molested (De 21:10-13)

Military procedures against enemy cities

If city that was attacked belonged to one of seven nations of land of Canaan (mentioned at De 7:1), all inhabitants were to be devoted to destruction. (De 20:15-17; Jos 11:11-14; De 2:32-34; 3:1-7) If left in the land, these would be a danger to continued relationship of Israel with Jehovah God. He had let them live in land until their iniquity came to completion (Ge 15:13-21)

For cities not belonging to the seven nations, terms of peace would first be proclaimed. (De 20:10, 15) If city surrendered, inhabitants were put to forced labor. If they did not surrender, all males and all women not virgins were killed. Others were spared as captives. (De 20:11-14; compare Nu 31:7, 17, 18.) Killing all men removed danger of later revolt by city and also marriage of these men to Israelite women. These measures also helped to avoid phallic worship and diseases among Israelites

Trees producing food could not be cut down and used for siegeworks (De 20:19, 20)

Chariots were burned; horses were hamstrung to incapacitate them for battle, and later they were killed (Jos 11:6)

DIETARY AND SANITARY LAWS

(These served to keep the Israelites separate from pagan nations, to promote cleanliness and health, and to remind them of their holiness to God; Le 19:2)

Use of blood

Eating of blood was strictly forbidden. (Ge 9:4; Le 7:26; 17:12; De 12:23-25) Penalty for violation: death (Le 7:27; 17:10)

Life (soul) is in the blood (Le 17:11, 14)

Blood of slaughtered animal had to be poured out on ground like water and covered with dust (Le 17:13; De 12:16)

No animal dying of itself or found dead could be eaten (because it was unclean and had not been properly bled) (De 14:21)

Only legal uses: put upon altar for atonement; used for prescribed cleansing purposes (Le 17:11, 12; De 12:27; Nu 19:1-9)

Use of fat

No fat could be eaten; fat belonged to Jehovah (Le 3:16, 17; 7:23, 24)

Eating fat of offering brought death penalty (Le 7:25)

Slaughtered animals

In wilderness, any domestic animals that were to be slaughtered were to be brought to tabernacle. They would be eaten as communion sacrifices (Le 17:3-6)

Penalty for violation: death (Le 17:4, 8, 9)

Wild clean animals caught in hunting could be killed on the spot; blood had to be poured out (Le 17:13, 14)

After entering Promised Land, clean animals could be slaughtered for food in the place of a person’s residence if he was far from the sanctuary, but blood had to be poured on ground (De 12:20-25)

Animals, fish, insects permitted for food:

Every creature that splits hoof, forming a cleft therein, and chews cud (Le 11:2, 3; De 14:6)

Everything in the waters that has fins and scales (Le 11:9-12; De 14:9, 10)

Insects and winged swarming creatures that go upon all fours and have leaper legs: migratory locust, edible locust, cricket, and grasshopper (all according to their kinds) (Le 11:21, 22)

Animals, fish, birds, swarming creatures prohibited for food:

Animals: camel, rock badger, hare, pig (Le 11:4-8; De 14:7, 8)

Fish and other swarming creatures in the water that have no fins or scales (Le 11:10)

Birds and flying creatures: eagle, osprey, black vulture, red kite, black kite, glede, raven, ostrich, owl, gull, falcon, little owl, long-eared owl, swan, pelican, vulture, cormorant, stork, heron, hoopoe, bat, any winged swarming creature that goes on all fours (that is, having locomotion in the manner of animals that walk on four legs). The factors determining which flying creatures were designated ceremonially “unclean” are not expressly stated in the Bible. While most of the “unclean” birds were birds of prey or scavengers, not all of them were (De 14:12-19; Le 11:13-20; see BIRDS and articles on individual birds)

Swarming creatures on the earth: mole rat, jerboa, lizard, gecko fanfoot, large lizard, newt, sand lizard, chameleon, any creature that goes upon the belly, on all fours (style of locomotion), or on any great number of feet (Le 11:29, 30, 42)

Animal that died of itself or was already dead or torn by wild beast (Le 17:15, 16; De 14:21; Ex 22:31)

Animals presented as vow or voluntary offerings, communion sacrifice could be eaten on day offered and on second but not on third day; penalty for violation, death. Thanksgiving sacrifice to be eaten on that day; none to be saved over until morning (second day). Passover must not be left over; what was not eaten was to be burned (Le 7:16-18; 19:5-8; 22:29, 30; Ex 12:10)

Things causing uncleanness:

Emission of semen

Person had to bathe and was unclean until evening (Le 15:16; De 23:10, 11)

Garment touched by semen was washed and was unclean until evening (Le 15:17)

Husband and wife, after having intercourse, had to bathe and were unclean until evening (Le 15:18)

Childbirth

Woman was unclean 7 days after bearing a male, plus 33 days (first 7 days, unclean to all, as in menstruation; 33 days unclean only in relation to touching holy things such as sacrificial meals or coming into the holy place) (Le 12:2-4)

If child was female, woman unclean 14 days, plus 66 (Le 12:5)

Woman’s menstruation (Le 12:2)

Woman unclean seven days in regular menstruation; during entire period of abnormal or extended discharge of blood, plus seven days (Le 15:19, 25, 28)

During her uncleanness anything on which she sat or lay down was unclean (Le 15:20)

Person who touched her or her bed or what she sat on had to wash garments and bathe and was unclean until evening (Le 15:21-23)

If her menstrual impurity came to be upon a man, he was unclean seven days, and any bed upon which he would lie was unclean (Le 15:24)

Anytime she had running discharge she was unclean (Le 15:25)

Safeguards against disease

Leprosy and other plagues

Priest determined whether it was leprosy or not (Le 13:2)

Person was quarantined seven days and then examined; if plague had stopped, quarantined seven more days (Le 13:4, 5, 21, 26); if plague did not spread then, he was pronounced clean (Le 13:6); if plague spread, it was leprosy (Le 13:7, 8)

If leprous, person had to have garments torn, let his head become ungroomed, cover over mustache (or upper lip), call out “Unclean, unclean!” Dwelt isolated outside camp until plague cured (Le 13:45, 46; Nu 5:2-4)

Genital discharge (evidently due to diseased condition) (Le 15:2, 3)

Bed or articles that such a person would sit or lie on were unclean (Le 15:4)

Anyone who touched the affected person, his bed, or whatever he was sitting on was unclean, or if affected person spat on another, he was rendered unclean (Le 15:5-11)

If touched by one having running discharge, earthenware vessels were smashed, wooden one was rinsed with water (Le 15:12)

After discharge stopped, person was unclean seven days (Le 15:13)

Cleanness of military camp was safeguarded by requiring that excrement be deposited outside the camp and be covered over (De 23:12, 13)

Regulations concerning bodies of dead persons

Touching corpse, bone, or burial place of human made one unclean seven days (even when on open field). (Nu 19:11, 16) Death for refusing to purify self (Nu 19:12, 13) (See cleansing procedure at Nu 19:17-19)

All who were in or came into tent containing dead person were unclean as was any opened vessel there on which no lid was tied down (Nu 19:14, 15)

Regulations concerning bodies of dead animals

The body of a clean animal that died of itself made the one who carried it, touched it, or ate it unclean; the dead body of any unclean animal made the one who touched it unclean. Cleansing was required (Le 11:8, 11, 24-31, 36, 39, 40; 17:15, 16)

Bodies of unclean animals would make items such as vessels, jar stands, ovens, garments, skins, and sackcloth unclean by contact (Le 11:32-35)

Spoil taken from city

Everything that could be processed with fire had to be so processed (metals), then purified by water for cleansing; other things had to be washed (Nu 31:20, 22, 23)

OTHER OBLIGATIONS INVOLVING FELLOW CREATURES

(The Law specified that “you must love your fellow as yourself”; Le 19:18. Jesus indicated that this was the second greatest commandment in the Law; Mt 22:37-40)

Toward fellow Israelites

Love was to be shown; murder was forbidden (Ex 20:13; Ro 13:9, 10)

Must not take vengeance or hold a grudge against one’s fellowman (Le 19:18)

Care for the poor (Ex 23:6; Le 25:35, 39-43)

Care for widows and orphans (Ex 22:22-24; De 24:17-21; 27:19)

Respect for property

Stealing was forbidden; compensation was required (Ex 20:15; 22:1-4, 7)

Wrongful desire for property and possessions belonging to one’s fellowman was forbidden (Ex 20:17)

Consideration for the handicapped

Could not ridicule or call down evil upon deaf person; he could not defend himself against statements he could not hear (Le 19:14)

One who put an obstacle in the way of blind person or misled him was cursed (Le 19:14; De 27:18)

Toward alien residents: they were not to be mistreated (Ex 22:21; 23:9; Le 19:33, 34; De 10:17-19; 24:14, 15, 17; 27:19)

Toward slaves

Hebrew slave was released in seventh year of his (or her) servitude or at Jubilee year, whichever came first. During slavery, to be treated as hired laborer, with consideration (Ex 21:2; De 15:12; Le 25:10)

If man came in with wife, she went out or was freed with him (Ex 21:3)

If master gave him a wife (evidently a foreigner) while he was in slavery, only he went free; if this wife had borne him children, she and children remained property of master (Ex 21:4)

On freeing Hebrew slave, master had to give him gift according to his ability to give (De 15:13-15)

Slave could be flogged by master. (Ex 21:20, 21) If maimed, was given freedom. (Ex 21:26, 27) If slave died under his master’s beating, master could be punished by death; judges would decide the penalty (Ex 21:20; Le 24:17)

Toward animals

If one came upon a domestic animal in distress, he was obligated to help it, even if it belonged to an enemy of his (Ex 23:4, 5; De 22:4)

Beasts of burden were not to be overworked or mistreated (De 22:10; compare Pr 12:10)

Bull not to be muzzled when threshing, so that it could feed on the grain it was threshing (De 25:4; compare 1Co 9:7-10)

A person was not to take both a mother bird and her eggs, thereby wiping out family (De 22:6, 7)

A person was not to slaughter a bull or a sheep and its young on the same day (Le 22:28)

PURPOSES SERVED BY THE LAW

It made transgressions manifest; it showed that the Israelites needed to be forgiven of their transgressions and that a greater sacrifice was required that could really atone for their sins (Ga 3:19)

As a tutor, it safeguarded and disciplined the Israelites, preparing them for the Messiah as their instructor (Ga 3:24)

Various aspects of the Law were shadows that represented greater things to come; these shadows helped righthearted Israelites to identify the Messiah, since they could see how he fulfilled these prophetic patterns (Heb 10:1; Col 2:17)

LAWGIVER

A maker of laws; a legislator. The Bible centers attention on Jehovah as the fundamental Lawgiver of the universe.

Jehovah as the Lawgiver. Jehovah is actually the one true Lawgiver in the universe. Attributable to him are the physical laws governing inanimate creation (Job 38:4-38; Ps 104:5-19), and animal life. (Job 39:1-30) Man also, as a creation of Jehovah, is subject to Jehovah’s physical laws, and since he is a moral, rational creature, capable of reasoning and of spirituality, he is equally subject to God’s moral laws. (Ro 12:1; 1Co 2:14-16) Furthermore, Jehovah’s law governs spirit creatures, angels.​—Ps 103:20; 2Pe 2:4, 11.

Jehovah’s physical laws are unbreakable. (Jer 33:20, 21) Throughout the known visible universe his laws are so stable and reliable that, in areas where scientists have knowledge of these laws, they can calculate the movements of the moon, planets, and other celestial bodies with split-second accuracy. One who goes contrary to the physical laws experiences immediate application of their sanctions. Likewise, the moral laws of God are irrevocable and cannot be circumvented or violated with impunity. They are as sure of enforcement as are His natural laws, though the punishment may not be as immediately enforced. “God is not one to be mocked. For whatever a man is sowing, this he will also reap.”​—Ga 6:7; 1Ti 5:24.

Before Jehovah gave his law to Israel, how could humans determine God’s will for them?

Whereas from Adam’s rebellion to the Flood badness increased among the majority of his descendants, some faithful men “kept walking with the true God.” (Ge 5:22-24; 6:9; Heb 11:4-7) The only specific commands recorded as given to such men by God are the instructions to Noah in connection with the ark. These Noah obeyed implicitly. (Ge 6:13-22) Nevertheless, there were principles and precedents to guide faithful humans in their “walking with the true God.”

They knew of God’s bounteous generosity in providing for man in Eden; they saw the evidence of divine unselfishness and loving interest. They knew that the principle of headship was in effect from the start, God’s headship over man and the man’s headship over woman. They knew of God’s assignment of work to man as well as His concern for proper care of the things given to man for his use and enjoyment. They knew that sexual unions were to be between man and woman and that those so uniting were to do so within a marital relationship, that they would ‘leave father and mother’ to form a lasting union instead of a temporary one (as in fornication). From God’s command regarding the use of the trees of the garden of Eden and the tree of the knowledge of good and bad in particular, they could appreciate the principle of ownership rights and due respect for such. They were aware of the bad results coming from the first lie. They knew of God’s approval of Abel’s course of worship, God’s disapproval of Cain’s envy and hatred of his brother, and God’s punishment of Cain’s murder of Abel.​—Ge 1:26–4:16.

Thus, even without further specific statements, decrees, or statutes from God, they could draw on these principles and precedents to guide them in different, but related, situations that might develop. Centuries later, Jesus and his apostles viewed pre-Flood matters in this way. (Mt 19:3-9; Joh 8:43-47; 1Ti 2:11-14; 1Jo 3:11, 12) Law means a rule of action. By God’s words and acts they had the means for knowing something of his way, his standards, and this should be the rule of action, or law, for them to follow. By doing so, they could ‘keep on walking with the true God.’ Those failing to do so were sinning, ‘missing the mark,’ even though there was no law code to condemn them.

