(Kabʹze·el) [God Has Collected].

A city in the southern part of Judah. (Jos 15:21) It is tentatively identified with Khirbet Hora (Horvat Hur), about 10 km (6 mi) ENE of Beer-sheba. The Hebrew text of 2 Samuel 23:20 and 1 Chronicles 11:22 has been variously understood to mean that Kabzeel was (1) the home of the distinguished warrior Benaiah, (2) the home of one of his progenitors or the place where such a one performed notable deeds, or (3) the scene for Benaiah’s many deeds. (Compare AS; KJ; JB; Le; NW; RS.) An alternate form, “Jekabzeel,” appears at Nehemiah 11:25 in a listing of postexilic settlements in Judah.

(Kaʹdesh) [Holy Place], Kadesh-barnea (Kaʹdesh-barʹne·a) [Holy Place of Barnea].

An Israelite wilderness encampment situated at the extremity of Edomite territory near “the way to Shur,” perhaps the modern Darb el-Shur extending from Hebron to Egypt. (Ge 16:7, 14; Nu 20:14-16 [Heb. ʽir (city) at Nu 20:16 may simply mean encampment; compare Nu 13:19.]) Apparently 11 days’ travel distance by way of Mount Seir separated Kadesh-barnea from Horeb.​—De 1:2.

Kadesh is spoken of as being located in both the Wilderness of Paran and the Wilderness of Zin. Possibly Zin and Paran were adjoining wildernesses that met at Kadesh, and therefore, the site could be referred to as lying in either one. Or, the Wilderness of Zin may have been part of the larger Wilderness of Paran. (Nu 13:26; 20:1) In Abraham’s time the place was known both as En-mishpat and as Kadesh. (Ge 14:7; 20:1) It is perhaps the same site as Kedesh.​—Jos 15:21, 23.

ʽAin Qedeis, about 80 km (50 mi) SSW of Beer-sheba, has been suggested as a possible identification for Kadesh. In the midst of a desolate wilderness (compare De 1:19), the pure and sweet water of the spring at Qedeis supports an oasis of grass, shrubs, and trees. There are also two other springs in the vicinity, ʽAin el-Qudeirat and ʽAin el-Qeseimeh. Today the largest of the three springs is ʽAin el-Qudeirat, and for this reason some favor identifying it with Kadesh-barnea. However, ʽAin Qedeis is the most easterly spring. Consequently, the identification of ʽAin Qedeis with Kadesh-barnea seems to be more in line with the description of the E-W course of Canaan’s southern boundary: Kadesh-barnea (ʽAin Qedeis?), Hazar-addar (ʽAin el-Qudeirat?), and Azmon (ʽAin el-Qeseimeh?).​—Nu 34:3-5.

If the Israelites did encamp in this area, because of the vast multitude they doubtless used all three springs. For example, the encampment just before crossing the Jordan spread out “from Beth-jeshimoth to Abel-shittim.” (Nu 33:49) That was a distance of about 8 km (5 mi), according to the suggested sites for those places. The distance from Kadesh-barnea (ʽAin Qedeis) to Azmon (ʽAin el-Qeseimeh) is about 14 km (8.5 mi); and to Hazar-addar (ʽAin el-Qudeirat) is 9 km (5.5 mi). So, for them to have used all three springs is not an unreasonable possibility. It is also possible that the whole area was called Kadesh-barnea with the name preserved in the SE spring.​—See ADDAR No. 2; AZMON.

In the second year after their Exodus from Egypt, the Israelites pulled away from Hazeroth and encamped at Kadesh-barnea. (Compare Nu 10:11, 12, 33, 34; 12:16; 13:26.) Moses then sent 12 men to spy out the Promised Land. Ten of these spies brought back a bad report, resulting in rebellious murmurings among the Israelites. Jehovah, therefore, sentenced the nation to wander in the wilderness. Israel’s subsequent attempt to take Canaan without divine approval and direction brought humiliating defeat. (Nu 13:1-16, 25-29; 14:1-9, 26-34, 44, 45; 32:7-13; De 1:41-45) For some time thereafter the Israelites stayed at Kadesh-barnea. (De 1:46) But it was not Jehovah’s purpose for them to remain there. Earlier he had said to them: “While the Amalekites and the Canaanites are dwelling in the low plain, you people make a turn tomorrow [a Heb. idiom meaning “later on,” as at Ex 13:14] and pull away to march to the wilderness by way of the Red Sea.”​—Nu 14:25.

Accordingly, the Israelites left Kadesh-barnea and walked about in the wilderness for 38 years. (De 2:1, 14) It seems that during these years they spent time at some 18 different places, this being the number of camp stages listed after the Israelites left Hazeroth. (Compare Nu 12:16–13:3, 25, 26; 33:16-36.) Although Israel encamped at Kadesh after departing from Hazeroth, Numbers 33:18 does not mention Kadesh after Hazeroth. This may have been an intentional omission or perhaps, as some have suggested in the past, Kadesh may be the same as Rithmah.

Finally the Israelites appear to have returned to Kadesh in the first month of the 40th year after the Exodus. (Nu 20:1; 33:36-39) Moses’ sister Miriam died there. Later, Moses and Aaron lost the privilege of entering the Promised Land for failing to sanctify Jehovah in connection with the miraculous provision of water for the Israelites encamped at Kadesh. From there Moses subsequently asked Edom’s permission to pass through its territory. (Nu 20:1-17) This request was denied, and seemingly the Israelites remained a while longer at Kadesh (Nu 20:18; Jg 11:16, 17) before moving on toward the Promised Land by way of Mount Hor. (Nu 20:22; 33:37) When they reached the Plains of Moab, E of the Jordan, Jehovah designated Kadesh-barnea as a part of the southern border of the Promised Land. (Nu 33:50; 34:4) Later, the Israelites under Joshua conquered the area extending from Kadesh-barnea to Gaza (Jos 10:41), and Kadesh-barnea came to be on the southern boundary of Judah.​—Jos 15:1-4.

Psalm 29:8 speaks of Jehovah’s voice as causing the Wilderness of Kadesh ‘to writhe.’ The allusion may be to a violent storm that rushes from the mountains of the N to the region of Kadesh in the S and there blows about the sands in such a way as to give the appearance of a writhing wilderness.

(Kadʹmi·el) [God Confronts; God Goes in Front].

A Levite returning to Jerusalem (with Zerubbabel) accompanied by members of his family. (Ezr 2:1, 2, 40; Ne 7:6, 7, 43; 12:1, 8, 24) Kadmiel and his sons helped supervise the temple reconstruction.​—Ezr 3:9.

The time period between the return from Babylonian exile (537 B.C.E.) and the confession of the nation’s sins against Jehovah in Nehemiah’s day (455 B.C.E.), which was followed by the attesting by seal of the “trustworthy arrangement” (Ne 9:4, 5, 38; 10:1, 9, 10), does not allow for the same Kadmiel to be identified with all these affairs. No doubt a representative of Kadmiel’s house participated in these latter two events.

(Kadʹmon·ites) [from a root meaning “east”].

A people listed among other nations whose lands Jehovah promised to Abram’s seed. (Ge 15:18-21) They were evidently a pastoral or nomadic tribe, like the Kenites and Kenizzites with whom they are mentioned. (Ge 15:19) The exact location of their territory is uncertain, although it is suggested that they inhabited the Syrian desert between Palestine-Syria and the Euphrates River.

The Hebrew name of this people (qadh·moh·niʹ) has the same form as the adjective qadh·moh·niʹ (eastern, Eze 47:18); thus some suggest that it may merely mean “Easterners.” (Jg 8:10) However, the fact that this Hebrew term is used as a name at Genesis 15:19 shows that it can refer to a specific tribe.

(Kaʹin) [from a root meaning “produce; acquire; buy”].

1. A name employed in a proverbial utterance of Balaam to refer to the tribe of the Kenites. (Nu 24:22) It is rendered “the Kenites” at Judges 4:11.​—See KENITE.

2. A city in the mountainous region of Judah. (Jos 15:1, 48, 57) It is identified with en-Nebi Yaqin, about 6 km (3.5 mi) SE of Hebron.

(Kaiʹwan).

Apparently a star-god, as indicated by the fact that the name Kaiwan is put in a parallelism with “the star of your god.” (Am 5:26) Evidently the Akkadian star kaimanu or kaiwanu is meant, since this occurs in Akkadian inscriptions as the name of Saturn (a star-god). In the Masoretic text the name was intentionally vowel pointed to correspond with the Hebrew word shiq·qutsʹ (disgusting thing). In the Greek Septuagint, “Kaiwan” is rendered Rhai·phanʹ, presumably the Egyptian designation for Saturn; and in Stephen’s quotation, at Acts 7:43, Rhom·phaʹ appears in the Westcott and Hort Greek text.​—See ASTROLOGERS; REPHAN.

(Kalʹlai).

A priest in the days of the high priest Joiakim. He was the head of the paternal house of Sallai.​—Ne 12:12, 20, 26.

(Kaʹmon).

The burial place of Judge Jair. (Jg 10:5) Josephus speaks of Kamon as “a city of Gilead.” (Jewish Antiquities, V, 254 [vii, 6]) This seems to fit the Scriptural reference to Jair’s being a “Gileadite.” (Jg 10:3) Two locations E of the Jordan are commonly presented for ancient Kamon. One is Qamm, about 18 km (11 mi) SE of the Sea of Galilee. But its ruins give no evidence of habitation before Roman times. The other suggestion is the site of the less impressive ruins of undetermined antiquity at Qumeim, about 3 km (2 mi) farther S.

(Kaʹnah) [Reed; Cane].

1. A torrent valley that served as a boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh. (Jos 16:8; 17:9) Today it is usually linked with the Wadi Qanah (Nahal Qana). This small stream rises in the hill country a few kilometers SW of Nablus and, as the Wadi Ishkar, flows in a southwesterly direction and then joins the Wadi Yarkon (Nahal Yarqon), which empties into the Mediterranean Sea N of Tel Aviv-Yafo. However, some scholars believe that in Joshua’s day the lower course of the Wadi Qanah perhaps flowed directly into the Mediterranean at a point about 10 km (6 mi) farther N.

2. A boundary city of Asher. (Jos 19:24, 28) It is generally identified with modern Qana, about 12 km (7.5 mi) ESE of Tyre.

[כ; final, ך].

The 11th letter of the Hebrew alphabet. In sound kaph corresponds to kh when not having the point (daghesh lene) in it; but with this point in it (ּכ), it becomes hard like the English “k.” In the Hebrew, it is the initial letter in each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:81-88. The letters kaph [כ] and behth [ב] are similar in appearance.

(Ka·reʹah) [Bald; Baldness].

A man of Judah whose sons Johanan and Jonathan were chiefs of military forces in Judah. This was at the time Gedaliah was commissioned by the king of Babylon to govern the Judeans who had not been taken into Babylonian exile following the destruction of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E.​—2Ki 25:21-23; Jer 40:7, 8.

(Karʹka) [Floor].

A site on Judah’s S boundary between Addar (No. 2) and Azmon. (Jos 15:1-4) The exact location is today uncertain. Some scholars tentatively identify it with a well-built pool discovered at the confluence of Wadi el-ʽAin and Wadi Umm Hashim, about 4 km (2.5 mi) ESE of Azmon (ʽAin el-Qeseimeh).​—See KADESH, KADESH-BARNEA.

(Karʹkor).

The campsite E of the Jordan from which the remaining forces of Midianite Kings Zebah and Zalmunna were routed by Judge Gideon’s surprise military maneuver. (Jg 8:10, 11) Karkor’s exact location is today unknown.

(Karʹtah) [from a root meaning “town”].

A city given to the Merarite Levites out of the inheritance of Zebulun. (Jos 21:34) Some consider it to be the same as Kattath.​—Jos 19:15.

(Karʹtan) [form of Kiriathaim, meaning “Double Town”].

A city of Naphtali given to the Gershonite Levites. (Jos 21:27, 32) It is apparently called Kiriathaim at 1 Chronicles 6:76. Kartan is usually identified with Khirbet el-Qureiyeh, about 21 km (13 mi) WNW of the Hula Basin.

(Katʹtath).

A city of Zebulun (Jos 19:10, 15), often considered to be the same as Kitron.​—Jg 1:30.

(Keʹdar) [from a root meaning “be dark”].

1. One of the 12 sons of Ishmael.​—Ge 25:13-15; 1Ch 1:29-31.

2. An Arab tribe descended from Ishmael’s son Kedar and classed with “the sons of the East.” Their land is also called Kedar. (Jer 2:10; 49:28, 29) A nomadic and pastoral people, having herds of sheep, goats, and camels (Isa 60:7; Jer 49:28, 29), the Kedarites evidently inhabited the Syro-Arabian desert E of Palestine in the NW part of the Arabian Peninsula. The reference to “the settlements that Kedar inhabits” (Isa 42:11), while possibly referring to temporary encampments, may instead indicate that a portion of them were somewhat settled. Perhaps because of their importance among the Arab tribes, the name of Kedar in later times came to apply to desert tribes in general. In the Targums and in rabbinic literature, Arabia itself is sometimes called Kedar.

The Shulammite girl of The Song of Solomon likened her swarthy appearance to “the tents of Kedar” (Ca 1:5, 6; compare Ps 120:5), these likely being made of black goat’s hair, as are the tents of many modern-day Bedouin. Ezekiel’s prophecy mentions “the chieftains of Kedar” along with the Arabs as merchants of male lambs, rams, and he-goats for the commercial city of Tyre.​—Eze 27:21.

During the time of Assyria’s dominance in the Middle East, the prophet Isaiah foretold the sudden decline of Kedar’s glory, her mighty bowmen being reduced to a mere remnant. (Isa 21:16, 17) The Kedarites are evidently the Qidri or Qadri referred to in Assyrian records of warring campaigns. Assyrian King Ashurbanipal includes them with the Aribi (Arabs) and Nebaioth (compare Isa 60:7) in one campaign account and boasts of the asses, camels, and sheep taken from them as booty.

At a later time, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, struck down Kedar. (Jer 49:28, 29) The monarch’s conquest of N Arabia is mentioned by Babylonian historian Berossus, quoted by Josephus.​—Against Apion, I, 129, 133 (19).

A silver bowl (considered to be of the fifth century B.C.E.) found at Tell el-Maskhutah in Egypt bears the Aramaic inscription: “Qainu bar [son of] Gesem [Geshem], king of Qedar [Kedar].” The Geshem meant in this case may possibly be “Geshem the Arabian” who opposed the work of rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall in Nehemiah’s day.​—Ne 2:19; 6:1, 2, 6.

Assyrian records indicate that at the shrine of King Hazail of Kedar there were images of the following false deities: Atarsamain (the Assyrians identified her with Ishtar Dilbat), Dai, Nahai, Ruldaiu, Atarquruma, and Abirillu. A star of gold decorated with precious stones served as a symbol of the goddess Atarsamain. According to the Babylonian Talmud (Taʽanit 5b), the people of Kedar also worshiped water.

(Kedʹe·mah) [Eastward; Toward the East].

A son of Ishmael, named last in order at Genesis 25:15 and 1 Chronicles 1:31. In fulfillment of Jehovah’s promise to Abraham (Ge 17:20), Kedemah was one of the 12 chieftains produced by Ishmael.

(Kedʹe·moth) [from a root meaning “east”].

The name applied to a city E of the Jordan and apparently also to the wilderness surrounding it. From the Wilderness of Kedemoth, Moses sent messengers to Amorite King Sihon, requesting permission to pass through his land. (De 2:26, 27) Originally given to the Reubenites, Kedemoth was later assigned to the Merarite Levites. (Jos 13:15, 18; 21:34, 36, 37; 1Ch 6:77-79) Scholars generally favor as a possible identification one of the tells near where the torrent valley of Arnon begins, such as Qasr ez-Zaʽfaran, situated about 16 km (10 mi) NE of what is thought to be the site of ancient Dibon.