Following the Flood, God stated to Noah the law, binding on all mankind, that allowed the eating of flesh but prohibited eating of blood, and He stated the principle of capital punishment for murder. (Ge 9:1-6) In the early post-Flood period, men such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph showed genuine concern for God’s way, his rule of action. (Ge 18:17-19; 39:7-9; Ex 3:6) Though God gave certain specific commands to faithful men (Ge 26:5), such as the law of circumcision, there is no record of his giving them a detailed law code to observe. (Compare De 5:1-3.) Nonetheless, they had not only the principles and precepts of the pre-Flood period to guide them but also additional principles and precepts to be drawn from his expressions and dealings with mankind in the post-Flood period.

Thus, although God had not given a detailed law code, as he later did with the Israelites, men were not without some means for determining right and wrong conduct. Idolatry, for example, had not yet been specifically condemned by a stated law. Nonetheless, as the apostle Paul shows, such practice was inexcusable inasmuch as God’s “invisible qualities are clearly seen from the world’s creation onward, because they are perceived by the things made, even his eternal power and Godship.” The venerating and rendering of “sacred service to the creation rather than the One who created” was against all reason. Those following such an empty-headed course would thereafter deviate into other unrighteous practices, such as homosexuality, changing “the natural use of themselves into one contrary to nature.” Again, even though no specific law had been given, such practice was obviously contrary to the way of God the Creator, as the very structure of the male and female manifested. Man, having been originally made in God’s image, had intelligence sufficient to see these things. Hence, he was responsible before God if he went contrary to God’s way; he was sinning, ‘missing the mark,’ even without a specifically stated law to charge him with guilt.​—Ro 1:18-27; compare Ro 5:13.

The Law covenant. Even prior to the Exodus from Egypt, Jehovah had served as the Statute-Giver to his people Israel. (Ex 12:1, 14-20; 13:10) But an outstanding example of his role as Lawgiver to a nation was his institution of the Law covenant. Here, for the first time, was a body of laws in code form governing every facet of life. This covenant making Israel an exclusive people, a nation belonging peculiarly to Him, distinguished Israel from all other nations.​—Ex 31:16, 17; De 4:8; Ps 78:5; 147:19, 20.

In a prophetic message forecasting salvation by Jehovah, the prophet Isaiah stated: “Jehovah is our Judge, Jehovah is our Statute-giver [“lawgiver,” AS, Dy, Le, Yg], Jehovah is our King; he himself will save us.” (Isa 33:22) Jehovah therefore constituted the judicial, legislative, and executive power in Israel; the three branches of government were combined in him. Isaiah’s prophecy thus gave assurance of complete defense and direction for the nation, for it highlighted the fact that Jehovah was in a full sense the Sovereign Ruler.

In describing Jehovah as Israel’s Statute-Giver, or Lawgiver, Isaiah used a form of the Hebrew term cha·qaqʹ, which literally means “hew out” or “inscribe.” In discussing this word, the Hebrew lexicon by W. Gesenius explains: “Since the inscribing of decrees and statutes on public tablets and monuments was the part of the lawgiver, this implied also the power of decreeing.” (A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, translated by E. Robinson, 1836, p. 366) Bible translators have rendered the word “lawgiver,” “ruler,” and “commander.” (Ge 49:10; De 33:21; Jg 5:14; Ps 60:7; 108:8; compare AT, KJ, NW, RS, Yg.) Hence, the rendering “Statute-giver” is in accord with one sense of the Hebrew word, and it provides a suitable contrast and completeness at Isaiah 33:22, where the word is included in the same sentence with “Judge” and “King.”

God had not given such a detailed law to any other nation or people. Nevertheless, God had originally created man in righteousness and had endowed him with the faculty of conscience. Despite fallen man’s inherent imperfection and tendency toward sin, there also remained evidence of his having been made in his Creator’s image and likeness as well as evidence of the faculty of conscience. Thus, even among the non-Israelite nations certain rules of action and judicial decrees were developed that reflected to some degree the righteous principles of God.

The apostle Paul describes this in saying: “For instance, all those who sinned without law [that is, God’s law given to his people] will also perish without law; but all those who sinned under law will be judged by law. For the hearers of law are not the ones righteous before God, but the doers of law will be declared righteous. For whenever people of the nations that do not have law do by nature the things of the law, these people, although not having law, are a law to themselves. They are the very ones who demonstrate the matter of the law to be written in their hearts, while their conscience is bearing witness with them and, between their own thoughts, they are being accused or even excused.” (Ro 2:12-15) Thus, those nations, though not brought into legal relationship with God, were not sinless but ‘missed the mark’ of Jehovah’s perfect standards.​—Compare Ro 3:9.

By giving the Law covenant to Israel, God made clear that all persons, not merely the idolatrous pagans but also the Israelites, were guilty of sin. It served to make the Israelites acutely aware of the many ways in which they failed to measure up to perfect standards. This was “so that every mouth may be stopped and all the world may become liable to God for punishment . . . for by law is the accurate knowledge of sin.” (Ro 3:19, 20) Even though an Israelite may have been free from idolatry, may have been abstaining from blood, may not have been guilty of murder, he was still declared guilty of sin by the Law covenant. This was so because the Law covenant now specifically identified a host of actions and even attitudes as sinful. Hence, Paul, viewing himself as if alive in the loins of his forefathers prior to the giving of the Law, says: “Really I would not have come to know sin if it had not been for the Law; and, for example, I would not have known covetousness if the Law had not said: ‘You must not covet.’ . . . In fact, I was once alive apart from law; but when the commandment arrived, sin came to life again, but I died.”​—Ro 7:7-9.

Other Lawgivers. When God’s Son came to earth, he acknowledged Jehovah as his Lawgiver and God. As a Jew, Jesus himself was born under the Law covenant and was obligated to obey it perfectly. (Ga 4:4, 5) He, in turn, set forth laws for his followers, both when he spoke to them and through holy spirit operating on his followers who wrote the Christian Scriptures. Collectively, these laws are called “the law of the Christ.” (Ga 6:2; Joh 15:10-15; 1Co 9:21) This law governs “the Israel of God,” his spiritual “nation.” (Ga 6:16; 1Pe 2:9) Christ, however, did not originate these laws but got them from the great Lawgiver, Jehovah.​—Joh 14:10.

Moses. Although the Bible repeatedly mentions “the law of Moses” (Jos 8:31, 32; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ch 23:18; 30:16), it also acknowledges Jehovah as the actual Lawgiver and Moses as only His instrument and representative in giving the Law to Israel. (2Ch 34:14) Even angels had a share in representing God in this matter, for the Law “was transmitted through angels by the hand of a mediator.” Nevertheless, Moses, being Jehovah’s appointed mediator of the covenant between God and Israel, is spoken of as if he were the lawgiver.​—Ga 3:19; Heb 2:2.

Human rulers as lawgivers. God has not established worldly human governments nor given them their authority, but he has allowed them to exist and has removed them and permitted new ones to come up as it suited his purpose. (De 32:8; Da 4:35; 5:26-31; Ac 17:26; Ro 13:1) Some of these rulers become lawgivers to their nation, state, or community. But their laws and statutes are proper only if made within the framework of and in harmony with the law of the Great Lawgiver, Jehovah God. The famous British jurist Sir William Blackstone said, with reference to God’s law governing natural things: “It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original.” Also, “Upon these two foundations, the law of nature and the law of revelation [found only in the Holy Scriptures], depend all human laws, that is to say, no human laws should be suffered to contradict these.”​—Chadman’s Cyclopedia of Law, 1912, Vol. I, pp. 89, 91; compare Mt 22:21; Ac 5:29.

In the Christian congregation. Jesus’ half brother James wrote to some Christians who were becoming proud, boastful, and critical of their Christian brothers, saying: “Quit speaking against one another, brothers. He who speaks against a brother or judges his brother speaks against law and judges law. Now if you judge law, you are, not a doer of law, but a judge. One there is that is lawgiver [Gr., no·mo·theʹtes] and judge, he who is able to save and to destroy. But you, who are you to be judging your neighbor?” James goes on to speak of those who bragged about what they would do in the future, as though they were independent of circumstances, instead of saying, “If Jehovah wills.” (Jas 4:11-16) James had spoken of “the kingly law,” “You must love your neighbor as yourself.” (Jas 2:8) These Christians, by failing to exhibit love for their neighbor, speaking against him instead, were, in effect, setting themselves up as judges of divine law, as lawgivers or lawmakers.

The apostle Paul had given similar counsel in his letter to the Romans concerning some who were judging others on the basis of such things as what they ate and drank: “Who are you to judge the house servant of another? To his own master he stands or falls. Indeed, he will be made to stand, for Jehovah can make him stand.”​—Ro 14:4.

In the light of the foregoing, how can Paul’s instructions with regard to a serious case of fornication in the congregation at Corinth be viewed? He said: “I for one, although absent in body but present in spirit, have certainly judged already, as if I were present, the man who has worked in such a way as this . . . Do you not judge those inside, while God judges those outside? ‘Remove the wicked man from among yourselves.’” He then spoke of judging matters of this life and of those that they “put in as judges” for themselves.​—1Co 5:1-3, 12, 13; 6:3, 4; compare Joh 7:24.

With authority vested in him as an apostle of Jesus Christ, Paul had responsibility for the cleanness and welfare of the congregations (2Co 1:1; 11:28); so he wrote to those who by appointment of the governing body had authority in the congregation. (Ac 14:23; 16:4, 5; 1Ti 3:1-13; 5:22) They were responsible for keeping the congregation in good standing, as pure in God’s sight. These men, in sitting in judgment in the case mentioned, which was an open and flagrant violation of God’s law, would not be making themselves judges of the law of God, nor would they be making laws according to their will. They would not be going beyond the boundaries of God-given law. They would be acting according to the law given by the great Statute-Giver, denouncing fornication as unclean. Practicers of such uncleanness could not enter God’s Kingdom, according to God’s law. (1Co 6:9, 10) They were not fit to remain in association with the congregation of Christ. Yet even then the men responsible for the cleanness of the congregation, by expelling unclean ones, were not executing the penalty that God the Lawgiver himself would execute on those unrepentantly continuing to follow such a course, namely, death.​—Ro 1:24-27, 32.

Paul also calls to the attention of Christians that “the holy ones will judge the world” and that “we shall judge angels.” Here he is speaking, not of the present time, but of the future, when those who reign in the Kingdom with Christ will serve as heavenly judges, administering the law of God and executing judgment on wicked ones.​—1Co 6:1-3; Re 20:6; compare 1Co 4:8.

Moses’ blessing of Gad. In Moses’ blessing of the tribes of Israel just before his death, “as to Gad he said: ‘Blessed is the one widening the borders of Gad. . . . And he [Gad] will pick out the first part for himself, for there the allotment of a statute-giver is reserved.’” (De 33:20, 21) This use of the term “statute-giver” may have the following meaning: Most of the tribes had their inheritance assigned to them by lot, under the direction of Joshua and Eleazar the high priest. But, shortly after the defeat of the Midianites, the tribe of Gad, along with Reuben, had requested land E of the Jordan River. Since these tribes had much livestock, the land was well suited for them. Moses heard their request favorably and granted them this part of the land. (Nu 32:1-5, 20-22, 28) Hence, their portion was an “allotment of a statute-giver,” Moses, the lawgiver to Israel.

LAWLESSNESS

See MAN OF LAWLESSNESS.

LAYING ON OF HANDS

See HAND.

LAZARUS

(Lazʹa·rus) [probably the Gr. form of the Heb. name Eleazar, meaning “God Has Helped”].

1. The brother of Martha and Mary; his resurrection was one of the outstanding miracles performed by Jesus Christ. (Joh 11:1, 2) Jesus had a deep love for this family living at Bethany, “about two miles” from Jerusalem on the road to Jericho. (Joh 11:5, 18, ftn) He had been entertained at their home, perhaps frequently.​—Lu 10:38-42.

The two sisters sent word to Jesus, who was at that time across the Jordan River, that their brother Lazarus was very sick. Doubtless they entertained the hope that Jesus would cure him. (Joh 11:3, 21, 32) However, instead of going to Bethany immediately, or curing Lazarus from a distance, as in the case of the manservant of an army officer (Mt 8:5-13), Jesus stayed where he was for two more days. Upon his arrival in the vicinity of Bethany he was met by Martha and then by Mary. Lazarus had expired and had been dead for four days.​—Joh 11:6, 17, 20, 30-32.

When speaking to Martha, Jesus took the occasion to stress the resurrection. (Joh 11:23-27) He was soon to give added meaning to his words. Upon arriving at the tomb or cave where Lazarus was interred, Christ ordered that the stone sealing its entrance be taken away. Then in prayer to his heavenly Father, Jesus showed that one reason these events were taking place was “in order that they [the crowd present] might believe that you sent me forth.” (Joh 11:38-42) Jesus then called the dead Lazarus out of the tomb, and he emerged, undoubtedly to the astonishment and joy of those present.​—Joh 11:43, 44.

This miracle moved many to put faith in Jesus, but it also caused the chief priests and Pharisees to plot his death. The anger of the chief priests was further aroused when a great crowd of Jews came to see not only Jesus but also the resurrected Lazarus. Because of Lazarus, many Jews were putting faith in Jesus, and so the chief priests took counsel to kill Lazarus also. (Joh 11:45-53; 12:1-11) However, there is no Biblical evidence to the effect that these religious foes carried out their evil plans against Lazarus.

John’s account of the resurrection of Lazarus has been assailed by some critics of the Bible. They point to the silence of the other Gospel accounts regarding this event. A consideration of the various Gospels will show, however, that even the writers of the synoptic Gospels did not each recount every deed of Jesus. For example, only Luke reported the raising of the son of the widow of Nain. (Lu 7:11-15) John did not customarily repeat what others had recorded. The resurrection of Lazarus is a notable instance of this.

This miracle of Lazarus’ resurrection served well as part of Jesus’ ministry, both to illustrate the power of the Son of God and to increase faith in him and the resurrection. (Joh 11:4, 41, 42) It evidently occurred near the beginning of the year 33 C.E. The Scriptures do not furnish information as to the circumstances, place, or time of Lazarus’ death after his resurrection.​—See RESURRECTION (Resurrections before ransom was given).

There is no Biblical statement nor any reason to link the historical Lazarus with the beggar of Jesus’ illustration of the rich man and Lazarus.

2. The name given to the beggar in Jesus’ illustration commonly known as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus. (Lu 16:19-31) In the Vulgate the word “rich” has been rendered by the Latin adjective dives, which is often mistakenly used as the proper name of the rich man. However, the Jewish name Lazarus itself was common in ancient times, a fact borne out by ossuary inscriptions.

In the parable, the ulcerous beggar, Lazarus, was put at the gate of the rich man, desiring to be fed with the things that fell from the rich man’s sumptuous table. Lazarus subsequently died and was carried off by angels to the bosom position of Abraham (a place comparable to that occupied by a person in ancient times when he reclined in front of another on the same couch during a meal). Abraham had a conversation with the rich man, who had also died, was buried, and was in Hades, existing in torments. “A great chasm” that could not be crossed separated the rich man from Abraham and Lazarus. The rich man’s request that Abraham send Lazarus to his five brothers to “give them a thorough witness,” in the hope of sparing them the same experience, met with rejection on the grounds that these had “Moses and the Prophets,” and, if unwilling to listen to them, “neither will they be persuaded if someone rises from the dead.”​—See ILLUSTRATIONS.

For Jesus’ illustration of the rich man and Lazarus, did he draw on rabbinic beliefs concerning the dead?

Teachers and students of comparative religion have in some cases suggested that in giving this illustration, Jesus Christ drew upon the ancient rabbinic concept and teaching regarding the underworld. Josephus furnishes the following information regarding the then-current view of the Pharisees in this regard: “They believe that souls have power to survive death and that there are rewards and punishments under the earth for those who have led lives of virtue or vice: eternal imprisonment is the lot of evil souls, while the good souls receive an easy passage to a new life.” (Jewish Antiquities, XVIII, 14 [i, 3]) However, Jesus flatly rejected false teachings, including those of the Pharisees. (Mt 23) Hence, it would have been inconsistent for him to frame his illustration of the rich man and Lazarus according to the outlines of the false rabbinic concept of the underworld. Consequently, it must be concluded that Jesus had in mind the fulfillment of the illustration and framed its details and movement in harmony with the facts of the fulfillment rather than according to any unscriptural teaching.

The context and the wording of the story show clearly that it is a parable and not an actual historical account. Poverty is not being extolled, nor are riches being condemned. Rather, conduct, final rewards, and a reversal in the spiritual status, or condition, of those represented by Lazarus and by the rich man are evidently indicated. The fact that the rich man’s brothers rejected Moses and the prophets also shows that the illustration had a deeper meaning and purpose than that of contrasting poverty and the possession of riches.

LAZINESS

Disinclination or aversion to effort or work; idleness; indolence; slothfulness; sluggishness. The Hebrew verb ʽa·tsalʹ means “be sluggish.” (Jg 18:9) The adjective related to this verb is translated “lazy one.” (Pr 6:6) The Greek word o·kne·rosʹ means “sluggish, slothful.” (Mt 25:26; Ro 12:11, Int) Another term, no·throsʹ, means “sluggish, dull.”​—Heb 5:11; 6:12.

Jehovah and his Son, as the two greatest Workers, hate laziness. Jesus said: “My Father has kept working until now, and I keep working.” (Joh 5:17) Throughout God’s Word the lazy person is warned and laziness is condemned.

The Lazy Man’s Thinking. A description of the lazy man is given in the book of Proverbs. First of all, he throws up barriers in his own mind to justify himself in not starting on a project. “The way of the lazy one is like a brier hedge.” (Pr 15:19) He views his task as a road ahead filled with briers, very difficult to traverse. Then he makes ridiculous excuses for his slothfulness, saying: “There is a lion outside! In the midst of the public squares I shall be murdered!” as if a danger that actually does not exist attended the job. (Pr 22:13) Frequently laziness is accompanied by cowardice, a fearful holding back. (Mt 25:26, ftn; 2Ti 1:7) Even though counseled and prompted by others, he turns over on his bed ‘like a door on its pivot,’ as one who cannot get up. He is too lazy even to feed himself. He “has hidden his hand in the banquet bowl; he has become too weary to bring it back to his mouth.” (Pr 26:14, 15; 19:24) But he has deceived himself so that he thinks in his own heart that he is right.

Such an individual indulges in specious and imaginary reasoning. He may think that work will injure his health or that he is too tired. He may feel that ‘the world owes him a living.’ Or, he puts off a job until “tomorrow.” (Pr 20:4) Any little thing he has done may make him feel he has done his part, as much as anyone else. Whereas all diligent men could give a sensible reply to any of such arguments, he is “wiser in his own eyes,” feeling that they are the foolish ones for exerting themselves and trying to encourage him to do the same.​—Pr 26:13-16.

The lazy person is not one who has “self-sufficiency” or contentment with “sustenance and covering.” (1Ti 6:6-8) Rather, he has desires for things, usually for much more than food or clothing. “The lazy one is showing himself desirous, but his soul has nothing.” (Pr 13:4) He has no consideration or respect for his fellowman, but he is willing to let someone else do his work, even to let another person provide him with the things he desires.​—Pr 20:4.

The Reward of Laziness. While the lazy individual may think he will get busy later, the reward of his laziness suddenly catches up with him and it is too late, for, he is told: “A little more sleep, a little more slumbering, a little more folding of the hands in lying down, and your poverty will certainly come just like some rover, and your want like an armed man.”​—Pr 6:9-11.

Whether taken literally or figuratively, the description of the lazy man’s situation is true: “I passed along by the field of the lazy individual and by the vineyard of the man in need of heart. And, look! all of it produced weeds. Nettles covered its very surface, and its stone wall itself had been torn down.” “Through great laziness the beamwork sinks in, and through the letting down of the hands the house leaks.”​—Pr 24:30, 31; Ec 10:18.

Whoever hires the lazy person, or whoever he represents, is bound to be disappointed and vexed and will suffer loss, for, “as vinegar to the teeth and as smoke to the eyes, so the lazy man is to those sending him forth.”​—Pr 10:26.

The slothful one’s laziness will eventually bring dire results to him, for “the very craving of the lazy will put him to death.” His craving is for things he does not deserve or that are wrong. He may come to ruin in trying to get them. At any rate, his craving with laziness turns him away from God the Source of life.​—Pr 21:25.

The Christian who is lazy is not cultivating the fruitage of the spirit, which will enliven and activate (Ac 18:25), but is actually bringing himself into trouble. He is catering to the desires of the flesh. He may soon be “walking disorderly,” “not working at all but meddling with what does not concern” him.​—2Th 3:11.

How Viewed in the Christian Congregation. In the early Christian congregation an arrangement was established to give material help to needy ones, especially to widows. It seems that some of the younger widows expressed themselves as desirous of using their freedom as widows to engage zealously in the Christian ministry. (Compare 1Co 7:34.) Evidently some were given material assistance. But instead of properly using the greater freedom and additional time thus afforded them, they became idle, unoccupied, and began to gad about. They became gossipers and meddlers in other people’s affairs, talking of things they ought not. For this reason the apostle Paul instructed the overseer Timothy not to put such persons on the list for aid but to let them marry and use their energies and abilities in rearing children and managing a household.​—1Ti 5:9-16.

In the matter of material assistance in the Christian congregation, the Bible rule is: “If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat.” (2Th 3:10) The family head must provide for his household, and the wife must not eat “the bread of laziness.”​—Pr 31:27; 1Ti 5:8.

Avoid Laziness in Study and in the Ministry. Counsel is given against laziness regarding studying and getting a deeper understanding of God’s purposes as well as in engaging in the Christian ministry. The apostle Paul reproved some unprogressive Hebrew Christians, pointing out: “You have become dull [sluggish] in your hearing. For, indeed, although you ought to be teachers in view of the time, you again need someone to teach you from the beginning the elementary things of the sacred pronouncements of God; and you have become such as need milk, not solid food.” (Heb 5:11, 12) He also admonishes: “Do not loiter [be slothful] at your business. Be aglow with the spirit.”​—Ro 12:11.

LEAD

One of the heavier metallic elements, having the specific gravity 11.34. The dull-gray metal was useful as weight on fishlines and nets and for heavy lids, or covers. Moses poetically sang in triumph that the Egyptians “sank like lead [Heb., ʽo·pheʹreth]” in the Red Sea. (Ex 15:10) The Greek verb translated ‘sound’ at Acts 27:28 (bo·liʹzo) literally means “heave the lead.” The Hebrew word translated “plummet” in Amos 7:7, 8 (ʼanakhʹ) may mean “lead” or “tin.” For permanency and legibility, liquid lead was sometimes poured into engravings on stone​—a practice dating at least to Job’s day. (Job 19:23, 24) “Soldering” (Heb., deʹveq) is mentioned at Isaiah 41:7 in connection with the making of idols, but whether the solder was made of lead and tin, as today, is not known.

The most common source of lead was galena, a lead sulfide ore. It was mined in the Arabah between the S end of the Dead Sea and the Gulf of ʽAqaba. Tarshish (Spain) was another source of supply. (Eze 27:12) Lead ore had to be smelted in a furnace like the ores of other metals. (Jer 6:29; Eze 22:18-20; compare Nu 31:22, 23.) The first step in the refining process converted lead sulfide to lead oxide, which was itself sometimes used as a pottery glaze, as is evidenced in the ruins of Egypt and Nineveh.​—See REFINE, REFINER.

LEADER, NOBLE, PRINCE

Several Hebrew words may be translated variously as “leader,” “noble,” and “prince.” Those appearing most frequently are as follows:

Na·ghidhʹ, meaning “leader,” is applied to Saul and David in connection with their being designated as kings over Israel and to Hezekiah as the king of Judah, with the responsibility of shepherding Jehovah’s people. (1Sa 9:16; 25:30; 2Sa 5:2; 2Ki 20:5) The tribe of Judah was selected by Jehovah to be leader of the 12 tribes of Israel, and it was from Judah that the kingly dynasty of David came.​—1Ch 28:4; Ge 49:10; Jg 1:2.

Jesus is referred to as “Messiah the Leader” and “a leader and commander to the national groups,” at Daniel 9:25 and Isaiah 55:4. He counseled his disciples: “Neither be called ‘leaders,’ for your Leader [ka·the·ge·tesʹ] is one, the Christ.” (Mt 23:10) As regards the Christian congregation, Jesus Christ is the only one rightly bearing the title “Leader,” because no imperfect human is the leader of true Christians; they follow Christ. While there are those who ‘take the lead’ in God’s service, they are not titled “leader” or addressed as such, and their example is to be followed only as they imitate Christ.​—1Co 11:1; Heb 13:7.

Na·dhivʹ, meaning “noble,” “willing one,” “generous one,” is used at Numbers 21:18, paralleling the term “princes,” for the willing ones of Israel who excavated a well in the wilderness. It also describes the volunteer contributors to the tabernacle construction. (Ex 35:5) As used at Job 12:21, positions of prominence and power are indicated.​—See also Ps 83:9-11.

The Hebrew word cho·rimʹ, meaning “nobles,” is used for certain men of influence in a city of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel (1Ki 21:8, 11) and for Jews who held authority under the Persian Empire. (Ne 5:7; 13:17) Many of the nobles of Judah and Jerusalem, including Daniel and his companions, were taken as exiles to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar in 617 B.C.E., and others were slaughtered by him in 607 B.C.E.​—Jer 27:20; 39:6; Da 1:3, 6.

Sar, meaning “prince,” “chief,” is drawn from a verb meaning “exercise dominion.” (Jg 9:22, ftn) While it is often translated “prince,” it does not necessarily apply to the son of a king or a person of royal rank in every instance. The tribal heads of Israel were called “princes.” (1Ch 27:22) Those holding high office under Pharaoh of Egypt and King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon were so titled. (Ge 12:15; Jer 38:17, 18, 22; Es 3:12) An army chief might be termed a sar. (Ne 2:9) Jehovah is called “the Prince of the army” and “the Prince of princes,” at Daniel 8:11, 25. Michael the archangel is “the great prince who is standing in behalf of the sons of [Daniel’s] people.” (Da 12:1) Invisible demon princes governing the world powers of Persia and Greece are mentioned at Daniel 10:13, 20.​—Compare Eph 6:12.

Psalm 45, verses 6 and 7 of which are applied to Christ Jesus by the apostle Paul (Heb 1:8, 9), contains the statement: “In place of your forefathers there will come to be your sons, whom you will appoint as princes in all the earth.” (Ps 45:16) Of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, men in Christ’s ancestral line of descent, it is written: “In faith all these died, although they did not get the fulfillment of the promises, but they saw them afar off and welcomed them.” (Heb 11:8-10, 13) The rule of Christ involves his having not only subordinate kings and priests in heaven (Re 20:6) but also ‘princely’ representatives on earth carrying out the king’s directions. (Compare Heb 2:5, 8.) Isaiah 32:1, 2 is clearly part of a Messianic prophecy and describes the benefits rendered by such “princes” under the Kingdom rule.​—See CHIEFTAIN; HEAD (Ruling Position); RULER.