(Keʹdesh) [Holy Place].

1. A city in southern Judah (Jos 15:21, 23), possibly the same as Kadesh-barnea.​—See KADESH, KADESH-BARNEA.

2. A city of Naphtali given to the Gershonites and set aside as a city of refuge. (Jos 20:7; 21:32, 33; 1Ch 6:71, 76) Because of its location it was also called “Kedesh-naphtali” (Jg 4:6) and “Kedesh in Galilee.” (Jos 20:7) Apparently the residence of Judge Barak, Kedesh served as the rallying point for his 10,000 men from Naphtali and Zebulun prior to their victory over the Canaanite army under Sisera. (Jg 4:6, 10) Centuries later the city was conquered by Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser III during the rule of Israel’s King Pekah (c. 778-759 B.C.E.).​—2Ki 15:29.

Kedesh has been identified with Tell Qades (Tel Qedesh), a mound overlooking a small, fertile plain about 20 km (12 mi) SW of Dan.

3. A site in Issachar assigned to “the sons of Gershom” (1Ch 6:71, 72), seemingly the same as the “Kishion” mentioned in the parallel list at Joshua 21:28. Tell Abu Qedeis (Tel Qedesh), about 4 km (2.5 mi) SE of Megiddo, has been suggested as a possible identification. This would seem to fit Joshua 12:21, 22, where Kedesh appears to be placed in the vicinity of Megiddo and Jokneam. Since Barak defeated Sisera in the Megiddo area (Jg 5:19), it may have been near this Kedesh (and not No. 2) that Jael killed Canaanite army chief Sisera in her tent.​—Jg 4:11, 17, 21.

(Ke·he·laʹthah) [from a root meaning “congregation”].

One of the places where the Israelites encamped while wandering in the wilderness. (Nu 33:22, 23) Its exact location is today unknown.

(Keiʹlah).

A fortified Judean city in the Shephelah. (Jos 15:20, 33, 44; 1Sa 23:7) Keilah was perhaps founded or, at one time, governed by some Calebite(s). (1Ch 4:15, 19) It is commonly identified with Khirbet Qila (Qeila), situated on a hill about 14 km (8.5 mi) NW of Hebron. As in the region of ancient Keilah, today grain is cultivated in the vicinity of Khirbet Qila.​—Compare 1Sa 23:1.

David, while outlawed by King Saul, saved Keilah from falling to the Philistines. Yet afterward he and his men had to escape from the city to avoid being surrendered to Saul’s army by the landowners of Keilah.​—1Sa 23:5, 8-13.

The city was reoccupied after the Babylonian exile. At the time that Jerusalem’s walls were being repaired under Nehemiah’s direction, there were two half districts of Keilah, each with its own “prince.”​—Ne 3:17, 18.

(Ke·laiʹah).

Another name for the Levite Kelita, a contemporary of Ezra the priest.​—Ezr 10:23; see KELITA No. 1.

(Ke·liʹta) [possibly from a root meaning “too short” [that is, dwarfed]].

1. One of the Levites of Ezra’s day who recognized their guilt in taking foreign wives and therefore sent them away. He is also called Kelaiah. (Ezr 10:23, 44) Possibly the same as Nos. 2 and 3.

2. A Levite who assisted Ezra in “explaining the law to the people” in 455 B.C.E.​—Ne 8:7, 8; see No. 1.

3. A Levite whose descendant, if not he himself, attested by seal the “trustworthy arrangement” of Nehemiah’s time. (Ne 9:38; 10:1, 9, 10) If Kelita himself, rather than a descendant, was present when this agreement was made, he may have been the same as No. 1 or No. 2.

(Kem·uʹel).

1. A son of Abraham’s brother Nahor and his wife Milcah; hence, Abraham’s nephew. He had a son named Aram.​—Ge 22:20, 21.

2. Son of Shiphtan and a chieftain of the tribe of Ephraim. He was one of the 12 men appointed by Jehovah through Moses to divide the land of Canaan among the Israelites, representing the tribe of Ephraim in this undertaking.​—Nu 34:16-29.

3. A Levite who was the father of Hashabiah, leader over the tribe of Levi in David’s day.​—1Ch 27:16, 17.

(Keʹnan) [from a root meaning “produce; acquire; buy”].

The son of Enosh, grandson of Seth, and great-grandson of Adam. He was the father of Mahalalel and lived 910 years. (Ge 5:3-14; 1Ch 1:1, 2) Kenan is evidently referred to as “Cainan, son of Enosh,” in Luke’s listing of Jesus’ genealogy.​—Lu 3:37, 38.

(Keʹnath).

A site E of the Jordan captured by Nobah, probably a Manassite, who thereafter called it by his own name. (Nu 32:42) But the designation “Nobah” perhaps did not stick, for later “Kenath” is reported to have been taken by Geshur and Syria. (1Ch 2:23) Later renamed Canatha, it was one of the original ten cities of the Decapolis. Kenath is identified with the ruins at Qanawat, about 90 km (60 mi) SSE of Damascus and 7 km (4.5 mi) NW of modern Soueida.

(Keʹnaz).

1. One of the sons of Esau’s son Eliphaz and a sheik in the land of Edom.​—Ge 36:11, 15, 42, 43; 1Ch 1:36, 53.

2. The father of Othniel and Seraiah and brother to Caleb son of Jephunneh.​—Jos 15:17; Jg 1:13; 3:9, 11; 1Ch 4:13.

3. A descendant of Caleb the son of Jephunneh through Elah.​—1Ch 4:15.

(Kenʹite).

A member of a people residing in Canaan or its vicinity in the days of Abram (Abraham). The Scriptures, however, provide no definite genealogical link for determining their origin.​—Ge 15:18-21.

While some scholars, on the basis of a similar Aramaic word, consider “Kenite” to mean “smith,” this is uncertain. The Bible itself does not speak of the Kenites as smiths, but it does appear to indicate that at least some of them were shepherds. (Compare Ex 2:15, 16; 3:1; Jg 1:16.) Another suggestion links the term “Kenite” with a Hebrew word meaning “nest,” and this would fit the description of the Kenites’ dwelling place, or ‘nest,’ as being “set on the crag.”​—Nu 24:21.

At the time Moses fled from Egypt to the land of Midian, he married into a Kenite family living there. When the setting of an account involves their residence in Midian, members of this family are called Midianites; in other cases they are referred to as Kenites. This suggests that Moses’ father-in-law Jethro, “the priest of Midian,” and his brother-in-law Hobab may have been Midianites from a geographic standpoint. (Ex 2:15, 16; 3:1; 18:1; Nu 10:29, 30; Jg 1:16) On the other hand, if Moses’ relatives were racial descendants of Midian, then they may have been called Kenites because of belonging to a Kenite branch, or family, of the Midianites, thus making them racially distinct from the Kenites existing in Abraham’s time before the birth of Midian.

When the Israelites were about to leave the region of Mount Sinai, Moses requested that Hobab accompany them to serve as “eyes,” or as a scout, for the nation because of his knowledge of the area. Although declining at first, Hobab apparently did go along, for the Kenites are later mentioned as taking up residence in the Wilderness of Judah to the S of Arad.​—Nu 10:29-32; Jg 1:16.

At a later period Heber the Kenite separated himself from the other Kenites and pitched his tent at Kedesh. (Jg 4:11; see KEDESH No. 3.) When the Canaanite forces were overthrown, Sisera “fled on foot to the tent of Jael the wife of Heber the Kenite, for there was peace between Jabin the king of Hazor and the household of Heber the Kenite.” However, there Sisera’s life ended at Jael’s hand.​—Jg 4:17-21; 5:24-27.

In the days of King Saul some Kenites were residing among the Amalekites. Therefore Saul, when about to make war against the Amalekites, urged the Kenites to separate themselves to escape calamity. This kindness was extended because the Kenites had themselves “exercised loving-kindness with all the sons of Israel at the time of their coming up out of Egypt.” (1Sa 15:5, 6; compare Ex 18:8, 9; Nu 10:29-33.) Later, David told Achish that he had made a raid “upon the south of the Kenites.” (1Sa 27:10) But this was part of a subterfuge. Actually, the Kenites were on friendly terms with the Israelites. Thus, David sent some of the spoil seized from the Amalekites “to those in the cities of the Kenites,” probably in the mountainous region of southern Judah.​—1Sa 30:29.

Families of scribes residing at Jabez were Kenites “that came from Hammath the father of the house of Rechab.” (1Ch 2:55) They are mentioned in connection with descendants of Judah.​—1Ch 2:3.

The fact that the Kenites lived in association with different peoples at various times and places may imply that this nomadic or seminomadic people was not entirely absorbed by any other tribe or people.

The Bible does not specifically report what happened to the Kenites, also called Kain. Balaam’s proverbial utterance concerning them posed the question: “How long will it be till Assyria will carry you away captive?” (Nu 24:21, 22) So it may be that some Kenites lived in the northern kingdom of Israel and surrounding areas and were taken captive along with them by the Assyrians.​—2Ki 15:29; 17:6.

(Kenʹiz·zite) [Of (Belonging to) Kenaz].

1. Member of a non-Israelite people in or near Canaan whose territory was promised by Jehovah to Abram’s seed. (Ge 15:18, 19) The Kenizzites evidently moved into the Negeb from the SE, possibly spreading over part of Edom as well as what became southern Judah, doing so prior to the Israelite conquest of the Promised Land.

The Kenizzites have been linked by some scholars with the Kenaz who was a sheik of Edom descended from Esau through Eliphaz (Ge 36:15, 16), and thus are viewed as a prominent Edomite family. There is, however, uncertainty as to the actual identity of the patronymic ancestor of the Kenizzites since the Bible itself does not provide details in this regard. The fact that, in Abram’s time, Jehovah listed the Kenizzites among those occupying territory that was to become the possession of Abram’s seed (Ge 15:18, 19) does not favor the view that the Kenizzites were descendants of Esau, who had not then been born.

2. Faithful Caleb is called “the son of Jephunneh the Kenizzite.” (Nu 32:12; Jos 14:6, 14) Jephunneh could have descended from some member of the non-Israelite Kenizzites (Ge 15:18, 19) who associated with the descendants of Jacob (Israel), marrying an Israelite wife. However, more likely the name Kenizzite in his case derives from some ancestral Judean family head named Kenaz, even as Caleb’s brother was so named.​—Jos 15:17; Jg 1:13; 1Ch 4:13.

(Kerʹen-hapʹpuch) [possibly, Horn of the Black (Eye) Paint [that is, a receptacle for makeup]].

The third and youngest of the daughters born to Job after his great test and suffering had ended and Jehovah had blessed him. (Job 42:12-14) The name may be suggestive of beautiful eyes, or it may be indicative of her great beauty generally, as “no women were found as pretty as Job’s daughters in all the land.” (Job 42:15) The bluish-white metallic substance antimony produces a brilliant black color that was used by Oriental women of Biblical days to dye their eyelashes and perhaps their eyebrows, or it was used to color the edges of their eyelids, thus making the eyes appear large and lustrous.​—See 2Ki 9:30; Jer 4:30.

(Keʹri·oth) [Towns].

A place mentioned in two prophecies against Moab. (Jer 48:24; Am 2:2) The meaning of its name may indicate that the city was comprised of several smaller towns. Kerioth’s exact location is uncertain. Some scholars tentatively suggest Saliya, a site about 16 km (10 mi) ESE of Dibon and N of the Arnon. Others believe that Kerioth is perhaps the same as Ar, S of Arnon. This view seems to find some support in the fact that Ar and Kerioth, although figuring as principal cities (compare Am 2:1-3; De 2:9, 18), do not appear together in lists of Moabite towns.​—Compare Isa 15 and 16; Jer 48.

The Moabite Stone, although giving no hint as to the location of Kerioth, does indicate that the god Chemosh had a sanctuary there.

(Keʹri·oth-hezʹron) [Towns of Hezron].

Another name for Hazor (No. 3), a town of Judah that has tentatively been identified with Khirbet el-Qaryatein (Tel Qeriyyot), about 20 km (12 mi) S of Hebron.​—Jos 15:25.

(Keʹros) [possibly, Stooped Over].

The founder of a family of Nethinim, some of whose descendants were among those returning to Jerusalem and Judah with Zerubbabel after the Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 44; Ne 7:6, 7, 46, 47.

(Keʹsil) [Heb., kesilʹ, “stupid”].

Though this word is used many times in its basic sense of “stupid” (compare Ps 49:10; 92:6; Pr 1:22), yet the context in four places (Job 9:9; 38:31; Am 5:8; and Isa 13:10 [here in the plural]) indicates its use to designate a stellar body or group.

The term is generally considered to apply to Orion, also called the hunter, a very prominent constellation containing the giant stars Betelgeuse and Rigel. The Latin Vulgate translated kesilʹ as “Orion” in Job 9:9 and Amos 5:8. Most translations imitate the Latin Vulgate in viewing kesilʹ as referring to Orion. The ancient Targum and Syriac versions read “giant,” and this corresponds to the Arabic name for the Orion constellation, gabbar, or “strong one” (Hebrew equivalent, gib·bohrʹ).

The term is used at Amos 5:8 in connection with the reproof of Israel for failing to search for the true God Jehovah, the Maker of the heavenly constellations. At Isaiah 13:9, 10, where the plural kesi·leh·hemʹ (their constellations of Kesil) is used, the description is of “the day of Jehovah,” in which proud and haughty tyrants will be abased and the celestial bodies will cease to give their light.

(Ke·tuʹrah) [from a root meaning “make sacrificial smoke”].

A wife of Abraham and the mother of six of his sons, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah, ancestors of various N Arabian peoples dwelling to the S and E of Palestine.​—Ge 25:1-4.

Keturah is specifically referred to as “Abraham’s concubine” at 1 Chronicles 1:32, and quite apparently she and Hagar are meant at Genesis 25:6, where reference is made to the sons of Abraham’s “concubines.” Keturah was therefore a secondary wife who never attained the same position as Sarah the mother of Isaac, through whom the promised Seed came. (Ge 17:19-21; 21:2, 3, 12; Heb 11:17, 18) While “Abraham gave everything he had to Isaac,” the patriarch gave gifts to the sons of his concubines and then “sent them away from Isaac his son, while he was still alive, eastward, to the land of the East.”​—Ge 25:5, 6.

It has been contended that Abraham took Keturah as a concubine prior to Sarah’s death, some thinking it improbable that he would have six sons by one woman after he was about 140 years old and that he would then survive to see them attain an age at which he might send them away. However, Abraham lived for more than 35 years after Sarah’s death, dying at the age of 175 years. (Ge 25:7, 8) So he could well have taken Keturah as a wife, had six sons by her, and seen them grow up before he died. Also, it seems proper to consider Abraham’s general regard for Sarah’s feelings, which makes it unlikely that he would risk the possibility of further discord in the household (comparable to that involving Hagar and Ishmael) by taking another concubine during Sarah’s lifetime. The order of events as set forth in the book of Genesis is quite conclusive in indicating that it was after Sarah’s death that Abraham took Keturah as his wife.​—Compare Ge 23:1, 2; 24:67; 25:1.

It was only because their reproductive powers were miraculously revived that Abraham and Sarah were able to have a son, Isaac, in their old age. (Heb 11:11, 12) Evidently, such restored powers enabled Abraham to become father to six more sons by Keturah when he was even more advanced in age.

An instrument used to lock or unlock doors and gates. “Key” is used both literally and figuratively in the Bible.

The key of Biblical times was often a flat piece of wood having pins that corresponded to holes in a bolt that was inside the door of a home. Such a key served to push the bar or bolt inside the door, instead of being turned in the lock as is the modern key. The key was often carried in the girdle or was fastened to some other object and carried over the shoulder.​—Isa 22:22.