LEAH

(Leʹah) [possibly related to an Akkadian word meaning “cow,” or to an Arabic word meaning “wild cow”].

The older daughter of Laban, the grandnephew of Abraham. Laban was the brother of Rebekah, Jacob’s mother, so Leah was Jacob’s cousin. (Ge 22:20-23; 24:24, 29; 29:16) Leah was not as beautiful as her younger sister Rachel; it especially was noted that her eyes lacked luster, or were dull (weak). (Ge 29:17) In the case of Oriental women, bright or lustrous eyes especially are considered to be an evidence of beauty.​—Compare Ca 1:15; 4:9; 7:4.

Leah became Jacob’s first wife because, at night, Laban deceived Jacob by giving him Leah as a wife instead of Rachel, whom Jacob loved. Jacob protested his being tricked, but Laban argued that it was not the custom of the place to give the younger daughter in marriage before the firstborn. Leah likely was veiled, in keeping with the ancient Oriental custom of heavily veiling a prospective bride, and this doubtless contributed to the success of the ruse. Jacob had served seven years with Rachel in mind, but for this work he received Leah. Rachel was granted to him after he celebrated a week of seven days with Leah, but Jacob had to work seven more years to pay for Rachel.​—Ge 29:18-28.

The account tells us that Leah was “hated.” (Ge 29:31, 33) But it also recounts that, after he had finally got Rachel, Jacob “expressed more love for Rachel than for Leah.” (Ge 29:30) Undoubtedly Jacob did not hold malicious hatred for Leah but viewed Rachel more lovingly, as his favorite wife. He continued to care for Leah and to have relations with her. Leah’s being “hated,” therefore, would merely mean that Jacob loved her less than Rachel.​—See HATE.

Leah became the mother of seven of Jacob’s children, his six sons Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun and a daughter, Dinah. (Ge 29:32-35; 30:16-21) Accordingly, Leah is named at Ruth 4:11 along with Rachel as one of those who “built the house of Israel.” Leah had the honor of having borne Levi, who became the founder of Israel’s priestly tribe, and Judah, who became the father of the nation’s royal tribe.

Leah and her children accompanied Jacob when he left Paddan-aram and returned to Canaan, the land of his birth. (Ge 31:11-18) Before Jacob met Esau en route, he protectively divided off the children to Leah and to Rachel and their maidservants, putting the maidservants and their children foremost, followed by Leah and her children, with Rachel and Joseph to their rear. (Ge 33:1-7) Leah’s children accompanied Jacob into Egypt, but the Bible account does not say that she did so. (Ge 46:15) The time, place, and circumstances of her death are not furnished, but she may have died in Canaan. Whatever the case, the patriarch had her body taken to the family burial place, the cave in the field of Machpelah. Jacob’s instructions respecting his own remains show that it was his desire to be buried where Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, and Leah had been buried.​—Ge 49:29-32.

LEAVEN

A substance added to dough or liquids to cause fermentation, especially a portion of fermenting dough preserved for baking purposes. This type of leavening agent is specified by the Hebrew word seʼorʹ (“sourdough”; Ex 12:15) and by the Greek word zyʹme (“leaven”; Lu 13:21). A leavened thing is designated by the Hebrew word cha·metsʹ.​—Le 2:11.

Wine, the fermented juice of grapes or other fruit, has long been known to mankind. Of course, wine ferments without the addition of leaven.

The early Egyptians made beer, which requires a leavening agent for its production, and they baked both leavened and unleavened bread. The Hebrews were likely familiar with “wheat beer.” (Isa 1:22; Ho 4:18, NW; Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, by L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden, 1958, p. 646) Wild yeast that might be obtained from the spores of certain fungus growths may have served as one of the leavening agents for these products. Excavations in Egypt have yielded porous bread containing dead yeast cells. The Egyptians are also said to have used natron (sodium carbonate) in making bread. Sodium carbonate would not bring about the process of fermentation as did sourdough, but it would provide gas bubbles to make the bread rise. In Egypt, as in Israel, the primary practice in breadmaking seems to have been to save some dough from a batch, let it ferment, and use the resulting sourdough to leaven a fresh batch.

In God’s Law to Israel. No grain offering that the Israelites presented by fire to Jehovah was to be made of “a leavened thing.” (Le 2:11) However, leaven could be used in connection with thanksgiving communion offerings, in which the offerer voluntarily made the presentation in a spirit of thankfulness for Jehovah’s many blessings. The meal was to be one of cheerfulness; leavened bread was normally eaten on happy occasions. Along with the meat (that is, the animal) offered, and the unfermented cakes, he would bring ring-shaped cakes of leavened bread, which were not put on the altar but were eaten by the offerer and by the officiating priest.​—Le 7:11-15.

At the presentation of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, on the day of Pentecost, the high priest waved before Jehovah two loaves of leavened wheat bread. (Le 23:15-21) It is noteworthy that, on Pentecost day, 33 C.E., the first members of the Christian congregation, namely, the disciples of Jesus Christ taken from among the Jews, were anointed with holy spirit. Jesus Christ, as Jehovah’s great High Priest, was able to present before God the first of his spirit-begotten brothers. These were taken from sinful mankind. (Ac 2:1-4, 41) About three years and four months later, the first uncircumcised Gentile converts to Christianity, Cornelius and his household, were anointed with holy spirit, thereby being presented before God. These were likewise from sinful humankind.​—Ac 10:24, 44-48; Ro 5:12.

The Festival of Unfermented Cakes occupied the seven days following Passover day, namely Abib, or Nisan, 15-21. During those days nothing leavened nor any sourdough was even to be found in the Israelites’ houses or “seen” with them. (Ex 12:14-20; 13:6, 7; 23:15) This served to remind them of their hasty deliverance from Egypt by Jehovah’s hand, when they did not have time to wait for their dough to ferment but, in their hurry, carried it with them along with their kneading troughs.​—Ex 12:34.

Symbolic Significance. “Leaven” is often used in the Bible to denote sin or corruption. Jesus Christ told his disciples: “Watch out for the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees,” and, “Watch out for the leaven of the Pharisees, which is hypocrisy.” The disciples at first did not understand that Jesus was using a symbolism, but they finally discerned that he was warning them to be on guard against false doctrine and hypocritical practices, “the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees,” which teaching had a corrupting effect. (Mt 16:6, 11, 12; Lu 12:1) He also mentioned Herod (evidently including his party followers) in one of his warnings, saying: “Keep your eyes open, look out for the leaven of the Pharisees and the leaven of Herod.” (Mr 8:15) Jesus boldly denounced the Pharisees as hypocrites concerned with outward show. (Mt 23:25-28) He pointed out the wrong doctrinal viewpoint of the Sadducees. He exposed the hypocrisy and political treachery of the party followers of Herod.​—Mt 22:15-21; Mr 3:6.

The apostle Paul employed the same symbolism when he commanded the Christian congregation in Corinth to expel an immoral man from the congregation, stating: “Do you not know that a little leaven ferments the whole lump? Clear away the old leaven, that you may be a new lump, according as you are free from ferment. For, indeed, Christ our passover has been sacrificed.” He then clearly showed what he meant by “leaven”: “Consequently let us keep the festival, not with old leaven, neither with leaven of badness and wickedness, but with unfermented cakes of sincerity and truth.” (1Co 5:6-8) Paul here was drawing on the pictorial meaning of the Jewish Festival of Unfermented Cakes, which immediately followed the Passover celebration. Just as a bit of sourdough soon causes the whole lump, or batch, of bread to be leavened, so the congregation as a body would become unclean in Jehovah’s eyes if they did not clear out this corrupting influence of the immoral man. They must act to get the “leaven” out of their midst, just as the Israelites could have no leaven in their houses during the festival.

Leaven was associated with corruption even in the minds of peoples of antiquity other than the Hebrews. For instance, Plutarch, a Greek biographer, spoke of it as “itself also the product of corruption, and produces corruption in the dough with which it is mixed.”​—Moralia, IV, “The Roman Questions,” 109.

It was with irony that Jehovah told transgressing Israel in Amos’ day: “From what is leavened make a thanksgiving sacrifice to smoke, and proclaim voluntary offerings.” (Am 4:5) God was telling them that all their worship at Bethel and at Gilgal was transgression against him, so they might as well go ahead and offer leavened as well as unleavened bread on the altar​—hold nothing back. It would all still be in vain because they were committing idolatry.

LEBANAH

(Le·baʹnah) [White; Full Moon].

Founder of a family whose sons or descendants were among the Nethinim returning with Zerubbabel from Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 45; Ne 7:46, 48.

LEBANON

(Lebʹa·non) [White [Mountain]].

Generally, the westernmost of the two ranges forming the mountain system of Lebanon. Perhaps its name is derived from the light color of its limestone cliffs and summits or from the fact that the range’s upper slopes are covered with snow during a major part of the year. (Jer 18:14) Extending from NNE to SSW for about 160 km (100 mi) along the Mediterranean Sea, the Lebanon chain parallels the Anti-Lebanon Range for about 100 km (60 mi). The two ranges are separated by a long, fertile valley, the Beqaʽ (Coele-Syria), measuring between 10 and 16 km (6 and 10 mi) in width. (Jos 11:17; 12:7) Through this valley the Orontes River courses northward, whereas the Litani (its lower course being called Nahr el-Kasimiye) flows southward and curves around the southern end of the Lebanon range. The Nahr el-Kebir (Eleutherus) flows past the northern end of the Lebanon chain.

With few exceptions, the foothills of the Lebanon Range rise almost directly from the Mediterranean Sea, leaving only a narrow coastal plain. The summits of this range average between 1,800 and 2,100 m (6,000 and 7,000 ft) in elevation, with two peaks towering over 900 m (3,000 ft) higher. Both the eastern and the western slopes of the range are steep.

Its eastern slopes are quite barren and have practically no important streams. But the well-watered western slopes are cleft by streams and gorges. (Compare Ca 4:15.) The terraced lower slopes on the W side support grain, vineyards, and fruit orchards, as well as mulberry, walnut, and olive trees. (Compare Ho 14:5-7.) Pines thrive in the rich soil of the sandstone layer, and at the higher elevations a few small groves of majestic cedars are to be found. These trees anciently covered the range and their wood was used for a variety of purposes. (1Ki 6:9; Ca 3:9; Eze 27:5; see CEDAR.) Ash, cypress, and juniper trees are also native to the Lebanon Range. (1Ki 5:6-8; 2Ki 19:23; Isa 60:13) Among the animals inhabiting this region are jackals, gazelles, hyenas, and wolves. In ancient times both the forests and the wildlife were more abundant; the region was a haunt for lions and leopards. (Ca 4:8; Isa 40:16) Possibly it was the fragrance of its great forests that was known as “the fragrance of Lebanon.”​—Ca 4:11.

The Lebanon region was not conquered by the Israelites under Joshua’s leadership, but it came to be the NW border of the land. (De 1:7; 3:25; 11:24; Jos 1:4; 9:1) The pagan inhabitants of this area, however, served to test Israel’s faithfulness to Jehovah. (Jg 3:3, 4) Centuries later, King Solomon exercised jurisdiction over a part of Lebanon and there did building work. (1Ki 9:17-19; 2Ch 8:5, 6) Possibly one of his construction projects included “the tower of Lebanon, which is looking out toward Damascus.” (Ca 7:4; some, however, understand this to refer to one of the peaks of Lebanon.) At this time Hiram the king of Tyre controlled another portion of Lebanon, from which he supplied Solomon with cedar and juniper timbers.​—1Ki 5:7-14.

Illustrative Use. Many of the Scriptural references to Lebanon are associated with its fruitfulness (Ps 72:16; Isa 35:2) and luxuriant forests, particularly its majestic cedars. (Ps 29:5) Often Lebanon is used in a figurative way. It is depicted as if in a state of abashment, sympathizing with the land of Judah that had been despoiled by the Assyrian forces. (Isa 33:1, 9) The Assyrian army itself, however, was to experience calamity, being felled like trees of Lebanon. (Isa 10:24-26, 33, 34) Disastrous effects resulting from Jehovah’s judgment are compared to the withering of the blossom of Lebanon. (Na 1:4) However, the turning of Lebanon’s forest into a fruitful orchard is alluded to in a restoration prophecy and illustrates a complete reversal of matters.​—Isa 29:17, 18.

Jehovah, through Jeremiah, “said concerning the house of the king of Judah, ‘You are as Gilead to me, the head of Lebanon.’” (Jer 22:6) “The house” appears to designate the palace complex. (Jer 22:1, 5) Situated as it was on an eminence, the palace’s location was lofty and magnificent, like Lebanon. Also, cedarwood had been used extensively in the construction of the various royal edifices there. (1Ki 7:2-12) King Jehoiakim, who heard the words recorded at Jeremiah 22:6, had himself used cedar paneling for his luxurious palace. (Jer 22:13-15) Therefore, the palace area was like a magnificent forest of cedar buildings and could appropriately be compared to Lebanon and to heavily wooded Gilead. Jehovah warned Judah that if King Jehoiakim, his servants, and the people did not render justice, the ‘house would become a mere devastation’ (Jer 22:1-5) and those dwelling in figurative Lebanon (Jerusalem), “being nested in the cedars,” would experience calamity.​—Jer 22:23; see also Eze 17:2, 3.

Similarly, the desire of Assyrian King Sennacherib to “ascend the height of mountainous regions, the remotest parts of Lebanon,” and to “cut down its lofty cedars” appears to allude to his intentions concerning Jerusalem. (Isa 37:21-24) The prophetic words regarding the violence done to Lebanon (Hab 2:17) may refer to calamity in store for Jerusalem. Or they are perhaps to be understood literally as denoting the depletion of Lebanon’s forests through the ravages of war.​—Compare Isa 14:5-8.