Egyptian keys of bronze or iron have been found, consisting of a straight shank approximately 13 cm (5 in.) long, with three or more projecting teeth at the end. The Romans also used metal keys, including some of the type made to turn in locks. Keys of bronze have been discovered in Palestine.

Moabite King Eglon used a lock and key for the door of his roof chamber. (Jg 3:15-17, 20-25) Certain postexilic Levites were entrusted with temple guard service, being placed “in charge of the key, even to open up from morning to morning.”​—1Ch 9:26, 27.

Figurative Use. In the figurative vein the Bible uses the term “key” to symbolize authority, government, and power. Eliakim, elevated to a position of trust and honor, had “the key of the house of David” put upon his shoulder. (Isa 22:20-22) In the Middle East, in more recent times, a large key upon a man’s shoulder identified him as a person of consequence or importance. Anciently, a king’s adviser, entrusted with the power of the keys, might have general supervision of the royal chambers and might also decide on any candidates for the king’s service. In the angelic message to the congregation in Philadelphia the exalted Jesus Christ is said to have “the key of David,” and he is the one “who opens so that no one will shut, and shuts so that no one opens.” (Re 3:7, 8) As the Heir of the covenant made with David for the Kingdom, Jesus Christ has committed to him the government of the household of faith and the headship of spiritual Israel. (Lu 1:32, 33) By his authority, symbolized by “the key of David,” he can open or shut figurative doors, or opportunities and privileges.​—Compare 1Co 16:9; 2Co 2:12, 13.

How did Peter use “the keys of the kingdom” that were entrusted to him?

Jesus said to Peter: “I will give you the keys of the kingdom of the heavens, and whatever you may bind on earth will be the thing bound in the heavens, and whatever you may loose on earth will be the thing loosed in the heavens.” (Mt 16:19) The identification of these keys logically must be based on other Scriptural information. Jesus made another reference to the subject of keys when he said to the religious leaders, versed in the Law, “You took away the key of knowledge; you yourselves did not go in, and those going in you hindered!” (Lu 11:52) A comparison of this text with Matthew 23:13 indicates that the ‘going in’ referred to is with regard to entrance into “the kingdom of the heavens.” Thus, the use of the word “key” in Jesus’ statement to Peter indicated that Peter would have the privilege of initiating a program of instruction that would open up special opportunities with respect to the Kingdom of the heavens.

Different from the hypocritical religious leaders of that time, Peter clearly did use divinely provided knowledge to help persons to ‘enter into the kingdom,’ notably on three occasions. One was on the day of Pentecost 33 C.E., when Peter, under inspiration, revealed to a gathered multitude that Jehovah God had resurrected Jesus and exalted him to His own right hand in the heavens and that Jesus, in that royal position, had poured out holy spirit on his assembled disciples. As a result of this knowledge and acting upon Peter’s exhortation, “Repent, and let each one of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for forgiveness of your sins, and you will receive the free gift of the holy spirit,” about 3,000 Jews (and Jewish converts) took the step that led to their becoming prospective members of “the kingdom of the heavens.” Other Jews subsequently followed their example.​—Ac 2:1-41.

On another occasion Peter and John were sent to the Samaritans, who had not received the holy spirit even though they had been baptized. However, the two apostles “prayed for them” and “went laying their hands upon them,” and they received holy spirit.​—Ac 8:14-17.

The third occasion of Peter’s being used in a special way to introduce persons into privileges as Kingdom heirs was when he was sent to the home of the Gentile Cornelius, an Italian centurion. By divine revelation Peter recognized and declared God’s impartiality as regards Jews and Gentiles and that people of the nations, if God fearing and doers of righteousness, were now as acceptable to God as their Jewish counterparts. While Peter was presenting this knowledge to his Gentile hearers, the heavenly gift of the holy spirit came upon them and they miraculously spoke in tongues. They were subsequently baptized and became the first prospective members of “the kingdom of the heavens” from among the Gentiles. The unlocked door of opportunity for Gentile believers to become members of the Christian congregation thereafter remained open.​—Ac 10:1-48; 15:7-9.

Matthew 16:19 may be rendered with grammatical correctness: “Whatever you may bind on earth will be the thing bound [or, the thing already bound] in the heavens, and whatever you may loose on earth will be the thing loosed [or, the thing already loosed] in the heavens.” The translation by Charles B. Williams here reads: “Whatever you forbid on earth must be what is already forbidden in heaven, and whatever you permit on earth must be what is already permitted in heaven.” Greek scholar Robert Young’s literal translation reads: “Whatever thou mayest bind upon the earth shall be having been bound in the heavens, and whatever thou mayest loose upon the earth shall be having been loosed in the heavens.” Since other texts make clear that the resurrected Jesus remained the one true Head over the Christian congregation, it is obvious that his promise to Peter did not mean Peter’s dictating to heaven what should or should not be loosed but, rather, Peter’s being used as heaven’s instrument in the unlocking, or loosing, of certain determined things.​—1Co 11:3; Eph 4:15, 16; 5:23; Col 2:8-10.

“Key of the abyss.” At Revelation 9:1-11 the vision is presented of “a star” out of heaven to whom “the key of the pit of the abyss” is given and who opens that pit and releases a swarm of locusts, their king being “the angel of the abyss.” Since the abyss, as shown at Romans 10:6, 7, evidently includes Hades (though it is not limited to Hades), it appears that “the key of the pit of the abyss” includes “the keys of death and of Hades” possessed by the resurrected Jesus Christ, as stated at Revelation 1:18. These “keys” are undoubtedly symbolic of Jesus’ authority to free persons from a restraint that is beyond the power of anyone but God or his authorized representative. The “keys” therefore include authority to resurrect persons literally, freeing them from the confines of the grave, as well as to release persons from a figurative death state. (Joh 5:24-29; compare Re 11:3-12; see DEATH [Change in spiritual state or condition].) The last-recorded use of “the key of the abyss” is at Revelation 20:1-7, where the vision describes an angel with that key casting Satan into the abyss, shutting and sealing it over him for a thousand years. At the close of that period Satan is released from his “prison,” evidently by the use of the “key” of authority.​—See ABYSS.

(Ke·ziʹah) [possibly, Cassia].

The second of the three daughters of Job born after his severe trial and subsequent restoration and blessing by Jehovah. (Job 42:14) The Hebrew word for “cassia” was used as a feminine name, likely because of the fragrance of cassia, and may have been given to this girl as an indication of her beauty.​—Job 42:15.

(Kibʹroth-hat·taʹa·vah) [Burial Places of the Craving].

The site of an Israelite wilderness encampment, where the mixed crowd expressed selfish longing for the food of Egypt. (Nu 11:4; 33:16, 17; De 9:22) It is generally identified with Rueis el-Eberij, about halfway between Jebel Musa, the traditional site of Mount Sinai, and Hazeroth. There Jehovah miraculously provided a month’s supply of quail for the entire camp. (Nu 11:19, 20, 31) But the people were so greedy that “the one collecting least gathered ten homers” (2,200 L; 62 bu). The record says that while “the meat was yet between their teeth, before it could be chewed, . . . Jehovah began striking at the people with a very great slaughter.” Instead of denoting literal chewing of a mouthful, this may mean before the entire provision of meat could be “exhausted” or “consumed” (AT, RS), because the Hebrew word translated “chewed” basically means “cut off.” (Compare Joe 1:5.) After this the dead were buried, and the place therefore came to be called Kibroth-hattaavah.​—Nu 11:32-35.

(Kibʹza·im) [A Double Collecting Together (Gathering)].

An Ephraimite city given to the Kohathite Levites. (Jos 21:20-22) At 1 Chronicles 6:68 it is apparently called Jokmeam.

See GOAT.

Seizing, carrying away, and detaining a person against his will through unlawful force, fraud, or intimidation. Kidnapping was a crime carrying the penalty of capital punishment under the Mosaic Law. If a person were to steal or kidnap a man and sell him, or if the kidnapped individual was found with him, the kidnapper was to be put to death. (Ex 21:16; De 24:7) Prior to the giving of this law to Israel, Jacob’s son Joseph, sold into slavery, was a victim of kidnapping. (Ge 37:27, 28; 40:15) God later turned this act into a blessing for Joseph in Egypt, and Joseph forgave his brothers for their wicked deed.​—Ge 45:4, 5.

In writing to Timothy, the apostle Paul made the observation that “law is promulgated, not for a righteous man,” but for lawless persons, including kidnappers.​—1Ti 1:8-11.

Twin organs located in the lower back. Their function is to filter impurities from the blood. Regarding the Hebrew word kela·yohthʹ (kidneys), J. N. Oswalt wrote: “When used figuratively, the term refers to the innermost aspects of personality.” (Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, edited by R. Laird Harris, 1980, Vol. 1, p. 440; compare Ps 7:9, ftn.) The same is true of the Greek word ne·phroiʹ (kidneys).​—Re 2:23, ftn.

As with all the organs of the body, the kidneys were directly designed by Jehovah God the Creator. (Ps 139:13) In sacrificial animals, the fat around the kidneys was considered especially choice and was specifically mentioned as something that was to be made to smoke on the altar along with the kidneys in communion sacrifices (Le 3:10, 11; 9:19, 20), sin offerings (Le 4:8, 9; 8:14, 16; 9:10), and guilt offerings (Le 7:1, 4). In the installation of the priesthood, the kidneys of the ram of installation were first waved and then burned on the altar. (Ex 29:22, 24, 25; Le 8:25, 27, 28) In this significance of choiceness, Moses spoke of Jehovah as feeding his people Israel with “the kidney fat of wheat.”​—De 32:14.

Because of their position deep in the body, the kidneys are among the most inaccessible organs. With good reason, therefore, the Bible uses the term to represent the deepest thoughts and emotions of one’s personality. A wound in the kidneys would be a very deep wound, either literally or figuratively considered. (Job 16:13; Ps 73:21; La 3:13) At times kidneys are mentioned in close connection with the heart, which is used figuratively for the total inner person.​—Jer 11:20; 17:10; 20:12; see HEART.

Our Creator knows the makeup of man in the most thorough and intimate way. Therefore, Jehovah is said to test out “heart and kidneys,” even as his Son also searches “the kidneys and hearts.” (Ps 7:9; Re 2:23) Just as one refines silver, Jehovah can “refine” the kidneys and heart of a person so he may become right before God, being made more sensitive to Jehovah’s ways.​—Ps 26:2; 66:10.

At Psalm 16:7 David wrote: “I shall bless Jehovah, who has given me advice. Really, during the nights my kidneys have corrected me.” God’s advice reached the innermost recesses of David’s being as a worshiper of the true God. Because it had settled so deeply within, the “advice” was identified with the “kidneys,” and thus it could be said that the kidneys corrected David.

God’s Word, although it might be on the lips of the wicked ones, does not reach down to the innermost aspects of their personality. Thus, regarding the wicked ones, Jeremiah 12:2 says: “They keep going ahead; they have also produced fruit. You are near in their mouth, but far away from their kidneys.” This parallels the scripture at Isaiah 29:13, quoted by Jesus at Matthew 15:7, 8, which says the same thing about the heart of the wicked, thus showing that at times “heart” and “kidneys” are used in a corresponding way.

(Kidʹron) [possibly from a root meaning “be dark”].

A deep valley that separates Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives and runs first southeastward and then southward along the city. Waterless even in winter, except in case of an especially heavy rain, the Kidron Valley (Nahal Qidron) starts some distance to the N of Jerusalem’s walls. At first a broad and shallow valley, it continues to narrow and deepen. By the time it is opposite the former temple area, it is approximately 30 m (100 ft) deep and 120 m (390 ft) wide. Farther to the S the Kidron Valley was joined by the Tyropoeon Valley and the Valley of Hinnom respectively. From then on it continued southeastward across the arid Wilderness of Judah to the Dead Sea. The modern name applied to the valley’s lower course is Wadi en-Nar (meaning “Fire Wadi”), indicating that it is hot and dry most of the time.

Opposite Jerusalem, rock-cut tombs occupy the steep and rocky slopes of the valley’s E side. On its W side, about midway between the former temple area and the junction of the Tyropoeon and Kidron valleys, is the spring of Gihon. (See GIHON No. 2.) Not far from this spring the Kidron Valley widens and forms an open space. It has been suggested that this open area may correspond to the ancient “king’s garden.”​—2Ki 25:4.

King David, when fleeing from rebellious Absalom, crossed the Kidron Valley on foot. (2Sa 15:14, 23, 30) For cursing David on that occasion, Shimei was later restricted by Solomon to Jerusalem and was not permitted to cross the Kidron Valley under pain of death. (1Ki 2:8, 9, 36, 37) It was this same valley that Jesus traversed on his way to the garden of Gethsemane. (Joh 18:1) During the reigns of Judean Kings Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah, the Kidron Valley was used as a place of disposal for appendages of idolatry. (1Ki 15:13; 2Ki 23:4, 6, 12; 2Ch 15:16; 29:16; 30:14) It also served as a place of burial. (2Ki 23:6) This made the Kidron Valley an unclean area, and it is therefore significant that Jeremiah’s prophecy pointed to a time when, by contrast, “all the terraces as far as the torrent valley of Kidron” would be “something holy to Jehovah.”​—Jer 31:40.

A heating chamber designed for processing various materials. Kilns of ancient times were used for baking bricks, firing pottery, and processing lime. Unlike the modern meaning of the English term “kiln,” the Hebrew word kiv·shanʹ does not embrace structures classified as ovens.​—See OVEN.

In view of the progress made in pre-Flood times in the forging of copper and iron tools (Ge 4:22), kilns were likely developed at an early point in man’s history. Though not directly mentioned, there is evidence for their use in Nimrod’s day. When about to build the city of Babel and its tower in the land of Shinar, the post-Flood people said: “Come on! Let us make bricks and bake them with a burning process.” (Ge 11:3) Ancient Babylonian ruins reveal the use of kiln-fired bricks from ancient times. Such durable bricks were used in the more important structures for veneered walls and for paved areas. Some houses excavated at Ur (Abraham’s onetime residence) have the lower level built with burnt bricks, while the second story was evidently of sun-dried bricks. Sun-dried bricks, while not as durable as kiln-fired bricks, were inexpensive, easy to manufacture, and satisfactory in dry climates.​—See BRICK.

Egyptian pottery kilns were shaped like a tapered chimney, with a perforated baffle between the fire pit below and the firing chamber above. The pottery was placed in this chamber before the fuel was ignited. The correct firing of the kiln was a trade secret among Egyptian potters, and skill was required to bring out the desired qualities in the finished products. The draft created by the air rushing from the fireplace up the flue drew the fire through the baffle perforations and allowed it to circulate around the pottery before passing out at the top of the stack.

In preparation for His sixth blow against Egypt and its proud Pharaoh, Jehovah commanded Moses and Aaron: “Take for yourselves both hands full of soot from a kiln, and Moses must toss it toward the heavens in Pharaoh’s sight.” Complying with these instructions, “they took the soot of a kiln and stood before Pharaoh, and Moses tossed it toward the heavens, and it became boils with blisters, breaking out on man and beast.”​—Ex 9:8-10.

Palestinian kilns, or furnaces, discovered at Megiddo, measuring about 2.5 by 3 m (8 by 10 ft), are U-shaped. In this type, the fireplace is located in the bend of the enclosure. Evidently, the draft entering below the fireplace door forced the flames through the two firing chambers and out the two flues located at the rear of the kiln.

Limekilns. Limekilns were used in ancient Palestine because of the abundance of limestone. More recently in that land such kilns have been built on hillsides, the hill forming part of the rear wall. The kilns have been constructed of rough stones without mortar, the spaces between the stones being filled with clay but with a large open flue at the top. After the interior was properly packed with crushed limestone, a hot fire made from brush would be started in the fireplace at the base of the kiln. The strong draft entering through a tunnel in the bottom of the kiln would carry the flames up through the limestone, heating it until it was converted into lime. This process would normally continue for several days.​—See LIME.

The first direct Biblical reference to a kiln is at Genesis 19:28. There the black voluminous smoke of a kiln is used to describe the scene Abraham saw when he looked down upon the burning cities of Sodom and Gomorrah and all the District and observed that “thick smoke ascended from the land like the thick smoke of a kiln!”

When the Israelites gathered at the base of Mount Sinai to ‘meet the true God,’ the awe-inspiring spectacle before their eyes included Mount Sinai’s smoking all over, “due to the fact that Jehovah came down upon it in fire; and its smoke kept ascending like the smoke of a kiln, and the whole mountain was trembling very much.”​—Ex 19:17, 18.

The rendering of 2 Samuel 12:31 in the King James Version makes it appear that David caused Ammonite captives to “pass through the brickkiln,” but the sense of the Hebrew text, by a correction of one letter, appears to be that he “made them serve at brickmaking.”​—NW; AT; RS.

(Kiʹmah).

This term is used at Job 9:9; 38:31; and Amos 5:8 to refer to a celestial constellation. It is usually considered to refer to the Pleiades, a star group formed of seven large stars and other smaller ones, enveloped in nebulous matter and situated some 380 light-years from the sun. At Job 38:31 Jehovah asks Job if he can “tie fast the bonds of the Kimah constellation,” and some relate this to the compactness of the Pleiades cluster, the star cluster most likely to be noted by the naked eye. While the identification of the particular constellation intended is indefinite, the sense of the question asked evidently is whether a mere man can bind together in a cluster a group of stars so that they comprise a permanent constellation. Thus, by this question, Jehovah brought home to Job man’s inferiority when compared with the Universal Sovereign.

Relative, either by common ancestry or by marriage. Kinsman has special reference to a male relative. There are several words in the original Bible languages having the following meanings and usages.

Go·ʼelʹ (from Heb. ga·ʼalʹ, meaning “redeem” or “buy back”) has reference to the nearest male relative with the right of a repurchaser or an avenger of blood. Willful murderers were to be put to death by “the avenger of blood.” (Nu 35:16-19) Boaz’ relationship to Naomi and Ruth was that of “a repurchaser.” (Ru 2:20; 3:9, 12, 13; 4:1, 3, 6, 8, 14) Jehovah himself, the Great Father or Life-Giver, is both an Avenger and a Repurchaser for his servants.​—Ps 78:35; Isa 41:14; 43:14; 44:6, 24; 48:17; 54:5; 63:16; Jer 50:34.

Sheʼerʹ (Heb., meaning “organism”) has reference to a fleshly relative or blood relative. God’s laws forbade having sexual relations with a close “blood relation,” such as one’s aunt. (Le 18:6-13; 20:19) If a fellow Israelite fell into debt to an alien, then a brother, an uncle, a cousin, or any other “blood relative” could buy him back. (Le 25:47-49) Or if one died having no sons, daughters, brothers, or uncles, then the next closest “blood relation” received the inheritance.​—Nu 27:10, 11.

Qa·rohvʹ (Heb., meaning “near”) includes not only one closely related but also an intimate acquaintance. If a brother became so poor that he had to sell his possessions, then one “closely related” had to buy them back for him. (Le 25:25) Job grieved that his “intimate acquaintances” had left him, and David lamented that his “close acquaintances” also stood aloof.​—Job 19:14; Ps 38:11.

Terms related to ya·dhaʽʹ (Heb., meaning “know,” “be acquainted”) could mean a kinsman or just an acquaintance. Naomi had “a kinsman of her husband” named Boaz. Jehu executed all of Ahab’s house including his “acquaintances.”​—Ru 2:1; 2Ki 10:11.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures syg·ge·nesʹ refers to a relative by blood, but it is never used in speaking of the relation between parents and children. Following this rule, note that Jesus said to his followers: “You will be delivered up even by parents and brothers and relatives [syg·ge·nonʹ] and friends.” (Lu 21:16) When the 12-year-old Jesus was missing, his parents began looking for him among “the relatives.” (Lu 2:44) When you spread a feast, Jesus counseled, do not invite your “relatives” who could pay you back but, rather, the poor people. (Lu 14:12-14) When Peter brought the good news of salvation to Cornelius, his “relatives” were also present. (Ac 10:24) Paul, in his letter to the Romans, referred to the Israelites collectively as well as a number of individuals as his “relatives.”​—Ro 9:3; 16:7, 11, 21.

(Kiʹnah).

A city of southern Judah. (Jos 15:21, 22) Some identify it with Khirbet Taiyib (Horvat Tov), about 30 km (19 mi) ENE of Beer-sheba. The name seems to be preserved in Wadi el-Qeini nearby.

The creation record found in the first chapter of Genesis reveals that Jehovah God created earth’s living things “according to their kinds.” (Ge 1:11, ftn) Toward the end of the sixth creative day the earth was supplied with a great variety of basic created “kinds,” which included very complex forms of life. These were endowed with the capacity for reproducing offspring “according to their kind(s)” in a fixed, orderly manner.​—Ge 1:12, 21, 22, 24, 25; 1Co 14:33.

The Biblical “kinds” seem to constitute divisions of life-forms wherein each division allows for cross-fertility within its limits. If so, then the boundary between “kinds” is to be drawn at the point where fertilization ceases to occur.

In recent years, the term “species” has been applied in such a manner as to cause confusion when it is compared with the word “kind.” The basic meaning of “species” is “a sort; kind; variety.” In biologic terminology, however, it applies to any group of interfertile animals or plants mutually possessing one or more distinctive characteristics. Thus, there could be many such species or varieties within a single division of the Genesis “kinds.”

Although the Bible creation record and the physical laws implanted in created things by Jehovah God allow for great diversity within the created “kinds,” there is no support for theories maintaining that new “kinds” have been formed since the creation period. The unchangeable rule that “kinds” cannot cross is a biologic principle that has never been successfully challenged. Even with the aid of modern laboratory techniques and manipulation, no new “kinds” have been formed. Besides, the crossing of created “kinds” would interfere with God’s purpose for a separation between family groups and would destroy the individuality of the various kinds of living creatures and things. Hence, because of the distinct discontinuity apparent between the created “kinds,” each basic group stands as an isolated unit apart from other “kinds.”

From the earliest human record until now, the evidence is that dogs are still dogs, cats continue to be cats, and elephants have been and will always be elephants. Sterility continues to be the delimiting factor as to what constitutes a “kind.” This phenomenon makes possible, through the test of sterility, the determining of the boundaries of all the “kinds” in existence today. Through this natural test of fertilization it is possible to uncover the primary relationships within animal life and plant life. For example, sterility presents an impassable gulf between man and the animals. Breeding experiments have demonstrated that appearance is no criterion. Man and the chimpanzee may look somewhat similar, have comparable types of muscles and bones; yet the complete inability of man to hybridize with the ape family proves that they are two separate creations and not of the same created “kind.”

Although hybridization was once hoped to be the best means of bringing about a new “kind,” in every investigated case of hybridization the mates were always easily identified as being of the same “kind,” such as in the crossing of the horse and the donkey, both of which are members of the horse family. Except in rare instances, the mule thus produced is sterile and unable to continue the variation in a natural way. Even Charles Darwin was forced by the facts to admit: “The distinctness of specific forms and their not being blended together by innumerable transitional links, is a very obvious difficulty.” (Origin of Species, 1902, Part 2, p. 54) This still remains true.

Whereas specific created “kinds” may number only in the hundreds, there are many more varieties of animals and plants on the earth. Modern research has indicated that hundreds of thousands of different plants are members of the same family. Similarly, in the animal kingdom, there may be many varieties of cats, all belonging to one cat family or feline “kind.” The same is true of men, of cattle, and of dogs, allowing for great diversity within each “kind.” But the fact remains that no matter how many varieties occur in each family, none of these “kinds” can commingle genetically.

Geological research provides clear evidence that the fossils held to be among the earliest specimens of a certain creature are very similar to their descendants alive today. Cockroaches found among the supposed earliest fossil insects are virtually identical to modern ones. Fossil “bridges” between “kinds” are totally lacking. Horses, oak trees, eagles, elephants, walnuts, ferns, and so forth, all continue within the same “kinds” without evolving into other “kinds.” The testimony of the fossils is in full accord with the Bible’s history of creation, which shows that Jehovah created the living things of the earth in great numbers and “according to their kinds” during the final creative days.​—Ge 1:20-25.

From the foregoing, it becomes apparent that Noah could get all the necessary animals into the ark for preservation through the Flood. The Bible does not say that he had to preserve alive every variety of the animals. Rather, it states: “Of the flying creatures according to their kinds and of the domestic animals according to their kinds, of all moving animals of the ground according to their kinds, two of each will go in there to you to preserve them alive.” (Ge 6:20; 7:14, 15) Jehovah God knew it was necessary to save only representative members of the different “kinds,” since they would reproduce in variety after the Flood.​—See ARK No. 1.

Following the recession of the floodwaters, these comparatively few basic “kinds” emerged from the ark and spread out over the surface of the earth, eventually producing many variations of their “kinds.” Although many new varieties have come into existence since the Flood, the surviving “kinds” have remained fixed and unchanged, in harmony with the unchangeable word of Jehovah God.​—Isa 55:8-11.

The quality or state of taking an active interest in the welfare of others; friendly and helpful acts or favors. The principal word for “kindness” in the Christian Greek Scriptures is khre·stoʹtes. Jehovah God takes the lead and is the best example of one showing kindness in so many ways toward others, even toward the unthankful and wicked, encouraging them to repentance. (Lu 6:35; Ro 2:4; 11:22; Tit 3:4, 5) Christians, in turn, under the kindly yoke of Christ (Mt 11:30), are urged to clothe themselves with kindness (Col 3:12; Eph 4:32) and to develop the fruitage of God’s spirit, which includes kindness. (Ga 5:22) In this way they recommend themselves as God’s ministers. (2Co 6:4-6) “Love is . . . kind.”​—1Co 13:4.

“Kindness” (or, reasonableness; literally, yieldingness; Gr., e·pi·ei·kiʹa) is an outstanding characteristic of Christ Jesus. (2Co 10:1, ftn) Paul was treated with unusual “human kindness” (literally, affection for mankind; Gr., phi·lan·thro·piʹa) by the inhabitants of Malta.​—Ac 28:2, ftn.

Loving-Kindness of God. As in the Christian Greek Scriptures so also in the Hebrew Scriptures, frequent mention is made of kindness. The Hebrew word cheʹsedh, when used in reference to kindness, occurs 245 times. The related verb cha·sadhʹ means “act in loyalty (or, loving-kindness)” and carries with it more than just the thought of tender regard or kindness stemming from love, though it includes such traits. (Ps 18:25, ftn) Cheʹsedh is kindness that lovingly attaches itself to an object until its purpose in connection with that object is realized. According to the Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, cheʹsedh “is active, social, and enduring. . . . [Cheʹsedh] always designates not just a human attitude, but also the act that emerges from this attitude. It is an act that preserves or promotes life. It is intervention on behalf of someone suffering misfortune or distress. It is demonstration of friendship or piety. It pursues what is good and not what is evil.” (Edited by G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren, 1986, Vol. 5, p. 51) Hence, cheʹsedh is more comprehensively rendered “loving-kindness,” or, because of the fidelity, solidarity, and proved loyalty associated with it, an alternate translation would be “loyal love.” In the plural number it may be rendered “loving-kindnesses,” “acts of loyal love,” “full loving-kindness,” or “full loyal love.”​—Ps 25:6, ftn; Isa 55:3, ftn.

Loving-kindness is a precious quality of Jehovah God in which he delights, and it is manifest in all his dealings with his servants. (Ps 36:7; 62:12; Mic 7:18) Were this not the case, they would have perished long ago. (La 3:22) Thus, Moses could plead in behalf of rebellious Israel, both on the basis of Jehovah’s great name and because He is a God of loving-kindness.​—Nu 14:13-19.

The Scriptures show that Jehovah’s loving-kindness, or loyal love, is displayed in a variety of ways and under different circumstances​—in acts of deliverance and preservation (Ps 6:4; 119:88, 159), as a safeguard and protection (Ps 40:11; 61:7; 143:12), and as a factor bringing relief from troubles (Ru 1:8; 2:20; Ps 31:16, 21). Because of it one may be recovered from sin (Ps 25:7), sustained, and upheld. (Ps 94:18; 117:2) By it God’s chosen ones are assisted. (Ps 44:26) God’s loving-kindness was magnified in the cases of Lot (Ge 19:18-22), Abraham (Mic 7:20), and Joseph (Ge 39:21). It was also acknowledged in the choice of a wife for Isaac.​—Ge 24:12-14, 27.

With the development of the nation of Israel and thereafter, Jehovah’s loving-kindness in connection with his covenant continued to be magnified. (Ex 15:13; De 7:12) This was true in David’s case (2Sa 7:15; 1Ki 3:6; Ps 18:50), as it was also with Ezra and those with him (Ezr 7:28; 9:9), and likewise with “thousands” of others (Ex 34:7; Jer 32:18). In support of the kingdom covenant with David, Jehovah continued to express his loving-kindness even after Jesus died, for He resurrected this “loyal one” in fulfillment of the prophecy: “I will give you people the loving-kindnesses to David that are faithful.”​—Ps 16:10; Ac 13:34; Isa 55:3.

It is this loving-kindness on the part of Jehovah that draws individuals to him. (Jer 31:3) They trust in it (Ps 13:5; 52:8), hope in it (Ps 33:18, 22), pray for it (Ps 51:1; 85:7; 90:14; 109:26; 119:41), and are comforted by it (Ps 119:76). They also give thanks to Jehovah for his loving-kindness (Ps 107:8, 15, 21, 31), they bless and praise him for it (Ps 66:20; 115:1; 138:2), and they talk to others about it (Ps 92:2). Like David, they should never try to hide it (Ps 40:10), for it is good (Ps 69:16; 109:21) and it is a great source of rejoicing. (Ps 31:7) Certainly this divine loving-kindness is like a pleasant pathway in which to walk.​—Ps 25:10.

In other Bible texts the overflowing abundance of God’s loving-kindness (Ps 5:7; 69:13; Jon 4:2), its greatness (Nu 14:19), and its permanence (1Ki 8:23) are emphasized. It is as high as the heavens (Ps 36:5; 57:10; 103:11; 108:4), fills the earth (Ps 33:5; 119:64), and is extended to a thousand generations (De 7:9) and “to time indefinite” (1Ch 16:34, 41; Ps 89:2; Isa 54:8, 10; Jer 33:11). In Psalm 136 all 26 verses repeat the phrase, ‘Jehovah’s loving-kindness is to time indefinite.’

Often this wonderful characteristic of Jehovah, his loving-kindness, is associated with other magnificent qualities​—God’s mercy, graciousness, truth, forgiveness, righteousness, peace, judgment, and justice.​—Ex 34:6; Ne 9:17; Ps 85:10; 89:14; Jer 9:24.

Loving-Kindness of Man. From the above it is apparent that those wishing to have God’s approval must “love kindness” and “carry on with one another loving-kindness and mercies.” (Mic 6:8; Zec 7:9) As the proverb says, “The desirable thing in earthling man is his loving-kindness,” and it brings him rich rewards. (Pr 19:22; 11:17) God remembered and was pleased with the loving-kindness shown during Israel’s youth. (Jer 2:2) But when it became “like the morning clouds and like the dew that early goes away,” Jehovah was not pleased, for “in loving-kindness I have taken delight, and not in sacrifice,” he says. (Ho 6:4, 6) Lacking loving-kindness, Israel was reproved, the reproof itself actually being a loving-kindness on God’s part. (Ho 4:1; Ps 141:5) Israel was also advised to return to God by demonstrating loving-kindness and justice. (Ho 12:6) Such traits should be manifest at all times if one is to find favor in the sight of God and man.​—Job 6:14; Pr 3:3, 4.