Zechariah’s prophecy (10:10) pointed to the time when Jehovah would bring his people back to the land of Gilead and Lebanon. In this case Lebanon may refer to the territory W of the Jordan, as Gilead designates the land E of the Jordan.

LEBAOTH

(Le·baʹoth) [Lionesses].

A city in the southern part of the territory of Judah (Jos 15:21, 32), apparently also called Beth-lebaoth and assigned as such to the tribe of Simeon.​—Jos 19:1, 2, 6; see BETH-LEBAOTH.

LEB-KAMAI

(Leb-kaʹmai) [Heart of Those Rising Up Against Me].

This appears to be a cryptographic name for Chaldea, or Kas·dimʹ. It occurs only at Jeremiah 51:1, in a statement regarding what Jehovah would do to Babylon and the inhabitants of Chaldea. The term is employed there in keeping with a system called athbash, in which the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet (taw) represents the first letter thereof (ʼaʹleph), the second-last letter (shin) represents the second (behth), and so forth. Hence, at Jeremiah 51:1 the real name (Kas·dimʹ) is disguised by forming the Hebrew word Lev qa·maiʹ (Leb-kamai). For “Leb-kamai” the Greek Septuagint has “the Chaldeans” and the Targums read “the land of the Chaldeans.”

LEBONAH

(Le·boʹnah).

A place mentioned as a reference point in connection with the location of Shiloh. (Jg 21:19) It is tentatively identified with el-Lubban (Lubban Sharqiya), about 5 km (3 mi) WNW of the suggested site of Shiloh. However, the Bible’s placing of Shiloh “toward the south of Lebonah” may indicate that originally the city was farther E than this suggested site.

LECAH

(Leʹcah).

Probably a descendant of Judah through Er. (1Ch 4:21) On the basis of the context, it has been suggested that Lecah was a village, but the location of such a place is unknown.

LEECH

[Heb., ʽalu·qahʹ].

A bloodsucking worm with a flat, segmented body that tapers at both ends but is broadest toward the posterior part. Leeches measure from over 1 cm (0.5 in.) to over 10 cm (4 in.) in length. These creatures have a disk, or sucker, at each end of the body, the one at the head end being equipped with biting jaws.

Leeches are found in great numbers in many streams and rivers of the Middle East. The young of one variety (Limnatis nilotica), when swallowed with the drinking water, attach themselves to the nasal cavities, larynx, or epiglottis of their host. They grow rapidly and are not easily removed. Their presence can hinder breathing and this, as well as loss of blood, sometimes proves fatal to the victim.

Sole mention is made of the leech (Heb., ʽalu·qahʹ) at Proverbs 30:15, where the reference is to insatiable greed, it being stated that “the leeches have two daughters that cry: ‘Give! Give!’” The Commentary by F. C. Cook suggests that the leech’s greed is here viewed as “its daughter,” spoken of in the plural to express intensity. Others consider the “two daughters” to be a reference to the two lips of its bloodsucking disk. A leech may consume three times its own weight in blood, a strong anticoagulant in its saliva ensuring a continuous flow from the victim.

LEEK

[Heb., cha·tsirʹ].

One of the items of diet for which the mixed crowd and the Israelites longed while in the wilderness. (Nu 11:4, 5) The Hebrew word cha·tsirʹ, rendered “leeks” in this text, may possibly come from the same root as the identical Hebrew word translated “green grass.” (Isa 40:7, 8) This item of diet is listed along with onions and garlic, specific plant foods very similar to leeks, indicating that a definite vegetable, rather than grass in general, is meant. Also, from ancient times leeks have enjoyed great popularity in Egypt and are still commonly eaten there as well as in Palestine.

The leek (Allium porrum) is much like the onion but is distinguished from the latter by its milder flavor, slender cylindrical shape, and juicy, grasslike leaves measuring about 2.5 cm (1 in.) in width. The flower stem, terminating in a large compact ball of flowers, may attain a height of about 0.6 m (2 ft). The bulbs and leaves of this biennial plant are cooked as a vegetable and used as a seasoning; they are also eaten raw.

LEG

The limb of a man or an animal used to support the body and for walking. In connection with the installation of the priesthood, the right leg of “the ram of the installation” constituted a part of the “wave offering.” (Le 8:22, 25-27) In certain sacrifices, the right hind leg, evidently the choice upper part of it, was also given as a sacred portion to the officiating priest. (Le 7:32-34; 10:12, 14, 15) The front leg, the “shoulder” or “shoulder blade” (literally, “arm”), is also mentioned as a portion for the priests, at Numbers 6:19 and Deuteronomy 18:3.

Insects having “leaper legs” (Heb., kera·ʽaʹyim) were the only winged swarming creatures designated by the Law as clean for food. (Le 11:21) Elsewhere, the same Hebrew term refers to the “shanks” of animals.​—See SHANK.

Jehovah prophetically told Babylon: “Strip off the flowing skirt. Uncover the leg. Cross over the rivers.” (Isa 47:1, 2) Instead of being a pampered queen who is served, she figuratively had to uncover her legs to the hip to wade barefoot as a captive across the rivers through which her conquerors would drag her.

Legs were also used figuratively to represent mightiness or human swiftness and power. At Psalm 147:10 we read: “Not in the mightiness of the horse does [Jehovah] take delight, nor in the legs of the man does he find pleasure.” At Proverbs 26:7 lame legs are referred to as a symbol of uselessness or incapacity.

It appears to have been a Roman custom to perform a coup de grace by breaking the legs of criminals condemned to die on the stake in order to shorten their miseries. The soldiers, at the Jews’ request, broke the legs of the men impaled on stakes alongside Jesus Christ but, finding Jesus already dead, did not break his legs. Consequently, the prophecy at Psalm 34:20 was fulfilled.​—Joh 19:31-36; compare Ex 12:46; Nu 9:12.

LEGAL CASE

A matter to be settled in a judicial court; a legal hearing or trial. The principal Hebrew verb having to do with legal cases is riv, meaning “quarrel; contend; conduct a legal case.” (Ge 26:20; De 33:8; Pr 25:8) The noun form is rendered “controversy; dispute; case at law; legal case.” (Ex 23:2; De 17:8; Ps 35:23; Isa 34:8) The Hebrew word din (judgment) is sometimes rendered “legal case; legal claim; legal contest.” (Job 35:14; Ps 140:12; Pr 22:10) A legal case, among God’s servants, had as its primary purpose the satisfying of the divine requirements and, secondarily, the rendering of justice to the person or persons involved, along with compensation where such was due. God considered himself involved in even personal offenses between humans, as is noted in Moses’ words to Israelite judges at Deuteronomy 1:16, 17.

A legal case was conducted in the garden of Eden, to bring out the facts of that case and the issues involved, to establish them as a matter of public record, and also to pass sentence on the offenders. Jehovah called Adam and Eve before him for questioning. Though he knew all, he held a hearing, made the charges clear, brought out the facts by questioning, and gave them an opportunity to make expression in their own defense. He obtained a confession from the offenders. Jehovah then made his decision in the matter and, with justice and undeserved kindness, applied the law, exercising mercy toward Adam and Eve’s unborn offspring by deferring the execution of the death sentence upon the offenders for a time.​—Ge 3:6-19.

Jehovah God the Supreme Judge here set the pattern for all further judicial proceedings among his people. (Ge 3:1-24) Legal cases conducted according to God’s judicial regulations were for the finding and discussion of facts for the purpose of rendering justice​—where possible, justice tempered with mercy. (De 16:20; Pr 28:13; compare Mt 5:7; Jas 2:13.) The entire procedure was meant to keep the nation of Israel uncontaminated and to provide for the individual welfare of its members as well as that of the alien residents and settlers among them. (Le 19:33, 34; Nu 15:15, 16; De 1:16, 17) The Law given to the nation contained within it the procedure that was to be followed in civil cases and also in cases of misdemeanor or crime (including those against God and the State), misunderstandings, personal quarrels, and troubles on the individual, family, tribal, and national levels.

Procedure. If cases of dispute were personal in nature, the disputants were encouraged to avoid quarrels and to settle matters privately. (Pr 17:14; 25:8, 9) If they could not come to an agreement, they could appeal to the judges. (Mt 5:25) Jesus gave such counsel. (Mt 18:15-17) There was no formal or complicated procedure in conducting legal cases, either during the pre-Mosaic period or under the Law, although some formalism did creep in after the establishment of the Sanhedrin. Nevertheless, cases were conducted in an orderly and purposeful manner. The courts were open to women, to slaves, and to the alien resident, so that justice might be administered to all. (Job 31:13, 14; Nu 27:1-5; Le 24:22) The accused would be present when testimony was presented against him and could make his defense. No equivalent of a public prosecutor appears in either patriarchal or Israelite courts; neither was an attorney for the defense necessary. Proceedings were without court costs to the litigants.

A person with a civil matter or a complainant in a criminal matter would bring his case to the judges. The other party would be called, witnesses were gathered together, and the hearing was conducted usually in a public place, most often at the city gates. (De 21:19; Ru 4:1) The judges would question the litigants and examine the evidence and testimony. They would render a verdict without delay unless evidence was lacking, or if the matter was too difficult, the judges would refer the case to a higher court. Sentences, such as flogging and the death penalty, were carried out immediately. There was no provision in the Law for imprisonment. Custody was employed only in a case in which Jehovah had to be consulted for a decision.​—Le 24:12; see COURT, JUDICIAL; CRIME AND PUNISHMENT.

Guilt always brought liability; there were no exceptions. Guilt could not be overlooked. Wherever the Law demanded it, punishment had to be administered or, in some cases, compensation made. Then the guilty one, in order to make peace with God, was required to present an offering at the sanctuary. Sacrifices for atonement were required in any case of guilt. (Le 5:1-19) Even unintentional sin brought guilt, and offerings had to be made for atonement. (Le 4:1-35) In certain wrongdoings, including deception, fraud, and extortion, where a person voluntarily repented and confessed, he had to make compensation and also present a guilt offering.​—Le 6:1-7.

Evidence. If a person was a witness to apostate acts, sedition, murder, which defiled the land, or certain other serious crimes, he was under obligation to report it and to testify to what he knew, or he would be subject to divine curse, publicly proclaimed. (Le 5:1; De 13:8; compare Pr 29:24; Es 6:2.) One witness was not enough to establish a matter, however. Two or more were required. (Nu 35:30; De 17:6; 19:15; compare Joh 8:17, 18; 1Ti 5:19; Heb 10:28.) Witnesses were commanded by the Law to speak the truth (Ex 20:16; 23:7), and were, in some cases, put under oath. (Mt 26:63) This would especially be so when the one on whom suspicion fell was the only witness to the matter. (Ex 22:10, 11) Since those in a legal case before the judges or at the sanctuary for judgment of a matter were regarded as standing before Jehovah, witnesses were to recognize that they were accountable to God. (Ex 22:8; De 1:17; 19:17) A witness was not to accept a bribe, allow anyone wicked to persuade him to speak untruthfully, or scheme violence. (Ex 23:1, 8) He was not to let his testimony be swayed by pressure of a crowd or by the wealth or poverty of those involved in the case. (Ex 23:2, 3) Even the closest family relationship was not to hold one back from testifying against a wicked violator of the law, such as an apostate or rebellious one.​—De 13:6-11; 21:18-21; Zec 13:3.

One who proved to be a false witness received the punishment that the person accused would have received if found guilty. (De 19:17-21) Witnesses in all capital convictions were required to throw the first stone in the execution of the convicted one. Thus witnesses were enjoined by law to demonstrate their zeal for true, clean worship and for clearing out what was bad in Israel. This would also act as a deterrent to false testimony. It would take a very callous person to make a false accusation, knowing that he had to be the first to act in putting the accused to death.​—De 17:7.

Material and circumstantial evidence. In case livestock had been entrusted to the care of another, the responsible one could bring in the torn body of an animal that had been killed by a wild beast as evidence, and that would thereby relieve him of liability. (Ex 22:10-13) If a married woman was accused by her husband of falsely claiming to be a virgin at the time of marriage, the girl’s father could bring the mantle from the marriage bed as evidence of her virginity to present before the judges in order to clear her of the charge. (De 22:13-21) Even under patriarchal law, material evidence was acceptable in some cases. (Ge 38:24-26) Circumstances were given consideration as evidence. If an engaged girl was attacked in the city, failure on her part to scream was deemed evidence of willful submission and guilt.​—De 22:23-27.

Secret adultery. A man suspecting his wife of secret adultery, for which he had no confession or eyewitness, could take her before the priest, where she would be judged by Jehovah, who saw and who knew all the facts. It was not a trial by ordeal. There was nothing in the procedure itself that would harm the woman or make manifest her innocence or guilt, but it was Jehovah who judged the woman and made known his verdict. If she was innocent, she would be unharmed and was to be made pregnant by her husband. If she was guilty, her reproductive organs would be affected so that she would be incapable of pregnancy. If there had been the required two witnesses, the matter would not have been taken to Jehovah in this manner, but she would have been adjudged guilty by the judges and stoned to death.​—Nu 5:11-31.

Documents. Records, or documents, of various kinds were used. A husband was required to give his wife a certificate of divorce when putting her away. (De 24:1; Jer 3:8; compare Isa 50:1.) Genealogical records were available, as we see particularly in First Chronicles. Mention is made of deeds registering the sale of real estate. (Jer 32:9-11) Many letters were written, some of which may have been retained and may have figured in legal cases.​—2Sa 11:14; 1Ki 21:8-14; 2Ki 10:1; Ne 2:7.