Instances in the Bible are numerous where individuals showed loving-kindness toward others. Sarah, for example, showed such loyal love toward her husband when they were in enemy territory, protecting him by saying he was her brother. (Ge 20:13) Jacob asked Joseph to exercise the same toward him by promising not to bury him in Egypt. (Ge 47:29; 50:12, 13) Rahab requested that the Israelites show her loving-kindness by preserving her household alive, even as she had similarly treated the Israelite spies. (Jos 2:12, 13) Boaz commended Ruth for exercising it (Ru 3:10), and Jonathan asked David to show it toward him and his household.​—1Sa 20:14, 15; 2Sa 9:3-7.

The motives and circumstances that prompt persons to show kindness or loving-kindness vary a great deal. Incidental acts of kindness may reflect customary hospitality or a tendency toward warmheartedness, yet may not necessarily indicate godliness. (Compare Ac 27:1, 3; 28:1, 2.) In the case of a certain man belonging to the city of Bethel, the kindness offered him really was in payment for favors expected of him in return. (Jg 1:22-25) At other times acts of loving-kindness were requested of recipients of past favors, perhaps because of the dire circumstances of the petitioner. (Ge 40:12-15) But sometimes persons failed to pay such debts of loving-kindness. (Ge 40:23; Jg 8:35) As the proverb shows, a multitude of men will proclaim their loving-kindness, but few are faithful to carry it out. (Pr 20:6) Saul and David both remembered the loving-kindness that others had shown (1Sa 15:6, 7; 2Sa 2:5, 6), and it seems that the kings of Israel gained some sort of reputation for loving-kindness (1Ki 20:31), perhaps in comparison with the pagan rulers. However, on one occasion David’s display of loving-kindness was rebuffed through a misinterpretation of the motives behind it.​—2Sa 10:2-4.

Law, Paul says, was not made for righteous persons but for bad people, who, among other things, are lacking in loving-kindness. (1Ti 1:9) The Greek word a·noʹsi·os, here rendered “lacking loving-kindness,” also has the sense of “disloyal.”​—2Ti 3:2.

Undeserved Kindness. The Greek word khaʹris occurs more than 150 times in the Greek Scriptures and is rendered in a variety of ways, depending on the context. In all instances the central idea of khaʹris is preserved​—that which is agreeable (1Pe 2:19, 20) and winsome. (Lu 4:22) By extension, in some instances it refers to a kind gift (1Co 16:3; 2Co 8:19) or the kind manner of the giving. (2Co 8:4, 6) At other times it has reference to the credit, gratitude, or thankfulness that an especially kind act calls forth.​—Lu 6:32-34; Ro 6:17; 1Co 10:30; 15:57; 2Co 2:14; 8:16; 9:15; 1Ti 1:12; 2Ti 1:3.

On the other hand, in the great majority of occurrences, khaʹris is rendered “grace” by most English Bible translators. The word “grace,” however, with some 14 different meanings does not convey to most readers the ideas contained in the Greek word. To illustrate: In John 1:14, where the King James Version says “the Word was made flesh . . . full of grace and truth,” what is meant? Does it mean “gracefulness,” or “favor,” or what?

Scholar R. C. Trench, in Synonyms of the New Testament, says khaʹris implies “a favour freely done, without claim or expectation of return​—the word being thus predisposed to receive its new emphasis [as given it in the Christian writings] . . . , to set forth the entire and absolute freeness of the loving-kindness of God to men. Thus Aristotle, defining [khaʹris], lays the whole stress on this very point, that it is conferred freely, with no expectation of return, and finding its only motive in the bounty and free-heartedness of the giver.” (London, 1961, p. 158) Joseph H. Thayer in his lexicon says: “The word [khaʹris] contains the idea of kindness which bestows upon one what he has not deserved . . . the N. T. writers use [khaʹris] pre-eminently of that kindness by which God bestows favors even upon the ill-deserving, and grants to sinners the pardon of their offences, and bids them accept of eternal salvation through Christ.” (A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 1889, p. 666) Khaʹris is closely related to another Greek word, khaʹri·sma, concerning which William Barclay’s New Testament Wordbook (1956, p. 29) says: “The whole basic idea of the word [khaʹri·sma] is that of a free and undeserved gift, of something given to a man unearned and unmerited.”​—Compare 2Co 1:11, Int.

When khaʹris is used in the above sense, in reference to kindness bestowed on one who does not deserve it, as is true with the kindnesses extended by Jehovah, “undeserved kindness” is a very good English equivalent for the Greek expression.​—Ac 15:40; 18:27; 1Pe 4:10; 5:10, 12.

A worker is entitled to what he has worked for, his pay; he expects his wages as a right, as a debt owed him, and payment of it is no gift or special undeserved kindness. (Ro 4:4) But for sinners condemned to death (and we are all born as such) to be released from that condemnation and to be declared righteous, this is indeed kindness that is totally undeserved. (Ro 3:23, 24; 5:17) If it is argued that those born under the Law covenant arrangement were under a greater condemnation to death, because such covenant showed them up as sinners, then it should be remembered that greater undeserved kindness was extended to the Jews in that salvation was first offered to them.​—Ro 5:20, 21; 1:16.

This special manifestation of undeserved kindness on God’s part toward mankind in general was the release by ransom from condemnation through the blood of Jehovah’s beloved Son, Christ Jesus. (Eph 1:7; 2:4-7) By means of this undeserved kindness God brings salvation to all sorts of men (Tit 2:11), something that the prophets had spoken about. (1Pe 1:10) Paul’s reasoning and argument, therefore, is sound: “Now if it is by undeserved kindness, it is no longer due to works; otherwise, the undeserved kindness no longer proves to be undeserved kindness.”​—Ro 11:6.

Paul, more than any other writer, mentioned God’s undeserved kindness​—more than 90 times in his 14 letters. He mentions the undeserved kindness of God or of Jesus in the opening salutation of all his letters with the exception of Hebrews, and in the closing remarks of each letter, without exception, he again speaks of it. Other Bible writers make similar reference in the opening and closing of their writings.​—1Pe 1:2; 2Pe 1:2; 3:18; 2Jo 3; Re 1:4; 22:21.

Paul had every reason for emphasizing Jehovah’s undeserved kindness, for he had formerly been “a blasphemer and a persecutor and an insolent man.” “Nevertheless,” he explains, “I was shown mercy, because I was ignorant and acted with a lack of faith. But the undeserved kindness of our Lord abounded exceedingly along with faith and love that is in connection with Christ Jesus.” (1Ti 1:13, 14; 1Co 15:10) Paul did not spurn such undeserved kindness, as some have foolishly done (Jude 4), but he gladly accepted it with thanksgiving and urged others also who accept it ‘not to miss its purpose.’​—Ac 20:24; Ga 2:21; 2Co 6:1.

A sovereign who has authority to rule over others. Jehovah is the supreme King, possessing unlimited power and authority. The kings of Judah were subordinate kings who represented His sovereignty on earth. Like them, Jesus Christ is a subordinate King, but with far greater power than those earthly kings, because Jehovah has put him in the position of ruling the universe. (Php 2:9-11) Jesus Christ has therefore been made “King of kings and Lord of lords.”​—Re 19:16; see JESUS CHRIST; KINGDOM.

Early Kings. Among earthly rulers a king is a male sovereign invested with supreme authority over a city, a tribe, a nation, or an empire, and he usually rules for life. Nimrod, a descendant of Ham, was the first human king of Bible record. He ruled over a kingdom that included several cities in Mesopotamia. He was a rebel against Jehovah’s sovereignty.​—Ge 10:6, 8-10.

Canaan and the countries surrounding it had kings in the days of Abraham, long before the Israelites did. (Ge 14:1-9) Kings are also found from the earliest times among the Philistines, Edomites, Moabites, Midianites, Ammonites, Syrians, Hittites, Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Many of these kings ruled over limited domains such as a city-state. Adoni-bezek, for example, boasted that he had conquered 70 of such kings.​—Jg 1:7.

The first human king noted in the Bible as being righteous was Melchizedek, king-priest of Salem. (Ge 14:18) Aside from Jesus Christ, who is King and High Priest combined, Melchizedek is the only God-approved ruler to have held both offices. The apostle Paul points out that God used Melchizedek as a typical representation of Christ. (Heb 7:1-3; 8:1, 6) No other faithful servant of God, not even Noah, attempted to be a king, and God appointed none of them until Saul was anointed at His direction.

Israelite Kings. Initially Jehovah ruled Israel as an invisible King through various agencies, first through Moses and later through human Judges from Othniel to Samson. (Jg 8:23; 1Sa 12:12) Eventually the Israelites clamored for a king in order to be like the nations around them. (1Sa 8:5-8, 19) Under the legal provision embodied in the Law covenant for a divinely appointed human king, Jehovah appointed Saul of the tribe of Benjamin through the prophet Samuel. (De 17:14-20; 1Sa 9:15, 16; 10:21, 24) Because of disobedience and presumptuousness, Saul lost Jehovah’s favor and the opportunity to provide a dynasty of kings. (1Sa 13:1-14; 15:22-28) Turning then to the tribe of Judah, Jehovah selected David the son of Jesse to be the next king of Israel. (1Sa 16:13; 17:12) For faithfully supporting Jehovah’s worship and laws, David was privileged to establish a dynasty of kings. (2Sa 7:15, 16) The Israelites reached a peak of prosperity under the reign of Solomon, a son of David.​—1Ki 4:25; 2Ch 1:15.

During the reign of Solomon’s son Rehoboam, the nation was split into two kingdoms. The first king of the northern, ten-tribe kingdom, generally spoken of as Israel, was Jeroboam the son of Nebat of the tribe of Ephraim. (1Ki 11:26; 12:20) Disobediently he turned the worship of his people to golden calves. For this sin he came under Jehovah’s disfavor. (1Ki 14:10, 16) A total of 20 kings ruled in the northern kingdom from 997 to 740 B.C.E., beginning with Jeroboam and ending with Hoshea the son of Elah. In the southern kingdom, Judah, 19 kings reigned from 997 to 607 B.C.E., beginning with Rehoboam and ending with Zedekiah. (Athaliah, a usurper of the throne and not a king, is not counted.)​—See BURIAL, BURIAL PLACES; CHRONOLOGY.

Divinely appointed representatives. Jehovah appointed the kings of his people, and they were to act as his royal agents, sitting, not on their own thrones, but on “the throne of the kingship of Jehovah,” that is, as representatives of his theocratic rule. (1Ch 28:5; 29:23) Contrary to the practice of some Oriental peoples in those days, the nation of Israel did not deify their kings. All the kings of Judah were regarded as being the anointed ones of Jehovah, although the record does not specifically state that each individual king was literally anointed with oil when he ascended the throne. Literal anointing oil is recorded as being used when a new dynasty was established, when the throne was disputed in David’s old age as well as in the days of Jehoash, and when an older son was passed over for a younger son at the time Jehoahaz was enthroned. (1Sa 10:1; 16:13; 1Ki 1:39; 2Ki 11:12; 23:30, 31, 34, 36) It seems likely, nevertheless, that such anointing was the regular practice.

The king of Judah was chief administrator of national affairs, as a shepherd of the people. (Ps 78:70-72) He generally took the lead in battle. (1Sa 8:20; 2Sa 21:17; 1Ki 22:29-33) He also acted as the higher court in the judiciary, except that the high priest would consult Jehovah for decisions on some matters of state and on certain matters in which the decision was very difficult or evidence at the mouth of witnesses was insufficient.​—1Ki 3:16-28.

Kingly restraints. The restraints placed upon the king in the exercise of his authority were his own fear of God, the law of God, which he was bound to obey, and the persuasive influence of the prophets and the priests as well as the advisory counsel of the older men. He was required to write for himself a copy of the Law and to read in it all the days of his life. (De 17:18, 19) He was, as Jehovah’s special servant and representative, responsible to Jehovah. There were, sad to relate, many Judean kings who broke through these restraints and ruled despotically and wickedly.​—1Sa 22:12, 13, 17-19; 1Ki 12:12-16; 2Ch 33:9.

Religious leader. Although the king was prevented by law from being a priest, he was supposed to be the chief nonpriestly supporter of Jehovah’s worship. At times the king blessed the nation in Jehovah’s name and represented the people in prayer. (2Sa 6:18; 1Ki 8:14, 22, 54, 55) Besides being responsible for safeguarding the religious life of the people from idolatrous intrusions, he had the authority to dismiss an unfaithful high priest, as King Solomon did when High Priest Abiathar supported Adonijah’s seditious attempt to take the throne.​—1Ki 1:7; 2:27.

Wives and property. The marriage and family customs of the Judean kings included the practice of having a plurality of wives and concubines, although the Law stipulated that the king was not to multiply wives to himself. (De 17:17) The concubines were considered to be crown property and were passed on to the successor to the throne along with the rights and property of the king. To marry or take possession of one of the deceased king’s concubines was tantamount to publishing a claim to the throne. Hence, Absalom’s having relations with the concubines of his father, King David, and Adonijah’s requesting as wife Abishag, David’s nurse and companion in his old age, were equivalent to claims on the throne. (2Sa 16:21, 22; 1Ki 2:15-17, 22) These were treasonable acts.

Aside from the king’s personal estate, spoils of war, and gifts (1Ch 18:10), other sources of revenue were developed. These included special taxation of the produce of the land for the royal table, tribute from subjugated kingdoms, toll on traveling merchants passing through the land, and commercial ventures, such as the trading fleets of Solomon.​—1Ki 4:7, 27, 28; 9:26-28; 10:14, 15.

Instability of Northern Kingdom. In the northern kingdom of Israel the principle of hereditary succession was observed except when it was interfered with by assassination or revolt. The practice of false religion kept the northern kingdom in a constant state of unrest that contributed to frequent assassinations of its kings and usurpation of the throne. Only two dynasties lasted more than two generations, those of Omri and Jehu. Not being under the Davidic kingdom covenant, none of the kings of the northern kingdom sat on “the throne of the kingship of Jehovah” as the anointed of Jehovah.​—1Ch 28:5.

Gentile Kings and Subordinate Kings. Babylonian kings were officially consecrated as monarchs over all the Babylonian Empire by grasping the hand of the golden image of Marduk. This was done by Cyrus the Great in order to gain control over the Babylonian Empire without having to conquer the entire empire by military action.

Other kings came to their thrones through appointment by a higher king, such as the one who conquered the territory. It was a frequent practice for kings to rule conquered domains through tributary native kings of lesser rank. By this process Herod the Great became a tributary king of Rome over Judea (Mt 2:1), and Aretas the king of the Nabataeans was confirmed by Rome in his tributary kingdom.​—2Co 11:32.

Non-Israelite kings were less accessible to their subjects than those who ruled God’s people. The Israelite kings evidently mingled quite freely with their people. The Gentile kings were often very remote. To enter the inner court of the Persian king without express permission automatically made that one liable to death unless the king gave his specific approval by extending his scepter, as was done with Esther. (Es 4:11, 16) The Roman emperor, however, was available for audience on the appeal of a Roman citizen from a decision made by a lower judge, but only after a process of going through many lower officials.​—Ac 25:11, 12.

Basically, a royal government; also the territory and peoples under the rule of a king or, less frequently, under a female monarch or queen. Often the kingship was hereditary. The sovereign ruler might bear other titles such as Pharaoh or Caesar.

Kingdoms of ancient times, as today, had various symbols of royalty. There was generally a capital city or place of the king’s residence, a royal court, a standing army (though perhaps quite reduced in size in times of peace). The word “kingdom,” as used in the Bible, does not of itself reveal anything definite as to the governmental structure, the territorial extent, or the authority of the monarch. Kingdoms ranged in size and influence from the mighty world powers such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome, on down to small city-kingdoms such as those in Canaan at the time of the Israelite conquest. (Jos 12:7-24) The governmental structure also might vary considerably from kingdom to kingdom.

The first kingdom of human history, that of Nimrod, seems to have been initially a city-kingdom, later extending its realm to include other cities, its base remaining at Babel. (Ge 10:9-11) Salem, over which King-Priest Melchizedek ruled in the first kingdom with divine approval, was also apparently a city-kingdom. (Ge 14:18-20; compare Heb 7:1-17.) Larger kingdoms embraced an entire region, such as the kingdoms of Edom, Moab, and Ammon. The great empires, ruling vast areas and having other kingdoms tributary to them, generally seem to have arisen or grown out of small city-states or tribal groups that eventually combined under a dominant leader. Such coalitions were sometimes of a temporary nature, often formed for war against a common foe. (Ge 14:1-5; Jos 9:1, 2; 10:5) Vassal kingdoms frequently enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy, or self-rule, though subject to the will and demands of the suzerain power.​—2Ki 17:3, 4; 2Ch 36:4, 10.

Broad Usage. In Scriptural use the term “kingdom” may refer to specific aspects of a royal government. It can refer to the realm or geographic area over which sovereignty is exercised. The royal realm thus included not merely the capital city but the entire domain, embracing any subordinate or tributary kingdoms.​—1Ki 4:21; Es 3:6, 8.

“Kingdom” may refer in a general way to any or all human governments, whether actually headed by a king or not.​—Ezr 1:2; Mt 4:8.

It may signify kingship, the royal office or position of the king (Lu 17:21), with its accompanying dignity, power, and authority. (1Ch 11:10; 14:2; Lu 19:12, 15; Re 11:15; 17:12, 13, 17) Children of the king may be referred to as “the offspring of the kingdom.”​—2Ki 11:1.

The Israelite Kingdom. The Law covenant given through Moses to the nation of Israel made provision for a kingdom rule. (De 17:14, 15) The individual heading the kingdom was empowered and given royal dignity, not for personal exaltation, but to serve for the honor of God and the good of his Israelite brothers. (De 17:19, 20; compare 1Sa 15:17.) Nevertheless, when the Israelites in course of time requested a human king, the prophet Samuel warned of the demands such a ruler would make upon the people. (1Sa 8) The kings of Israel seem to have been more approachable and more accessible to their subjects than were the monarchs of most ancient Oriental kingdoms.​—2Sa 19:8; 1Ki 20:39; 1Ch 15:25-29.

Though the kingdom of Israel began with a king from the line of Benjamin, Judah thereafter became the royal tribe, in keeping with Jacob’s deathbed prophecy. (1Sa 10:20-25; Ge 49:10) A royal dynasty was established in David’s line. (2Sa 2:4; 5:3, 4; 7:12, 13) When the kingdom was ‘ripped away’ from Solomon’s son Rehoboam, ten tribes formed a northern kingdom, while Jehovah God retained one tribe, Benjamin, to remain with Judah, “in order that David my servant may continue having a lamp always before me in Jerusalem, the city that I have chosen for myself to put my name there.” (1Ki 11:31, 35, 36; 12:18-24) Though the Judean kingdom fell to the Babylonians in 607 B.C.E., the legal right to rule eventually passed on to the rightful heir, the “son of David,” Jesus Christ. (Mt 1:1-16; Lu 1:31, 32; compare Eze 21:26, 27.) His Kingdom was to be endless.​—Isa 9:6, 7; Lu 1:33.

A royal organization developed in Israel to administer the interests of the kingdom. It consisted of an inner circle of advisers and ministers of state (1Ki 4:1-6; 1Ch 27:32-34), as well as various governmental departments with their respective overseers to administer crown lands, supervise the economy, and supply the needs of the royal court.​—1Ki 4:7; 1Ch 27:25-31.

While the kings of Israel in the Davidic line could issue specific orders, the actual legislative power rested with God. (De 4:1, 2; Isa 33:22) In all things the king was responsible to the true Sovereign and Lord, Jehovah. Wrongdoing and waywardness on the part of the king would bring divine sanctions. (1Sa 13:13, 14; 15:20-24) Jehovah at times communicated with the king himself (1Ki 3:5; 11:11); at other times he gave him instructions and counsel or reproof through appointed prophets. (2Sa 7:4, 5; 12:1-14) The king could also draw upon the wise counsel of the body of older men. (1Ki 12:6, 7) The enforcement of instructions or reproof, however, rested, not with the prophets or older men, but with Jehovah.

When the king and the people faithfully adhered to the Law covenant given them by God, the nation of Israel enjoyed a degree of individual freedom, material prosperity, and national harmony unparalleled by other kingdoms. (1Ki 4:20, 25) During the years of Solomon’s obedience to Jehovah, the Israelite kingdom was widely renowned and respected, having many tributary kingdoms and benefiting from the resources of many lands.​—1Ki 4:21, 30, 34.

Jehovah God’s kingship, while visibly expressed for a time through the Israelite kingdom, is one of universal sovereignty. (1Ch 29:11, 12) Whether acknowledged by the peoples and kingdoms of mankind or not, his kingship is absolute and unalterable, and all the earth is part of his rightful domain. (Ps 103:19; 145:11-13; Isa 14:26, 27) By virtue of His creatorship, Jehovah exercises his sovereign will in heaven and on earth, according to his own purposes, answerable to no one (Jer 18:3-10; Da 4:25, 34, 35), yet always acting in harmony with his own righteous standards.​—Mal 3:6; Heb 6:17, 18; Jas 1:17.

The expression and exercise of God’s universal sovereignty toward his creatures, or the means or instrumentality used by him for this purpose. (Ps 103:19) The phrase is used particularly for the expression of God’s sovereignty through a royal government headed by his Son, Christ Jesus.

The word rendered “kingdom” in the Christian Greek Scriptures is ba·si·leiʹa, meaning “a kingdom, realm, the region or country governed by a king; kingly power, authority, dominion, reign; royal dignity, the title and honour of king.” (The Analytical Greek Lexicon, 1908, p. 67) The phrase “the kingdom of God” is used frequently by Mark and Luke, and in Matthew’s account the parallel phrase “the kingdom of the heavens” appears some 30 times.​—Compare Mr 10:23 and Lu 18:24 with Mt 19:23, 24; see HEAVEN (Spiritual Heavens); KINGDOM.

The government of God is, in structure and function, a pure theocracy (from Gr. the·osʹ, god, and kraʹtos, a rule), a rule by God. The term “theocracy” is attributed to Jewish historian Josephus of the first century C.E., who evidently coined it in his writing Against Apion (II, 164, 165 [17]). Of the government established over Israel in Sinai, Josephus wrote: “Some peoples have entrusted the supreme political power to monarchies, others to oligarchies, yet others to the masses. Our lawgiver, however, was attracted by none of these forms of polity, but gave to his constitution the form of what​—if a forced expression be permitted—​may be termed a ‘theocracy [Gr., the·o·kra·tiʹan],’ placing all sovereignty and authority in the hands of God.” To be a pure theocracy, of course, the government could not be ordained by any human legislator, such as the man Moses, but must be ordained and established by God. The Scriptural record shows this was the case.

Origin of the Term. The term “king” (Heb., meʹlekh) evidently came into use in human language after the global Flood. The first earthly kingdom was that of Nimrod “a mighty hunter in opposition to Jehovah.” (Ge 10:8-12) Thereafter, during the period down to Abraham’s time, city-states and nations developed and human kings multiplied. With the exception of the kingdom of Melchizedek, king-priest of Salem (who served as a prophetic type of the Messiah [Ge 14:17-20; Heb 7:1-17]), none of these earthly kingdoms represented God’s rule or were established by him. Men also made kings of the false gods they worshiped, attributing to them the ability to grant power of rulership to humans. Jehovah’s application of the title “King [Meʹlekh]” to himself, as found in the post-Flood writings of the Hebrew Scriptures, therefore meant God’s making use of the title men had developed and employed. God’s use of the term showed that he, and not presumptuous human rulers or man-made gods, should be looked to and obeyed as “King.”​—Jer 10:10-12.

Jehovah had, of course, been Sovereign Ruler long before human kingdoms developed, in fact before humans existed. As the true God and as their Creator, he was respected and obeyed by angelic sons numbering into the millions. (Job 38:4-7; 2Ch 18:18; Ps 103:20-22; Da 7:10) By whatever title, then, he was, from the beginning of creation, recognized as the One whose will was rightfully supreme.

God’s Rulership in Early Human History. The first human creatures, Adam and Eve, likewise knew Jehovah as God, the Creator of heaven and earth. They recognized his authority and his right to issue commands, to call upon people to perform certain duties or to refrain from certain acts, to assign land for residence and cultivation, as well as to delegate authority over others of his creatures. (Ge 1:26-30; 2:15-17) Though Adam had the ability to coin words (Ge 2:19, 20), there is no evidence that he developed the title “king [meʹlekh]” to apply it to his God and Creator, although he recognized Jehovah’s supreme authority.

As revealed in the initial chapters of Genesis, God’s exercise of his sovereignty toward man in Eden was benevolent and not unduly restrictive. The relationship between God and man called for obedience such as the obedience a son renders to his father. (Compare Lu 3:38.) Man had no lengthy code of laws to fulfill (compare 1Ti 1:8-11); God’s requirements were simple and purposeful. Nor is there anything to indicate that Adam was made to feel inhibited by constant, critical supervision of his every action; rather, God’s communication with perfect man seems to have been periodic, according to need.​—Ge chaps 1-3.

A new expression of God’s rulership purposed. The first human pair’s open violation of God’s command, instigated by one of God’s spirit sons, was actually rebellion against divine authority. (Ge 3:17-19; see TREES [Figurative Use].) The position taken by God’s spirit Adversary (Heb., sa·tanʹ) constituted a challenge calling for a test, the issue being the rightfulness of Jehovah’s universal sovereignty. (See JEHOVAH [The supreme issue a moral one].) The earth, where the issue was raised, is fittingly the place where it will be settled.​—Re 12:7-12.

At the time of pronouncing judgment upon the first rebels, Jehovah God spoke a prophecy, couched in symbolic phrase, setting forth his purpose to use an agency, a “seed,” to effect the ultimate crushing of the rebel forces. (Ge 3:15) Thus, Jehovah’s rulership, the expression of his sovereignty, would take on a new aspect or expression in answer to the insurrection that had developed. The progressive revelation of “the sacred secrets of the kingdom” (Mt 13:11) showed that this new aspect would involve the formation of a subsidiary government, a ruling body headed by a deputy ruler. The realization of the promise of the “seed” is in the kingdom of Christ Jesus in union with his chosen associates. (Re 17:14; see JESUS CHRIST [His Vital Place in God’s Purpose].) From the time of the Edenic promise forward, the progressive development of God’s purpose to produce this Kingdom “seed” becomes a basic theme of the Bible and a key to understanding Jehovah’s actions toward his servants and toward mankind in general.

God’s delegating vast authority and power to creatures (Mt 28:18; Re 2:26, 27; 3:21) in this way is noteworthy inasmuch as the question of the integrity of all God’s creatures, that is, their wholehearted devotion to him and their loyalty to his headship, formed a vital part of the issue raised by God’s Adversary. (See INTEGRITY [Involved in the supreme issue].) That God could confidently entrust any of his creatures with such remarkable authority and power would in itself be a splendid testimony to the moral strength of his rule, contributing to the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty and exposing the falsity of his adversary’s allegations.

Need for divine government manifested. The conditions that developed from the time of the start of human rebellion until the time of the Flood clearly illustrated mankind’s need for divine headship. Human society soon had to contend with disunity, bodily assault, and murder. (Ge 4:2-9, 23, 24) To what extent the sinner Adam, during his 930 years of life, exercised patriarchal authority over his multiplying descendants is not revealed. But by the seventh generation shocking ungodliness evidently existed (Jude 14, 15), and by the time of Noah (born about 120 years after Adam’s death) conditions had deteriorated to the point that “the earth became filled with violence.” (Ge 6:1-13) Contributing to this condition was the unauthorized interjection of spirit creatures into human society, contrary to God’s will and purpose.​—Ge 6:1-4; Jude 6; 2Pe 2:4, 5; see NEPHILIM.

Though earth had become a focus of rebellion, Jehovah did not relinquish his dominion over it. The global Flood was evidence that God’s power and ability to enforce his will on earth, as in any part of the universe, continued. During the pre-Flood period he likewise demonstrated his willingness to guide and govern the actions of those individuals who sought him, such as Abel, Enoch, and Noah. Noah’s case in particular illustrates God’s exercise of rulership toward a willing earthly subject, giving him commands and direction, protecting and blessing him and his family, as well as evidencing God’s control over the other earthly creation​—animals and birds. (Ge 6:9–7:16) Jehovah likewise made clear that he would not allow alienated human society to corrupt the earth endlessly; that he had not restricted himself as to executing his righteous judgment against wrongdoers when and as he saw fit. Additionally he demonstrated his sovereign ability to control earth’s various elements, including its atmosphere.​—Ge 6:3, 5-7; 7:17–8:22.

The early post-Flood society and its problems. Following the Flood, a patriarchal arrangement apparently was the basic structure of human society, providing a measure of stability and order. Mankind was to “fill the earth,” which called not merely for procreating but for the steady extension of the area of human habitation throughout the globe. (Ge 9:1, 7) These factors, of themselves, would reasonably have had a limiting effect on any social problems, keeping them generally within the family circle and making unlikely the friction that frequently develops where density of population or crowded conditions exist. The unauthorized project at Babel, however, called for an opposite course, for a concentrating of people, avoiding being “scattered over all the surface of the earth.” (Ge 11:1-4; see LANGUAGE.) Then, too, Nimrod departed from the patriarchal rule and set up the first “kingdom” (Heb., mam·la·khahʹ). A Cushite of the family line of Ham, he invaded Shemite territory, the land of Asshur (Assyria), and built cities there as part of his realm.​—Ge 10:8-12.

God’s confusion of human language broke up the concentration of people on the Plains of Shinar, but the pattern of rulership begun by Nimrod was generally followed in the lands to which the various families of mankind migrated. In the days of Abraham (2018-1843 B.C.E.), kingdoms were active from Asian Mesopotamia on down to Egypt, where the king was titled “Pharaoh” rather than Meʹlekh. But these kingships did not bring security. Kings were soon forming military alliances, waging far-ranging campaigns of aggression, plunder, and kidnapping. (Ge 14:1-12) In some cities strangers were subject to attack by homosexuals.​—Ge 19:4-9.

Thus, whereas men doubtless banded together in concentrated communities in search of security (compare Ge 4:14-17), they soon found it necessary to wall their cities and eventually fortify them against armed attack. The earliest secular records known, many of them from the Mesopotamian region where Nimrod’s kingdom had originally operated, are heavy with accounts of human conflict, greed, intrigue, and bloodshed. The most ancient non-Biblical law records found, such as those of Lipit-Ishtar, Eshnunna, and Hammurabi, show that human living had become very complex, with social friction producing problems of theft, fraud, commercial difficulties, disputes about property and payment of rent, questions regarding loans and interest, marital infidelity, medical fees and failures, assault and battery cases, and many other matters. Though Hammurabi called himself “the efficient king” and “the perfect king,” his rule and legislation, like that of the other ancient political kingdoms, was incapable of solving the problems of sinful mankind. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. B. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 159-180; compare Pr 28:5.) In all these kingdoms religion was prominent, but not the worship of the true God. Though the priesthood collaborated closely with the ruling class and enjoyed royal favor, this brought no moral improvement to the people. The cuneiform inscriptions of the ancient religious writings are devoid of spiritual uplift or moral guidance; they betray the gods worshiped as quarrelsome, violent, lustful, not governed by righteous standards or purpose. Men needed Jehovah God’s kingdom if they were to enjoy life in peace and happiness.