Jesus’ Trial. The greatest travesty of justice ever committed was the trial and sentencing of Jesus Christ. Prior to his trial the chief priests and older men of the people took counsel together with a view to putting Jesus to death. So the judges were prejudiced and had their minds made up on the verdict before ever the trial took place. (Mt 26:3, 4) They bribed Judas to betray Jesus to them. (Lu 22:2-6) Because of the wrongness of their actions, they did not arrest him in the temple in the daytime, but they waited until they could act under cover of darkness and then sent a crowd armed with clubs and swords to arrest him in an isolated place outside the city.​—Lu 22:52, 53.

Jesus was then taken first to the house of Annas, the ex-high priest, who still wielded great authority, his son-in-law Caiaphas being the high priest at the time. (Joh 18:13) There Jesus was questioned and was slapped in the face. (Joh 18:22) Next he was led bound to Caiaphas the high priest. False witnesses were sought by the chief priests and the whole Sanhedrin. Many such witnesses came forward but could not agree on their testimony, except two who twisted Jesus’ words recorded at John 2:19. (Mt 26:59-61; Mr 14:56-59) Finally Jesus was put under oath by the high priest and questioned as to whether he was the Christ the Son of God. When Jesus answered in the affirmative and alluded to the prophecy at Daniel 7:13, the high priest ripped his garments and called upon the court to find Jesus guilty of blasphemy. This verdict was rendered, and he was sentenced to death. After this they spit in his face and hit him with their fists, taunting him, contrary to the Law.​—Mt 26:57-68; Lu 22:66-71; compare De 25:1, 2 with Joh 7:51 and Ac 23:3.

After this illegal night trial the Sanhedrin met early in the morning to confirm their judgment and for a consultation. (Mr 15:1) Jesus was now led, again bound, to the governor’s palace, to Pilate, since they said: “It is not lawful for us to kill anyone.” (Joh 18:31) Here Jesus was charged with forbidding the paying of taxes to Caesar and with saying that he himself was Christ a king. Blasphemy against the God of the Jews would not have been so serious a charge in the eyes of the Romans, but sedition would. Pilate, after making futile attempts to get Jesus to testify against himself, told the Jews that he found no crime in him. Discovering, however, that Jesus was a Galilean, Pilate was happy to send him to Herod, who had jurisdiction over Galilee. Herod questioned Jesus, hoping to see a sign performed by him, but Jesus refused. Herod then discredited Jesus, making fun of him, and sent him back to Pilate.​—Lu 23:1-11.

Pilate now tried to release Jesus in harmony with a custom of that time, but the Jews refused, calling for the release of a seditionist and murderer instead. (Joh 18:38-40) Pilate therefore had Jesus scourged, and the soldiers again mistreated him. After this, Pilate brought Jesus outside and tried to get his release, but the Jews insisted: “Impale him! Impale him!” Finally he issued the order to have Jesus impaled.​—Mt 27:15-26; Lu 23:13-25; Joh 19:1-16.

What laws of God did the Jewish priests violate by the way they handled the trial of Jesus Christ?

The following are some of the laws of God that were flagrantly violated by the Jews in the trial of Christ: bribery (De 16:19; 27:25); conspiracy and the perversion of judgment and justice (Ex 23:1, 2, 6, 7; Le 19:15, 35); bearing false witness, in which matter the judges connived (Ex 20:16); letting a murderer (Barabbas) go, thereby bringing bloodguilt upon themselves and upon the land (Nu 35:31-34; De 19:11-13); mob action, or ‘following a crowd to do evil’ (Ex 23:2, 3); in crying out for Jesus to be impaled, they were violating the law that prohibited following the statutes of other nations and that also prescribed no torture but that provided that a criminal be stoned or put to death before being hung on a stake (Le 18:3-5; De 21:22); they accepted as king one not of their own nation, but a pagan (Caesar), and rejected the King whom God had chosen (De 17:14, 15); and finally, they were guilty of murder (Ex 20:13).

LEGION

The name by which one of the two demon-possessed men, whom Christ Jesus encountered in the region E of the Sea of Galilee, identified himself. Evidently, though, Legion was not his actual name, as it referred to his being possessed by many demons. Possibly the chief one of these demons caused this man to say that his name was Legion. The fact that in the first century C.E. Roman legions usually consisted of 6,000 men may give some indication of the large number of demons involved. So fierce were the demon-possessed man and his companion that no one dared to pass the area where they had their dwelling among the tombs. Under demon influence the man who said his name was Legion walked about naked, and day and night he cried aloud and slashed himself with stones. All efforts to bind him, even with fetters and chains, were unsuccessful. Christ Jesus, however, freed this man and his companion from the power of the demons. Thereafter the expelled demons took possession of a herd of swine and caused these to rush over a precipice to their death in the Sea of Galilee.​—Mt 8:28-34; Mr 5:1-20; Lu 8:26-39; see GADARENES; SWINE.

For details about the Roman legions, see ARMY (Roman).

LEHABIM

(Le·haʹbim).

A name appearing at Genesis 10:13 and 1 Chronicles 1:11 among the descendants of Ham through Mizraim. Since the Hebrew name is a plural form, many scholars hold that a tribe taking its name from one of Mizraim’s sons is meant. (See, however, MIZRAIM.) The Lehabim are generally identified with the Libyans and at least seem to have constituted one of the tribes inhabiting Libya in ancient times. While identification is difficult, they were probably the same as the Lu·vimʹ mentioned elsewhere in the Hebrew text, as at 2 Chronicles 12:3, where the American Standard Version reads “Lubim” and other translations read “Libyans.”​—Mo; NW; RS.

LEHI

(Leʹhi) [Jawbone].

The scene of one or, possibly, two Israelite victories over the Philistines. Its exact location is unknown today. Some identify it with Khirbet es-Suyag, which perhaps derives its name from the Greek word si·a·gonʹ (jawbone), less than 3 km (2 mi) E of Beth-shemesh.

At Lehi, Samson struck down a thousand Philistines with the moist jawbone of an ass. Subsequently he called the site Ramath-lehi (meaning “Lofty Place of the Jawbone”), probably to memorialize the victory Jehovah had given him there. (Jg 15:9-19) Originally, though, Lehi may have got its name from the shape of its crags.

Later, according to the rendering of numerous translators, Shammah struck down many Philistines assembled at Lehi. (2Sa 23:11, 12; AT, JB, NW, RS) However, the Hebrew term la·chai·yahʹ literally means “into the tent village,” and, by a slight change in vowel pointing, is rendered “to Lehi.”

LEMUEL

(Lemʹu·el) [Belonging to God].

An unidentified king of ancient times whose words are recorded in Proverbs chapter 31. His identity has been the subject of considerable discussion, some commentators suggesting that Lemuel was another name for Solomon. Others identify Lemuel with Hezekiah. The words of King Lemuel constitute “the weighty message that his mother gave to him in correction.” (Pr 31:1) However, the time and circumstances of the king’s reception of such information from his mother are unknown. This “weighty message” advises against involvement with a bad woman, warns of how intoxicating liquor can pervert judgment, highlights the need to judge righteously, and then describes a good wife.

LENTIL

[Heb., ʽadha·shahʹ].

An annual plant of the legume family that has long been cultivated by man and is still extensively grown in Egypt and Israel, as well as in other lands. (2Sa 17:27, 28; 23:11) This small plant (Lens esculenta), measuring from 15 to 46 cm (6 to 18 in.) in height, thrives in light, dry soil. Its compound leaves, generally consisting of six pairs of oblong leaflets, terminate in tendrils. Slender branchlets bear two to four small pealike flowers each. The short pods that develop from the flowers resemble those of the pea, and usually they contain two small lens-shaped seeds. The color of the seeds and that of the flowers differs with the variety of lentil plant. The seeds may be reddish brown, gray, or black, and the flowers, white or pale blue. Rich in protein and carbohydrates, the seeds are, as in the past, commonly used for soups. (Ge 25:34) In combination with barley, lentils have been used for making bread. (Compare Eze 4:9.) The plant itself serves well as a fodder for livestock.

LEOPARD

[Heb., na·merʹ; Aramaic, nemarʹ; Gr., parʹda·lis].

One of the large cats, usually having a light-tan coat with black spots arranged in broken circles. (Jer 13:23) Leopards commonly measure 1.2 m (4 ft) in length, not including the tail. Although even in more recent years several leopards have been killed near Jerusalem, these creatures evidently were found in far greater numbers in ancient Palestine. (Ca 4:8) The cheetah, or hunting leopard, ranked among the fastest of mammals, was also found in Palestine, and the Hebrew designation na·merʹ may have included this animal as well as the leopard. The cheetah differs from the true leopard in that its claws are only partially retractile and its spots are solid, not ringed.

In the Scriptures, allusion is made to the swiftness of the leopard (Hab 1:8) and its manner of lying in wait near towns, ready to pounce upon passing domestic animals. (Jer 5:6; Ho 13:7) In sharp contrast with this, the leopard and the kid are depicted as lying down together in peace during Messiah’s rule.​—Isa 11:6.

At Daniel 7:6, the four-winged, four-headed leopard represents the Grecian World Power, which conquered Medo-Persia with the swiftness of a leopard. Also, the wild beast out of the sea, seen in vision by the apostle John, was basically like a leopard.​—Re 13:1, 2; see BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

The Hebrew word laʹyish, otherwise translated “lion” (Job 4:11; Pr 30:30), is rendered “leopard” at Isaiah 30:6 (NW), the “lion” (la·viʼʹ) already having been mentioned in the same text.

LEPROSY

A disease designated in the Bible by the Hebrew term tsa·raʹʽath and the Greek word leʹpra. A person afflicted with it is called a leper.

In the Scriptures “leprosy” is not restricted to the disease known by that name today, for it could affect not only humans but also clothing and houses. (Le 14:55) The leprosy of today is otherwise called Hansen’s disease, so named because Dr. Gerhard A. Hansen discovered the germ that is generally thought to cause this malady. However, though tsa·raʹʽath applies to more than the leprosy of today, there is no doubt that human leprosy now called Hansen’s disease was in evidence in the Middle East in Biblical times.

Varieties, With Their Effects. Today leprosy, or Hansen’s disease, which is only slightly communicable, manifests itself in three basic varieties. One, the nodular type, results in a thickening of one’s skin and the forming of lumps, first in the skin on the face and then on other parts of the body. It also produces degenerative effects in mucous membranes of the victim’s nose and throat. This is known as black leprosy. Another type is anesthetic leprosy, sometimes called white leprosy. It is not as severe as black leprosy and basically affects the peripheral nerves. It may manifest itself in skin that is painful to the touch, though it can also result in numbness. The third type of leprosy, a mixed kind, combines the symptoms of both forms just described.

As leprosy progresses toward its advanced stage, the swellings that initially develop discharge pus, the hair may fall from one’s head and eyebrows, nails may loosen, decay, and fall off. Then the victim’s fingers, limbs, nose, or eyes may be slowly eaten away. Finally, in the most serious cases, death ensues. That Biblical “leprosy” certainly included such a serious disease is apparent from Aaron’s reference to it as a malady wherein the flesh is “half eaten off.”​—Nu 12:12.

This description helps one better to appreciate Biblical references to this dread malady and the dire consequences of Uzziah’s presumptuous act in improperly endeavoring to offer incense in Jehovah’s temple.​—2Ki 15:5; 2Ch 26:16-23.

Diagnosis. By means of the Mosaic Law, Jehovah provided Israel with information enabling the priest to diagnose leprosy and to distinguish between it and other less serious skin afflictions. From what is recorded at Leviticus 13:1-46, it can be seen that leprosy might begin with an eruption, a scab, a blotch, a boil, or a scar in one’s flesh from fire. Sometimes the symptoms were very clear. The hair in the affected area had turned white, and the malady was seen to be deeper than the skin. For example, a white eruption in the skin might turn the hair white, and raw flesh might appear in the eruption. This meant that one had leprosy and was to be declared unclean. However, in other cases the malady was not deeper than the skin and a period of quarantine was imposed, with subsequent inspection by the priest, who made a final determination in the case.

It was acknowledged that leprosy could reach a stage in which it was not contagious. When it overspread the entire body, all of it having turned white, and living flesh was not in evidence, it was a sign that the diseased action was over and that only the marks of its ravages remained. The priest would then declare the victim clean, the disease posing no further danger to anyone.​—Le 13:12-17.

If the leper’s malady left him and he was cured, there were arrangements whereby he could ceremonially purify himself, and these included the offering of sacrifice in his behalf by the priest. (Le 14:1-32) But if the priest declared the uncured leper unclean, the leper’s garments were to be torn, his head was to become ungroomed, he was to cover the mustache or upper lip, and he was to call out “Unclean, unclean!” He had to dwell in isolation outside the camp (Le 13:43-46), a measure that was taken so that the leper would not contaminate those in the midst of whom Jehovah was tenting. (Nu 5:1-4) It seems that in Biblical times lepers associated with one another or lived in groups, making it possible for them to aid one another.​—2Ki 7:3-5; Lu 17:12.

In garments and houses. Leprosy could also affect woolen or linen garments, or an article of skin. The plague might disappear with washing, and there were arrangements for quarantining the article. But where this yellowish-green or reddish plague persisted, malignant leprosy was present and the article was to be burned. (Le 13:47-59) If yellowish-green or reddish depressions appeared in the wall of a house, the priest imposed a quarantine. It might be necessary to tear out affected stones and have the house scraped off inside, the stones and scraped-off mortar being disposed of in an unclean place outside the city. If the plague returned, the house was declared unclean and was pulled down, and the materials were disposed of in an unclean place. But for the house pronounced clean there was an arrangement for purification. (Le 14:33-57) It has been suggested that the leprosy affecting garments or houses was a type of mildew or mold; however, about this there is uncertainty.