Toward Abraham and His Descendants. True, those individuals who looked to Jehovah God as their Head were not without their personal problems and frictions. Yet they were helped to solve these or to endure them in a way conforming to God’s righteous standards and without becoming degraded. They were afforded divine protection and strength. (Ge 13:5-11; 14:18-24; 19:15-24; 21:9-13, 22-33) Thus, after pointing out that Jehovah’s “judicial decisions are in all the earth,” the psalmist says of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: “They happened to be few in number, yes, very few, and alien residents in [Canaan]. And they kept walking about from nation to nation, from one kingdom to another people. [Jehovah] did not allow any human to defraud them, but on their account he reproved kings, saying: ‘Do not you men touch my anointed ones, and to my prophets do nothing bad.’” (Ps 105:7-15; compare Ge 12:10-20; 20:1-18; 31:22-24, 36-55.) This, too, was proof that God’s sovereignty over earth was still in effect, enforceable by him in harmony with the development of his purpose.

The faithful patriarchs did not attach themselves to any of the city-states or kingdoms of Canaan or other lands. Rather than seek security in some city under the political rule of a human king, they lived in tents as aliens, “strangers and temporary residents in the land,” in faith “awaiting the city having real foundations, the builder and maker of which city is God.” They accepted God as their Ruler, waited for his future heavenly arrangement, or agency, for governing the earth, solidly founded on his sovereign authority and will, though the realization of this hope was then “afar off.” (Heb 11:8-10, 13-16) Thus, Jesus, already anointed by God to be king, could later say: “Abraham . . . rejoiced greatly in the prospect of seeing my day, and he saw it and rejoiced.”​—Joh 8:56.

Jehovah brought the development of his promise regarding the Kingdom “seed” (Ge 3:15) a step farther by the establishing of a covenant with Abraham. (Ge 12:1-3; 22:15-18) In connection therewith, he foretold that ‘kings would come’ from Abraham (Abram) and his wife. (Ge 17:1-6, 15, 16) Though the descendants of Abraham’s grandson Esau formed sheikdoms and kingdoms, it was to Abraham’s other grandson, Jacob, that God’s prophetic promise of kingly descendants was repeated.​—Ge 35:11, 12; 36:9, 15-43.

Formation of the Israelite nation. Centuries later, at the due time (Ge 15:13-16), Jehovah God acted on behalf of Jacob’s descendants, now numbering into the millions (see EXODUS [The Number Involved in the Exodus]), protecting them during a campaign of genocide by the Egyptian government (Ex 1:15-22) and finally freeing them from harsh slavery to Egypt’s regime. (Ex 2:23-25) God’s command to Pharaoh, delivered through his agents Moses and Aaron, was spurned by the Egyptian ruler as proceeding from a source with no authority over Egyptian affairs. Pharaoh’s repeated refusal to recognize Jehovah’s sovereignty brought demonstrations of divine power in the form of plagues. (Ex 7 to 12) God thereby proved that his dominion over earth’s elements and creatures was superior to that of any king in all the earth. (Ex 9:13-16) He climaxed this display of sovereign power by destroying Pharaoh’s forces in a way that none of the boastful warrior kings of the nations could ever have duplicated. (Ex 14:26-31) With real basis, Moses and the Israelites sang: “Jehovah will rule as king to time indefinite, even forever.”​—Ex 15:1-19.

Thereafter Jehovah gave added proof of his dominion over earth, its vital water resources, and its bird life, and he showed his ability to guard and sustain his nation even in arid and hostile surroundings. (Ex 15:22–17:15) Having done all of this, he addressed the liberated people, telling them that, by obedience to his authority and covenant, they could become his special property out of all other peoples, “because the whole earth belongs to me.” They could become “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex 19:3-6) When they went on record as willing subjects of his sovereignty, Jehovah acted as Kingly Legislator by giving them royal decrees in a large body of laws, accompanying this by dynamic and awe-inspiring evidence of his power and glory. (Ex 19:7–24:18) A tabernacle or tent of meeting, and particularly the ark of the covenant, was to indicate the presence of the invisible heavenly Head of State. (Ex 25:8, 21, 22; 33:7-11; compare Re 21:3.) Although Moses and other appointed men judged the majority of cases, guided by God’s law, Jehovah intervened personally at times to express judgments and apply sanctions against lawbreakers. (Ex 18:13-16, 24-26; 32:25-35) The ordained priesthood acted to maintain good relations between the nation and its heavenly Ruler, helping the people in their efforts to conform to the high standards of the Law covenant. (See PRIEST.) Thus the government over Israel was a genuine theocracy.​—De 33:2, 5.

As God and Creator, holding the right of “eminent domain” over all the earth, as well as being “the Judge of all the earth” (Ge 18:25), Jehovah had assigned the land of Canaan to Abraham’s seed. (Ge 12:5-7; 15:17-21) As Chief Executive, he now ordered the Israelites to carry out the forcible expropriation of the territory held by the condemned Canaanites, as well as his death sentence against them.​—De 9:1-5; see CANAAN, CANAANITE No. 2 (Conquest of Canaan by Israel).

The period of the Judges. For three and a half centuries after Israel’s conquest of Canaan’s many kingdoms, Jehovah God was the nation’s only king. During varying periods, Judges, chosen by God, led the nation or portions thereof in battle and in peace. Judge Gideon’s defeat of Midian brought a popular request that he become the nation’s ruler, but he refused, acknowledging Jehovah as the true ruler. (Jg 8:22, 23) His ambitious son Abimelech briefly established kingship over a small segment of the nation, but this ended in personal disaster.​—Jg 9:1, 6, 22, 53-56.

Of this general period of the Judges, the comment is made: “In those days there was no king in Israel. As for everybody, what was right in his own eyes he was accustomed to do.” (Jg 17:6; 21:25) This does not imply that there was no judicial restraint. Every city had judges, older men, to handle legal questions and problems and to mete out justice. (De 16:18-20; see COURT, JUDICIAL.) The Levitical priesthood functioned as a superior guiding force, educating the people in God’s law, the high priest having the Urim and Thummim by which to consult God on difficult matters. (See HIGH PRIEST; PRIEST; URIM AND THUMMIM.) So, the individual who availed himself of these provisions, who gained knowledge of God’s law and applied it, had a sound guide for his conscience. His doing “what was right in his own eyes” in such case would not result in bad. Jehovah allowed the people to show a willing or unwilling attitude and course. There was no human monarch over the nation supervising the work of the city judges or commanding the citizens to engage in particular projects or marshaling them for defense of the nation. (Compare Jg 5:1-18.) The bad conditions that developed, therefore, were chargeable to the unwillingness of the majority to heed the word and law of their heavenly King and to avail themselves of his provisions.​—Jg 2:11-23.

A Human King Requested. Nearly 400 years from the time of the Exodus and over 800 years from the making of God’s covenant with Abraham, the Israelites requested a human king to lead them, even as the other nations had human monarchs. Their request constituted a rejection of Jehovah’s own kingship over them. (1Sa 8:4-8) True, the people properly expected a kingdom to be established by God in harmony with his promise to Abraham and to Jacob, already cited. They had further basis for such hope in Jacob’s deathbed prophecy concerning Judah (Ge 49:8-10), in Jehovah’s words to Israel after the Exodus (Ex 19:3-6), in the terms of the Law covenant (De 17:14, 15), and even in part of the message God caused the prophet Balaam to speak (Nu 24:2-7, 17). Samuel’s faithful mother Hannah expressed this hope in prayer. (1Sa 2:7-10) Nevertheless, Jehovah had not fully revealed his “sacred secret” regarding the Kingdom and had not indicated when his due time for its establishment would arrive nor what the structure and composition of that government would be​—whether it would be earthly or heavenly. It was therefore presumptuous on the part of the people now to demand a human king.

The menace of Philistine and Ammonite aggression evidently contributed to the Israelites’ desire for a visible royal commander-in-chief. They thus displayed a lack of faith in God’s ability to protect, guide, and provide for them, as a nation or as individuals. (1Sa 8:4-8) The people’s motive was wrong; yet Jehovah God granted their request not for their sake primarily but to accomplish his own good purpose in the progressive revelation of the “sacred secret” of his future Kingdom by the “seed.” Human kingship would bring its problems and expense for Israel, however, and Jehovah laid the facts before the people.​—1Sa 8:9-22.

The kings thereafter appointed by Jehovah were to serve as God’s earthly agents, not diminishing in the least Jehovah’s own sovereignty over the nation. The throne was actually Jehovah’s, and they sat thereon as deputy kings. (1Ch 29:23) Jehovah commanded the anointing of the first king, Saul (1Sa 9:15-17), at the same time exposing the lack of faith the nation had displayed.​—1Sa 10:17-25.

For the kingship to bring benefits, both king and nation must now respect God’s authority. If they unrealistically looked to other sources for direction and protection, they and their king would be swept away. (De 28:36; 1Sa 12:13-15, 20-25) The king was to avoid reliance on military strength, the multiplying of wives for himself, and being dominated by the lust for wealth. His kingship was to operate entirely within the framework of the Law covenant. He was under divine orders to write his own copy of that Law and read it daily, that he might keep a proper fear of the Sovereign Authority, stay humble, and hold to a righteous course. (De 17:16-20) To the extent that he did this, loving God wholeheartedly and loving his neighbor as himself, his rule would bring blessings, with no real cause for complaint due to oppression or hardship. But, as with the people, so now with their kings, Jehovah allowed the rulers to demonstrate what their hearts contained, their willingness or unwillingness to recognize God’s own authority and will.

David’s Exemplary Rule. Disrespect by the Benjamite Saul for the superior authority and arrangements of “the Excellency of Israel” brought divine disfavor and cost his family line the throne. (1Sa 13:10-14; 15:17-29; 1Ch 10:13, 14) With the rule of Saul’s successor, David of Judah, Jacob’s deathbed prophecy saw further fulfillment. (Ge 49:8-10) Though David committed errors through human weakness, his rule was exemplary because of his heartfelt devotion to Jehovah God and his humble submission to divine authority. (Ps 51:1-4; 1Sa 24:10-14; compare 1Ki 11:4; 15:11, 14.) At the time of receiving contributions for the temple construction, David prayed to God before the congregated people, saying: “Yours, O Jehovah, are the greatness and the mightiness and the beauty and the excellency and the dignity; for everything in the heavens and in the earth is yours. Yours is the kingdom, O Jehovah, the One also lifting yourself up as head over all. The riches and the glory are on account of you, and you are dominating everything; and in your hand there are power and mightiness, and in your hand is ability to make great and to give strength to all. And now, O our God, we are thanking you and praising your beauteous name.” (1Ch 29:10-13) His final counsel to his son Solomon also illustrates David’s fine viewpoint of the relationship between the earthly kingship and its divine Source.​—1Ki 2:1-4.

On the occasion of bringing the ark of the covenant, associated with Jehovah’s presence, to the capital, Jerusalem, David sang: “Let the heavens rejoice, and let the earth be joyful, and let them say among the nations, ‘Jehovah himself has become king!’” (1Ch 16:1, 7, 23-31) This illustrates the fact that, though Jehovah’s rulership dates from the beginning of creation, he can make specific expressions of his rulership or establish certain agencies to represent him that allow for his being spoken of as ‘becoming king’ at a particular time or occasion.

The covenant for a kingdom. Jehovah made a covenant with David for a kingdom to be established everlastingly in his family line, saying: “I shall certainly raise up your seed after you, . . . and I shall indeed firmly establish his kingdom. . . . And your house and your kingdom will certainly be steadfast to time indefinite before you; your very throne will become one firmly established to time indefinite.” (2Sa 7:12-16; 1Ch 17:11-14) This covenant in force toward the Davidic dynasty provided further evidence of the outworking of God’s Edenic promise for his Kingdom by the foretold “seed” (Ge 3:15) and supplied additional means for identifying that “seed” when he should come. (Compare Isa 9:6, 7; 1Pe 1:11.) The kings appointed by God were anointed for their office, hence the term “messiah,” meaning “anointed one,” applied to them. (1Sa 16:1; Ps 132:13, 17) Clearly, then, the earthly kingdom Jehovah established over Israel served as a type or small-scale representation of the coming Kingdom by the Messiah, Jesus Christ, “son of David.”​—Mt 1:1.

Decline and Fall of the Israelite Kingdoms. Because of failure to adhere to Jehovah’s righteous ways, conditions at the end of just three reigns and the start of the fourth produced strong discontent that led to revolt and a split in the nation (997 B.C.E.). A northern kingdom and a southern one resulted. Jehovah’s covenant with David nevertheless continued in force toward the kings of the southern kingdom of Judah. Over the centuries, faithful kings were rare in Judah, and were completely lacking in the northern kingdom of Israel. The northern kingdom’s history was one of idolatry, intrigue, and assassinations, kings often following one another in rapid succession. The people suffered injustice and oppression. About 250 years from its start, Jehovah allowed the king of Assyria to crush the northern kingdom (740 B.C.E.) because of its course of rebellion against God.​—Ho 4:1, 2; Am 2:6-8.

Though the kingdom of Judah enjoyed greater stability because of the Davidic dynasty, the southern kingdom eventually surpassed the northern kingdom in its moral corruption, despite the efforts of God-fearing kings, such as Hezekiah and Josiah, to roll back the decline toward idolatry and rejection of Jehovah’s word and authority. (Isa 1:1-4; Eze 23:1-4, 11) Social injustice, tyranny, greed, dishonesty, bribes, sexual perversion, criminal attacks, and bloodshed, as well as religious hypocrisy that converted God’s temple into a “cave of robbers”​—all of these were decried by Jehovah’s prophets in their warning messages delivered to rulers and people. (Isa 1:15-17, 21-23; 3:14, 15; Jer 5:1, 2, 7, 8, 26-28, 31; 6:6, 7; 7:8-11) Neither the support of apostate priests nor any political alliance made with other nations could avoid the coming crash of that unfaithful kingdom. (Jer 6:13-15; 37:7-10) The capital city, Jerusalem, was destroyed and Judah was laid waste by the Babylonians in 607 B.C.E.​—2Ki 25:1-26.

Jehovah’s kingly position remains unmarred. The destruction of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah in no way reflected on the quality of Jehovah God’s own rulership; in no way did it indicate weakness on his part. Throughout the history of the Israelite nation, Jehovah made clear that his interest was in willing service and obedience. (De 10:12-21; 30:6, 15-20; Isa 1:18-20; Eze 18:25-32) He instructed, reproved, disciplined, warned, and punished. But he did not use his power to force either the king or the people to follow a righteous course. The bad conditions that developed, the suffering experienced, the disaster that befell them, were all of their own making, because they stubbornly hardened their hearts and insisted on following an independent course, one that was stupidly damaging to their own best interests.​—La 1:8, 9; Ne 9:26-31, 34-37; Isa 1:2-7; Jer 8:5-9; Ho 7:10, 11.

Jehovah exhibited his Sovereign power by holding in abeyance the aggressive, rapacious powers of Assyria and Babylon until his own due time, even maneuvering them so that they acted in fulfillment of his prophecies. (Eze 21:18-23; Isa 10:5-7) When Jehovah finally removed his defenses from around the nation, it was an expression of his righteous judgment as Sovereign Ruler. (Jer 35:17) The desolation of Israel and Judah came as no shocking surprise to God’s obedient servants who were forewarned by his prophecies. The abasing of haughty rulers exalted Jehovah’s own “splendid superiority.” (Isa 2:1, 10-17) More than all of this, however, he had demonstrated his ability to protect and preserve individuals who looked to him as their King, even when they were surrounded by conditions of famine, disease, and wholesale slaughter, as well as when they were persecuted by those hating righteousness.​—Jer 34:17-21; 20:10, 11; 35:18, 19; 36:26; 37:18-21; 38:7-13; 39:11–40:5.