As a Sign. One of the signs Jehovah empowered Moses to perform to prove to the Israelites that God had sent him involved leprosy. As instructed, Moses stuck his hand in the upper fold of his garment, and upon his withdrawing it, “his hand was stricken with leprosy like snow!” It was restored “like the rest of his flesh” by his returning it into the upper fold of his garment and withdrawing it once again. (Ex 4:6, 7) Miriam was stricken with “leprosy as white as snow” as a divine act because she spoke against Moses. He begged God to heal her, which was done, but she was quarantined outside the camp for seven days.​—Nu 12:1, 2, 9-15.

In Elisha’s Time. Naaman the Syrian was “a valiant, mighty man, though a leper [or, struck with skin disease].” (2Ki 5:1, ftn) His pride nearly lost him the opportunity of being cured, but he eventually did as instructed by Elisha, plunging into the Jordan seven times, and “his flesh came back like the flesh of a little boy and he became clean.” (2Ki 5:14) He thereupon became a worshiper of Jehovah. However, Elisha’s attendant Gehazi greedily acquired a gift from Naaman in the prophet’s name, thus misrepresenting his master and, in effect, making the undeserved kindness of God a means of material gain. For his misdeed, Gehazi was stricken with leprosy by God and became “a leper white as snow.”​—2Ki 5:20-27.

That there were a number of lepers in Israel in Elisha’s day is shown by the presence of four Israelite lepers outside Samaria’s gates while Elisha was inside the city. (2Ki 7:3) But there was a general lack of faith on the part of the Israelites in this man of the true God, just as the Jews in Jesus’ home territory would not accept him. Hence, Christ said: “Also, there were many lepers in Israel in the time of Elisha the prophet, yet not one of them was cleansed, but Naaman the man of Syria.”​—Lu 4:27.

Healed by Jesus and His Disciples. During his Galilean ministry, Jesus healed a leper described by Luke as “a man full of leprosy.” Jesus ordered him to tell nobody and said: “But go off and show yourself to the priest, and make an offering in connection with your cleansing, just as Moses directed, for a witness to them.”​—Lu 5:12-16; Mt 8:2-4; Mr 1:40-45.

When Christ sent out the 12 apostles, he told them, among other things, “Make lepers clean.” (Mt 10:8) Later, while he was going through Samaria and Galilee, Jesus cured ten lepers in a certain village. Only one of them, a Samaritan, “turned back, glorifying God with a loud voice” and fell upon his face at Jesus’ feet, thanking him for what had been done in his behalf. (Lu 17:11-19) It may also be noted that Christ was in Bethany at the home of Simon the leper (whom Jesus may have cured) when Mary anointed Jesus with costly perfumed oil a few days before his death.​—Mt 26:6-13; Mr 14:3-9; Joh 12:1-8.

LESHEM

(Leʹshem).

Alternate name for the city of Laish, later called Dan.​—Jos 19:47; Jg 18:7, 27, 29; see DAN No. 3.

LESHEM STONE

(leshʹem).

An unidentified precious stone that was placed first in the third row of gems on the high priest’s “breastpiece of judgment.”​—Ex 28:15, 19; 39:12.

Various stones, such as amber, hyacinth, opal, and tourmaline, have been suggested as being identical with “leshem stone,” but none of these identifications can be substantiated. The New World Translation therefore leaves the Hebrew word untranslated as leshem stone.

LETTERS

The writing and sending of official, business, and personal letters was a widely used means of communication in ancient times.​—2Sa 11:14; 2Ki 5:5-7; 10:1, 2; 2Ch 30:1; Ezr 4:7; Isa 37:14; Jer 29:1; Ac 9:1, 2; 28:21; 2Th 2:2; Heb 13:22.

The Hebrew word seʹpher refers to anything that is written and has the various meanings “book; letter; writing; certificate; deed; written document.” The Greek word gramʹma can denote a letter of the alphabet or a written document. (2Co 3:7; Ac 28:21) The Greek term e·pi·sto·leʹ is used only with regard to a written message.​—1Co 5:9.

Confidential letters were usually sealed. (1Ki 21:8) Sanballat’s disrespectful action in sending an open letter to Nehemiah may have been intended to cause the false charges set forth therein to become public knowledge.​—Ne 6:5.

In addition to papyrus, materials employed for letter writing in ancient times included ostraca (small pieces of broken pottery or earthenware) and clay tablets. Thousands of clay tablets have been found in Babylonia and other regions. Washed and cleaned, smooth clay was made into a tablet and, while still wet, it was imprinted by means of a stylus forming wedge-shaped (cuneiform) characters. These tablets were often enclosed in clay envelopes. In the case of contracts, the text was sometimes repeated on the envelope. The envelopes were sealed and then baked in a kiln or dried in the sun to make them hard and durable.​—See ARCHAEOLOGY.

Letter writing was often done by professional scribes. As in the Persian court, such scribes were usually on hand to take down official government correspondence. (Es 8:9; Ezr 4:8) Scribes were also to be found in the marketplaces near city gates, where they could be engaged by the populace to write letters and to record business transactions.

Letters were sometimes delivered by messengers (2Ki 19:14), runners (2Ch 30:6), or couriers (Es 3:13; 8:14). Postal service itself seems to have been restricted to official correspondence down to Roman times. So average persons had to rely on traveling acquaintances or merchants to deliver their letters.

Anciently, letters of recommendation were also used. However, the apostle Paul did not need such letters to or from the Christians at Corinth to prove that he was a minister. He had helped them to become Christians and therefore could say: “You yourselves are our letter, inscribed on our hearts and known and being read by all mankind.”​—2Co 3:1-3.

In the first century C.E., letters from Paul, James, Peter, John, Jude, and the governing body in Jerusalem contributed to the growth and the preservation of the unity and cleanness of the Christian congregation.​—Ac 15:22-31; 16:4, 5; 2Co 7:8, 9; 10:8-11.

LETUSHIM

(Le·tuʹshim) [possibly from a root meaning “sharpen; hammer; forge”].

A name appearing among the descendants of Abraham and Keturah through Dedan. (Ge 25:3) This name has the plural Hebrew ending im, as do the names Asshurim and Leummim appearing in the same text. Because of this, many scholars believe that a tribe or people is meant. In view of their relationship to Dedan, this tribe likely located in the Arabian Peninsula, but precise identification is impossible.​—See MIZRAIM.

LEUMMIM

(Le·umʹmim) [Nation Groups; Populations].

A name appearing at Genesis 25:1-3 along with Asshurim and Letushim, all being descendants of Abraham and Keturah through Dedan. The use of the plural Hebrew ending im in the name Leummim may indicate that it represents a tribe or people. Specific identification of this Dedanite tribe is not possible. It has been suggested, however, that they inhabited some part of Arabia, likely in the vicinity generally assigned to Dedan.​—See MIZRAIM.

LEVELING INSTRUMENT

A device used in making surfaces level or at right angles to a plumb line. The “leveling instrument” (Heb., mish·qeʹleth or mish·qoʹleth) was employed by carpenters, stonemasons, and other craftsmen of ancient times to achieve horizontal accuracy when building walls and various structures, while the plummet was used to assure vertical accuracy. Egyptian masons seem to have employed a level shaped like the letter “A” with a short plumb line suspended from the apex. Evidently when the hanging line coincided with a center mark on the crossbar, this indicated that the surface on which it was placed was level. The Scriptures furnish no description of leveling instruments, however, and they refer to this device only in figurative ways.

A leveling instrument may be used to construct a building properly or to test its fitness for preservation. Jehovah foretold that he would apply to wayward Jerusalem “the measuring line applied to Samaria and also the leveling instrument applied to the house of Ahab.” God had measured and found Samaria and the house of King Ahab to be morally bad or crooked, resulting in their destruction. Likewise, God would judge Jerusalem and its rulers, exposing their wickedness and bringing about the destruction of that city. These events actually occurred in 607 B.C.E. (2Ki 21:10-13; 10:11) Through Isaiah the various wicked braggarts and rulers of the people in Jerusalem were apprised of their coming calamity and of Jehovah’s declaration: “I will make justice the measuring line and righteousness the leveling instrument.” The standards of true justice and genuine righteousness would reveal who were really God’s servants and who were not, resulting in either preservation or destruction.​—Isa 28:14-19.

LEVI

(Leʹvi) [Adherence; Joined].

1. Jacob’s third son by his wife Leah, born in Paddan-aram. (Ge 35:23, 26) At his birth Leah said: “Now this time my husband will join himself to me, because I have borne him three sons.” The boy was therefore called Levi, the meaning of this name evidently being linked with Leah’s hope for a new bond of affection between her and Jacob. (Ge 29:34) Levi became the father of Gershon (Gershom), Kohath, and Merari, founders of the three principal divisions of the Levites.​—Ge 46:11; 1Ch 6:1, 16.

Levi, along with his brother Simeon, took drastic action against the defilers of their sister Dinah. (Ge 34:25, 26, 31) This expression of violent anger was cursed by Jacob, who foretold that Levi’s descendants would be scattered in Israel, a prophecy that was fulfilled when the Levites were indeed scattered throughout 48 Levite cities in the territories of Israel’s various tribes in the land of Canaan. (Ge 49:7; Jos 21:41) Levi accompanied Jacob into Egypt and died there at 137 years of age.​—Ex 1:1, 2; 6:16; see LEVITES.

2. An ancestor of Jesus Christ who is referred to as the “son of Symeon” in the genealogy of Jesus recorded by Luke. He is listed in the line between David and Zerubbabel.​—Lu 3:27-31.

3. The “son of Melchi,” who is the second person preceding Heli (Mary’s father) in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus.​—Lu 3:23, 24.

4. A tax collector (Mr 2:14; Lu 5:27, 29) who became an apostle of Jesus Christ and was otherwise known as Matthew.​—Mt 9:9; 10:2-4; see MATTHEW.

LEVIATHAN

[Heb., liw·ya·thanʹ].

This Hebrew word occurs six times in the Bible. It is believed to come from a root word meaning “wreath”; hence the name indicates something that is “wreathed,” or “gathered into folds.” The word is transliterated in most Bible translations.

Since, with the exception of Job 3:8, the references mention water in connection with it, Leviathan appears to signify some form of aquatic creature of great proportions and strength, although not necessarily of one specific kind. Psalm 104:25, 26 describes it as cavorting in the sea where ships travel, and for this reason many suggest that the term here applies to some type of whale. Though whales are rare in the Mediterranean, they are not unknown there, and parts of two whale skeletons can be found in a museum at Beirut in Lebanon. An American Translation here says “crocodile” instead of Leviathan. Additionally, the word “sea” (yam) by itself is not determinative inasmuch as in Hebrew it can refer to a large inland body of water such as the Sea of Galilee (Sea of Chinnereth) (Nu 34:11; Jos 12:3), or even to the river Nile (Isa 19:5) or the Euphrates.​—Jer 51:36.

The description of “Leviathan” at Job 41:1-34 aptly fits the crocodile, and the “sea” of verse 31 may refer to a river such as the Nile or another body of fresh water. It should be noted, however, that some crocodiles, as the Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), are found along the seacoast and at times go out into the sea some distance from land.

Psalm 74 describes God’s record of salvation for his people, and verses 13 and 14 refer symbolically to his deliverance of Israel from Egypt. Here the term “sea monsters [Heb., than·ni·nimʹ, plural of tan·ninʹ]” is used as a parallel expression to “Leviathan,” and the crushing of the heads of Leviathan may well refer to the crushing defeat administered to Pharaoh and his army at the time of the Exodus. The Aramaic Targums here give “the strong ones of Pharaoh” in place of “the heads of Leviathan.” (Compare Eze 29:3-5, where Pharaoh is likened to a “great sea monster” in the midst of the Nile canals; also Eze 32:2.) Isaiah 27:1 apparently employs Leviathan (LXX, “the dragon”) as a symbol of an empire, an organization that is international in scope and that is dominated by one who himself is referred to as “serpent” and “dragon.” (Re 12:9) The prophecy is one of restoration for Israel, and therefore Jehovah’s ‘turning attention’ to Leviathan must include Babylon. However, verses 12 and 13 consider Assyria and Egypt as well. So, Leviathan here evidently refers to an international organization or empire that is in opposition to Jehovah and his worshipers.

LEVIRATE MARRIAGE

See BROTHER-IN-LAW MARRIAGE.

LEVITE CITIES

The Levites were given no territorial allotment, Jehovah being their inheritance. (Nu 18:20; De 18:1, 2) But God directed that the other tribes of Israel give them a total of 48 cities and surrounding pasture grounds. (Nu 35:1-8) Such cities were ultimately assigned to the Levites (Jos 21:1-8), and 13 of them were priestly cities. (Jos 21:19; see PRIESTS’ CITIES.) Of the 48 cities, 6 were assigned as cities of refuge for unintentional manslayers.​—Jos 20:7-9; see CITIES OF REFUGE.

The scattering of the Levites among the other tribes of Israel was in fulfillment of Jacob’s deathbed prophecy.​—Ge 49:5-7.

The Levites had the right to repurchase at any time houses they sold within their cities, or these were restored to them during the Jubilee year. But the pasturelands adjacent to their cities were never to be sold.​—Le 25:32-34; see LEVITES.

LEVITES

[Of (Belonging to) Levi].

Descendants of Levi, third son of Jacob by Leah. (Ge 29:32-34) At times the term applies to the whole tribe, but usually it excludes the priestly family of Aaron (Jos 14:3, 4; 21:1-3); thus the expression “priests and Levites” is common. (1Ki 8:4; 1Ch 23:2; Ezr 1:5; Joh 1:19) Priestly duties were confined to the male members of Aaron’s family, with the Levites, the rest of the tribe, acting as their assistants. (Nu 3:3, 6-10) This arrangement began with the setting up of the tabernacle, as before this no particular family or tribe was assigned to offer the sacrifices.​—Ex 24:5.

Taken as a Ransom for Firstborn. The Levites were chosen by Jehovah in place of all the firstborn of the other tribes. (Ex 13:1, 2, 11-16; Nu 3:41) Counting from a month old upward, there were 22,000 Levite males who could be exchanged for the same number of firstborn males of the other tribes. The census taken in the Wilderness of Sinai revealed that there were 22,273 firstborn sons in the other tribes. Therefore, God required that a ransom price of five shekels ($11) be given to Aaron and his sons for each of the 273 firstborn in excess of the Levites.​—Nu 3:39, 43, 46-51.

Duties. The Levites were made up of three families, from Levi’s sons Gershon (Gershom), Kohath, and Merari. (Ge 46:11; 1Ch 6:1, 16) Each of these families was assigned a place near the tabernacle in the wilderness. The Kohathite family of Aaron camped in front of the tabernacle to the east. The other Kohathites camped on the south side, the Gershonites on the west, and the Merarites on the north. (Nu 3:23, 29, 35, 38) Setting up, dismantling, and carrying the tabernacle was the work of the Levites. When it was time to move, Aaron and his sons took down the curtain dividing the Holy from the Most Holy and covered the ark of the testimony, the altars, and other sacred furniture and utensils. The Kohathites then carried these things. The Gershonites transported the tent cloths, coverings, screens, courtyard hangings, and tent cords (evidently the cords of the tabernacle itself), and the Merarites took care of the panel frames, pillars, socket pedestals, tent pins and cords (cords of the courtyard surrounding the tabernacle).​—Nu 1:50, 51; 3:25, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37; 4:4-33; 7:5-9.

The work of the Levites was highly organized under David, who appointed supervisors, officers, judges, gatekeepers, and treasurers, as well as a vast number to assist the priests in the temple, the courtyards, and the dining rooms in connection with the offerings, sacrifices, purification work, weighing, measuring, and various guard duties. Levite musicians were organized into 24 groups, similar to the priestly divisions, and served in rotation. Duties were determined by casting lots. In the case of the groups of gatekeepers, the particular gate assignment was chosen in the same way.​—1Ch 23, 25, 26; 2Ch 35:3-5, 10.

In Moses’ day it was at 30 years of age that a Levite assumed his full duties, such as bearing the tabernacle and its articles when it was being moved. (Nu 4:46-49) Some duties could be performed from the age of 25, but apparently not the laborious service, such as transporting the tabernacle. (Nu 8:24) In King David’s time the age was reduced to 20 years. The reason David gave was that the tabernacle (now to be replaced by the temple) would no longer have to be carried about. Assignments of obligatory service terminated at the age of 50 years. (Nu 8:25, 26; 1Ch 23:24-26; see AGE.) The Levites needed to be well versed in the Law, often being called upon to read it in public and to teach it to the common people.​—1Ch 15:27; 2Ch 5:12; 17:7-9; Ne 8:7-9.

Maintenance. Maintenance of the Levites was mainly by tithes from the other tribes, a tenth of everything produced from the ground and the cattle being given them. The Levites, in turn, passed on a tenth of this to the priests. (Nu 18:25-29; 2Ch 31:4-8; Ne 10:38, 39) Also, though the Levites were exempt from military service, they, along with the priests, shared some of the spoils of battle. (Nu 1:45-49; 31:25-31; see TITHE.) The Levites received no territorial allotment in Canaan, Jehovah being their share. (Nu 18:20) However, other tribes of Israel gave them a total of 48 cities scattered throughout the Promised Land.​—Nu 35:1-8.

Provided Supporters of True Worship. The Levites supplied some notable examples of enthusiasm for true worship. This was evident in the golden-calf incident and again when Levites moved out of Jeroboam’s territory following the split in the kingdom. (Ex 32:26; 2Ch 11:13, 14) They were also zealous in their support of Kings Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah as well as of Governors Zerubbabel and Nehemiah and the priest-scribe Ezra in their efforts to restore true worship in Israel.​—2Ch 17:7-9; 29:12-17; 30:21, 22; 34:12, 13; Ezr 10:15; Ne 9:4, 5, 38.

As a tribe, however, they did not support the Son of God in his work of restoration, although some individual Levites became Christians. (Ac 4:36, 37) Many of the Levite priests became obedient to the faith. (Ac 6:7) With the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 70 C.E., the family records of the Levites were lost or destroyed, bringing the Levitical system to an end. But, a “tribe of Levi” constitutes part of spiritual Israel.​—Re 7:4, 7.

The name of the tribe is also the basis for the name of the Bible book Leviticus. This book deals extensively with the Levites and their duties.

LEVITICUS

The third book of the Pentateuch, containing laws from God on sacrifices, purity, and other matters connected with Jehovah’s worship. The Levitical priesthood, carrying out its instructions, rendered sacred service in “a typical representation and a shadow of the heavenly things.”​—Heb 8:3-5; 10:1.

Period Covered. Not more than a month is covered by the events given in the book. Most of Leviticus is devoted to listing Jehovah’s ordinances rather than recounting various happenings over an extended period of time. The tabernacle’s erection on the first day of the first month in the second year of Israel’s departure from Egypt is mentioned in the final chapter of Exodus, the book preceding Leviticus. (Ex 40:17) Then, the book of Numbers (immediately following the Leviticus account) in its first verses (1:1-3) begins with God’s command to take a census, stated to Moses “on the first day of the second month in the second year of their coming out of the land of Egypt.”

When and Where Written. The logical time for the writing of the book would be 1512 B.C.E., at Sinai in the wilderness. Testifying that Leviticus was indeed written in the wilderness are its references that reflect camp life.​—Le 4:21; 10:4, 5; 14:8; 17:1-5.

Writer. All the foregoing evidence likewise helps to identify the writer as Moses. He received the information from Jehovah (Le 26:46), and the book’s closing words are: “These are the commandments that Jehovah gave Moses as commands to the sons of Israel in Mount Sinai.” (27:34) Besides, Leviticus is a part of the Pentateuch, the writer of which is generally acknowledged to be Moses. Not only does the opening “And . . . ” of Leviticus indicate its connection with Exodus, and therefore with the rest of the Pentateuch, but the way in which Jesus Christ and the writers of the Christian Scriptures refer to it shows that they knew it to be the writing of Moses and an unquestionable part of the Pentateuch. For example, see Christ’s reference to Leviticus 14:1-32 (Mt 8:2-4), Luke’s reference to Leviticus 12:2-4, 8 (Lu 2:22-24), and Paul’s paraphrasing of Leviticus 18:5 (Ro 10:5).

Dead Sea Leviticus Scrolls. Among the manuscripts found at the Dead Sea, nine contain fragments of the book of Leviticus. Four of them, believed to date from 125 to 75 B.C.E., were written in ancient Hebrew characters that were in use before the Babylonian exile.

Value of the Book. God promised Israel that if they obeyed his voice they would become to him “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex 19:6) The book of Leviticus contains a record of God’s installing a priesthood for his nation and giving them the statutes that would enable them to maintain holiness in his eyes. Even though Israel was only God’s typical “holy nation,” whose priests were “rendering sacred service in a typical representation and a shadow of the heavenly things” (Heb 8:4, 5), God’s law, if obeyed, would have kept them clean and in line for filling the membership of his spiritual “royal priesthood, a holy nation.” (1Pe 2:9) But the disobedience of the majority deprived Israel of filling exclusively the place of membership in the Kingdom of God, as Jesus told the Jews. (Mt 21:43) Nevertheless, the laws set down in the book of Leviticus were of inestimable value to those heeding them.

Through the sanitary and dietary laws, as well as the regulations on sexual morality, they were provided with safeguards against disease and depravity. (Le chaps 11-15, 18) Especially, however, did these laws benefit them spiritually, because they enabled them to get acquainted with Jehovah’s holy and righteous ways and they helped them to conform to His ways. (11:44) Furthermore, the regulations set out in this portion of the Bible, as part of the Law, served as a tutor leading believing ones to Jesus Christ, God’s great High Priest and the one foreshadowed by the countless sacrifices offered in accord with the Law.​—Ga 3:19, 24; Heb 7:26-28; 9:11-14; 10:1-10.

The book of Leviticus continues to be of great value to all today who desire to serve Jehovah acceptably. A study of the fulfillment of its various features in connection with Jesus Christ, the ransom sacrifice, and the Christian congregation is indeed faith strengthening. While it is true that Christians are not under the Law covenant (Heb 7:11, 12, 19; 8:13; 10:1), the regulations set out in the book of Leviticus give them insight into God’s viewpoint on matters. The book is, therefore, not a mere recounting of dry, inapplicable details, but a live source of information. By getting a knowledge of how God views various matters, some of which are not specifically covered in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the Christian can be helped to avoid what displeases God and to do what pleases him.

[Box on page 243]

HIGHLIGHTS OF LEVITICUS

God’s laws, especially concerning the service of the priests in Israel, with emphasis, for the benefit of the nation as a whole, on the seriousness of sin and the importance of being holy because Jehovah is holy

Written by Moses in 1512 B.C.E., while Israel was camped at Mount Sinai

Aaronic priesthood is installed and begins to function

Moses carries out the seven-day installation procedure (8:1-36)

On the eighth day, the priesthood begins to function; Jehovah manifests his approval by displaying his glory and consuming the offering on the altar (9:1-24)

Jehovah strikes down Nadab and Abihu for offering illegitimate fire; subsequently the use of alcoholic drinks when one is serving at the sanctuary is forbidden (10:1-11)

Requirements are outlined for those who will serve as priests; regulations are laid down about eating what is holy (21:1–22:16)

Use of sacrifices in maintaining an approved relationship with God

Laws are given regarding animals acceptable as burnt offerings and how they should be prepared for presentation (1:1-17; 6:8-13; 7:8)

Kinds of grain offerings are stipulated as well as how they are to be presented to Jehovah (2:1-16; 6:14-18; 7:9, 10)

Procedure is laid down for handling communion sacrifices; the eating of blood and fat is forbidden (3:1-17; 7:11-36)

Animals are specified for sin offering in the case of a priest, the assembly of Israel, a chieftain, or one of the people; procedure for handling this offering is outlined (4:1-35; 6:24-30)

Laws are given on situations requiring guilt offerings (5:1–6:7; 7:1-7)

Instructions are handed down regarding the offering to be made on the day of the priest’s being anointed (6:19-23)

All offerings must be sound; defects making an animal unfit for sacrifice are listed (22:17-33)

Atonement Day procedures are outlined involving the sacrifice of a bull and two goats​—one goat for Jehovah and the other for Azazel (16:2-34)

Detailed regulations to safeguard against uncleanness and to maintain holiness

Certain animals are acceptable as clean for food and others are prohibited as unclean; uncleanness results from contact with dead bodies (11:1-47)

A woman should be purified from her uncleanness after giving birth (12:1-8)

Procedures for handling cases of leprosy are detailed (13:1–14:57)

Uncleanness results from sexual discharges, and purification is required (15:1-33)

Holiness must be maintained by respecting sanctity of blood and by shunning incest, sodomy, bestiality, slander, spiritism, and other detestable practices (17:1–20:27)

Sabbaths and seasonal festivals to Jehovah

Sabbath days and years as well as regulations and principles touching the Jubilee are laid down (23:1-3; 25:1-55)

The manner of observing the annual Festival of Unfermented Cakes (following Passover) and the Festival of Weeks (later called Pentecost) is detailed (23:4-21)

The procedure for observing the Day of Atonement and the Festival of Booths is outlined (23:26-44)

Blessings for obedience, maledictions for disobedience

Blessings for obedience will include bountiful harvests, peace, and security (26:3-13)

Maledictions because of disobedience will include disease, defeat by enemies, famine, destruction of cities, desolation of land, and exile (26:14-45)

LIBERTY

See FREEDOM; JUBILEE.

LIBNAH

(Libʹnah) [from a root meaning “white”; or, possibly, “storax tree”].

1. An Israelite wilderness encampment. Its location is unknown.​—Nu 33:20, 21.

2. A royal Canaanite city taken by Joshua before the conquest of Lachish. (Jos 10:29-32, 39; 12:15) Libnah was one of the cities in the territory of Judah given to “the sons of Aaron.” (Jos 15:21, 42; 21:13; 1Ch 6:57) Centuries later King Josiah’s father-in-law lived there.​—2Ki 23:31; 24:18; Jer 52:1.

At the time of the Edomite revolt in the tenth century B.C.E., Libnah also rebelled against Judean King Jehoram. (2Ki 8:22; 2Ch 21:10) In 732 B.C.E., Assyrian King Sennacherib’s army moved from Lachish to Libnah. He had sent a military detachment from Lachish to threaten Jerusalem. While at Libnah, the Assyrians received reports that Tirhakah the king of Ethiopia intended to fight them. Therefore, Sennacherib, to encourage Jerusalem’s surrender, sent messengers a second time with intimidating letters to Hezekiah the king of Judah. Subsequently Jehovah’s angel slew 185,000 of the Assyrian host, apparently still encamped near Libnah.​—2Ki 19:8-35; Isa 37:8-36.

Tell es-Safi has been suggested as a possible identification of ancient Libnah. However, since the weight of evidence points to identifying Tell es-Safi with Gath, contemporary scholars tend to identify Libnah with Tell Bornat (Tel Burena), about 8 km (5 mi) NNE of Lachish.