Israel’s last king was warned of the coming removal of his crown, representing anointed kingship as Jehovah’s royal representative. That anointed Davidic kingship would no longer be exercised “until he comes who has the legal right, and I [Jehovah] must give it to him.” (Eze 21:25-27) Thus, the typical kingdom, now in ruins, ceased to function, and attention was again directed forward, toward the coming “seed,” the Messiah.

Political nations, such as Assyria and Babylon, devastated the apostate kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Though God speaks of himself as ‘raising up’ or ‘bringing’ them against those condemned kingdoms (De 28:49; Jer 5:15; 25:8, 9; Eze 7:24; Am 6:14), this was evidently in a sense similar to God’s ‘hardening’ the heart of Pharaoh. (See FOREKNOWLEDGE, FOREORDINATION [Concerning individuals].) That is, God ‘brought’ these attacking forces by permitting them to carry out the desire already in their heart (Isa 10:7; La 2:16; Mic 4:11), removing his protective ‘hand’ from over the objects of their ambitious greed. (De 31:17, 18; compare Ezr 8:31 with Ezr 5:12; Ne 9:28-31; Jer 34:2.) The apostate Israelites, stubbornly refusing to subject themselves to Jehovah’s law and will, thus were given ‘liberty to the sword, pestilence, and famine.’ (Jer 34:17) But the attacking pagan nations did not thereby become approved of God, nor did they have ‘clean hands’ before him in their ruthless destruction of the northern and southern kingdoms, the capital city of Jerusalem, and its sacred temple. Hence, Jehovah, the Judge of all the earth, could rightly denounce them for ‘pillaging his inheritance’ and could doom them to suffer the same desolation they had wreaked on his covenant people.​—Isa 10:12-14; 13:1, 17-22; 14:4-6, 12-14, 26, 27; 47:5-11; Jer 50:11, 14, 17-19, 23-29.

Visions of Kingdom of God in Daniel’s Day. The prophecy of Daniel in its entirety emphatically stresses the theme of the Universal Sovereignty of God, further clarifying Jehovah’s purpose. Living in exile in the capital of the world power that overthrew Judah, Daniel was used by God to reveal the significance of a vision had by the Babylonian monarch, a vision that foretold the march of world powers and their eventual demolition by the everlasting Kingdom of Jehovah’s own establishment. Doubtless to the amazement of his royal court, Nebuchadnezzar, the very conqueror of Jerusalem, was now moved to prostrate himself in homage to Daniel the exile and to acknowledge Daniel’s God as “a Lord of kings.” (Da 2:36-47) Again, by Nebuchadnezzar’s dream vision of the ‘chopped-down tree,’ Jehovah forcefully made known that “the Most High is Ruler in the kingdom of mankind and that to the one whom he wants to, he gives it and he sets up over it even the lowliest one of mankind.” (Da 4; see the discussion of this vision under APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS.) Through the fulfillment of the dream as it related to him, imperial ruler Nebuchadnezzar once more was brought to recognize Daniel’s God as “the King of the heavens,” the One who “is doing according to his own will among the army of the heavens and the inhabitants of the earth. And there exists no one that can check his hand or that can say to him, ‘What have you been doing?’”​—Da 4:34-37.

Toward the close of Babylon’s international dominance, Daniel saw prophetic visions of successive empires, beastlike in their characteristics; he saw also Jehovah’s majestic heavenly Court in session, passing judgment on the world powers, decreeing them unworthy of rulership; and he beheld “someone like a son of man . . . [being] given rulership and dignity and kingdom, that the peoples, national groups and languages should all serve even him” in his “indefinitely lasting rulership that will not pass away.” He witnessed as well the war waged against “the holy ones” by the final world power, calling for its annihilation, and the giving of “the kingdom and the rulership and the grandeur of the kingdoms under all the heavens . . . to the people who are the holy ones of the Supreme One,” Jehovah God. (Da 7, 8) Thus, it became evident that the promised “seed” would involve a governmental body with not only a kingly head, the “son of man,” but also associate rulers, “the holy ones of the Supreme One.”

Toward Babylon and Medo-Persia. God’s inexorable decree against mighty Babylon was carried out suddenly and unexpectedly; her days were numbered and brought to a finish. (Da 5:17-30) During the Medo-Persian rule that followed, Jehovah made further revelation concerning the Messianic Kingdom, pointing to the time of Messiah’s appearance, foretelling his being “cut off,” as well as a second destruction of the city of Jerusalem and its holy place. (Da 9:1, 24-27; see SEVENTY WEEKS.) And, as he had done during the Babylonian rule, Jehovah God again demonstrated his ability to protect those recognizing his sovereignty in the face of official anger and the threat of death, exhibiting his power over both earthly elements and wild beasts. (Da 3:13-29; 6:12-27) He caused Babylon’s gates to swing wide open on schedule, allowing his covenant people to have the freedom to return to their own land and rebuild Jehovah’s house there. (2Ch 36:20-23) Because of his act of liberating his people, the announcement could be made to Zion, “Your God has become king!” (Isa 52:7-11) Thereafter, conspiracies against his people were thwarted and misrepresentation by subordinate officials and adverse governmental decrees were overcome, as Jehovah moved various Persian kings to cooperate with the carrying out of his own sovereign will.​—Ezr 4-7; Ne 2, 4, 6; Es 3-9.

Thus, for thousands of years the changeless, irresistible purpose of Jehovah God moved forward. Regardless of the turn of events on earth, he proved to be ever in command of the situation, always ahead of opposing man and devil. Nothing was allowed to interfere with the perfect outworking of his purpose, his will. The nation of Israel and its history, while serving to form prophetic types and forecasts of the future dealings of God with men, also illustrated that without wholehearted recognition and submission to divine headship there can be no lasting harmony, peace, and happiness. The Israelites enjoyed the benefits of having in common such things as ancestry, language, and country. They also faced common foes. But only as long as they loyally and faithfully worshiped and served Jehovah God did they have unity, strength, justice, and genuine enjoyment of life. When the bonds of relationship with Jehovah God weakened, the nation deteriorated rapidly.

The Kingdom of God ‘Draws Near.’ Since the Messiah was to be a descendant of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, a member of the tribe of Judah, and a “son of David,” he had to have a human birth; he had to be, as Daniel’s prophecy declared, “a son of man.” When the “full limit of the time arrived,” Jehovah God sent forth his Son, who was born of a woman and who fulfilled all the legal requirements for the inheritance of “the throne of David his father.” (Ga 4:4; Lu 1:26-33; see GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST.) Six months before his birth, John, who became the Baptizer and who was to be Jesus’ forerunner, had been born. (Lu 1:13-17, 36) The expressions of the parents of these sons showed they were living in eager anticipation of divine acts of rulership. (Lu 1:41-55, 68-79) At Jesus’ birth, the words of the angelic deputation sent to announce the meaning of the event also pointed to glorious acts by God. (Lu 2:9-14) So, too, the words of Simeon and Anna at the temple expressed hope in saving acts and liberation. (Lu 2:25-38) Both the Biblical record and secular evidence reveal that a general feeling of expectation prevailed among the Jews that the coming of the Messiah was drawing near. With many, however, interest was primarily in gaining freedom from the heavy yoke of Roman domination.​—See MESSIAH.

John’s commission was to ‘turn back the hearts’ of persons to Jehovah, to his covenants, to “the privilege of fearlessly rendering sacred service to him with loyalty and righteousness,” thereby getting ready for Jehovah “a prepared people.” (Lu 1:16, 17, 72-75) He told the people in no uncertain terms that they were facing a time of judgment by God, that ‘the kingdom of the heavens had drawn near,’ making urgent their turning away repentantly from their course of disobedience to God’s will and law. This again emphasized Jehovah’s standard of having only willing subjects, persons who both recognize and appreciate the rightness of his ways and laws.​—Mt 3:1, 2, 7-12.

The Messiah came when Jesus presented himself to John for baptism and was then anointed by God’s holy spirit. (Mt 3:13-17) He thereby became the King-Designate, the One recognized by Jehovah’s Court as having the legal right to the Davidic throne, a right that had not been exercised during the preceding six centuries. (See JESUS CHRIST [His Baptism].) But Jehovah additionally brought this approved Son into a covenant for a heavenly Kingdom, in which Jesus would be both King and Priest, as Melchizedek of ancient Salem had been. (Ps 110:1-4; Lu 22:29; Heb 5:4-6; 7:1-3; 8:1; see COVENANT.) As the promised ‘seed of Abraham,’ this heavenly King-Priest would be God’s Chief Agent for blessing persons of all nations.​—Ge 22:15-18; Ga 3:14; Ac 3:15.

Early in his Son’s earthly life, Jehovah had manifested his kingly power on Jesus’ behalf. God diverted the Oriental astrologers who were going to inform tyrannical King Herod of the young child’s whereabouts, and he caused Jesus’ parents to slip away into Egypt before Herod’s agents carried out the massacre of infants in Bethlehem. (Mt 2:1-16) Since the original prophecy in Eden had foretold enmity between the promised “seed” and the ‘seed of the serpent,’ this attempt on Jesus’ life could only mean that God’s Adversary, Satan the Devil, was trying, however futilely, to frustrate Jehovah’s purpose.​—Ge 3:15.

After some 40 days in the Judean Wilderness, the baptized Jesus was confronted by this principal opponent of Jehovah’s sovereignty. By some means, the spirit Adversary conveyed to Jesus certain subtle suggestions designed to draw him into acts violating Jehovah’s expressed will and word. Satan even offered to give to the anointed Jesus dominion over all earthly kingdoms without a struggle and without any need for suffering on Jesus’ part​—in exchange for one act of worship toward himself. When Jesus refused, acknowledging Jehovah as the one true Sovereign from whom authority rightly proceeds and to whom worship goes, God’s Adversary began drawing up other plans of war strategy against Jehovah’s Representative, resorting to the use of human agents in various ways, as he had done long before in the case of Job.​—Job 1:8-18; Mt 4:1-11; Lu 4:1-13; compare Re 13:1, 2.

In what way was God’s Kingdom ‘in the midst’ of those to whom Jesus preached?

Trusting in Jehovah’s power to protect him and grant him success, Jesus entered his public ministry, announcing to Jehovah’s covenant people that “the appointed time has been fulfilled,” resulting in the approach of the Kingdom of God. (Mr 1:14, 15) In determining in what sense the Kingdom was “near,” his words to certain Pharisees may be noted, namely, that “the kingdom of God is in your midst.” (Lu 17:21) Commenting on this text, The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible observes: “Although frequently cited as an example of Jesus’ ‘mysticism’ or ‘inwardness,’ this interpretation rests chiefly upon the old translation, ‘within you,’ [KJ, Dy] understood in the unfortunate modern sense of ‘you’ as singular; the ‘you’ ([hy·monʹ]) is plural (Jesus is addressing the Pharisees​—vs. 20) . . . The theory that the kingdom of God is an inner state of mind, or of personal salvation, runs counter to the context of this verse, and also to the whole NT presentation of the idea.” (Edited by G. A. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 2, p. 883) Since “kingdom [ba·si·leiʹa]” can refer to the “royal dignity,” it is evident that Jesus meant that he, God’s royal representative, the one anointed by God for the kingship, was in their midst. Not only was he present in this capacity but he also had authority to perform works manifesting God’s kingly power and to prepare candidates for positions within his coming Kingdom rule. Hence the ‘nearness’ of the Kingdom; it was a time of tremendous opportunity.

Government with power and authority. Jesus’ disciples understood the Kingdom to be an actual government of God, though they did not comprehend the reach of its domain. Nathanael said to Jesus: “Rabbi, you are the Son of God, you are King of Israel.” (Joh 1:49) They knew the things foretold about “the holy ones” in the prophecy of Daniel. (Da 7:18, 27) Jesus directly promised his apostolic followers that they would occupy “thrones.” (Mt 19:28) James and John sought certain privileged positions in the Messianic government, and Jesus acknowledged that there would be such privileged positions, but he stated that the assigning of these rested with his Father, the Sovereign Ruler. (Mt 20:20-23; Mr 10:35-40) So, whereas his disciples mistakenly limited Messiah’s kingly rule to earth and specifically to fleshly Israel, even doing so on the day of the resurrected Jesus’ ascension (Ac 1:6), they correctly understood that it referred to a governmental arrangement.​—Compare Mt 21:5; Mr 11:7-10.

Jehovah’s kingly power toward his earthly creation was visibly demonstrated in many ways by his royal Representative. By God’s spirit, or active force, his Son exercised control over wind and sea, vegetation, fish, and even over the organic elements in food, causing the food to be multiplied. These powerful works caused his disciples to develop deep respect for the authority that he had. (Mt 14:23-33; Mr 4:36-41; 11:12-14, 20-23; Lu 5:4-11; Joh 6:5-15) Even more profoundly impressive was his exercise of God’s power over human bodies, healing afflictions ranging from blindness to leprosy, and restoring the dead to life. (Mt 9:35; 20:30-34; Lu 5:12, 13; 7:11-17; Joh 11:39-47) Healed lepers he sent to report to the divinely authorized, but generally unbelieving, priesthood, as “a witness to them.” (Lu 5:14; 17:14) Finally, he showed God’s power over superhuman spirits. The demons recognized the authority invested in Jesus and, rather than risk a decisive test of the power backing him up, they acceded to his orders to release persons possessed by them. (Mt 8:28-32; 9:32, 33; compare Jas 2:19.) Since this powerful expulsion of demons was by God’s spirit, this meant that the Kingdom of God had really “overtaken” his listeners.​—Mt 12:25-29; compare Lu 9:42, 43.

All of this was solid proof that Jesus had kingly authority and that this authority came from no earthly, human, political source. (Compare Joh 18:36; Isa 9:6, 7.) Messengers from the imprisoned John the Baptizer, as witnesses of these powerful works, were instructed by Jesus to go back to John and tell him what they had seen and heard as confirmation that Jesus was indeed “the Coming One.” (Mt 11:2-6; Lu 7:18-23; compare Joh 5:36.) Jesus’ disciples were seeing and hearing the evidence of Kingdom authority that the prophets had longed to witness. (Mt 13:16, 17) Moreover, Jesus was able to delegate authority to his disciples so that they could exercise similar powers as his appointed deputies, thereby giving force and weight to their proclamation, “The kingdom of the heavens has drawn near.”​—Mt 10:1, 7, 8; Lu 4:36; 10:8-12, 17.

Entrance Into the Kingdom. Jesus emphasized the special period of opportunity that had thus arrived. Of his forerunner John the Baptizer, Jesus said: “Among those born of women there has not been raised up a greater than John the Baptist; but a person that is a lesser one in the kingdom of the heavens is greater than he is. But from the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of the heavens is the goal toward which men press [bi·aʹze·tai], and those pressing forward [bi·a·staiʹ] are seizing it. [Compare AT; also the Zürcher Bibel (German).] For all, the Prophets and the Law, prophesied until John.” (Mt 11:10-13) Thus, the days of John’s ministry, which were soon to end with his execution, marked the close of one period, the start of another. Of the Greek verb bi·aʹzo·mai used in this text, Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words says, “The verb suggests forceful endeavour.” (1981, Vol. 3, p. 208) Regarding Matthew 11:12, German scholar Heinrich Meyer states: “In this way is described that eager, irresistible striving and struggling after the approaching Messianic kingdom . . . So eager and energetic (no longer calm and expectant) is the interest in regard to the kingdom. The [bi·a·staiʹ] are, accordingly, believers [not enemy attackers] struggling hard for its possession.”​—Meyer’s Critical and Exegetical Hand-Book to the Gospel of Matthew, 1884, p. 225.

Membership in the Kingdom of God, therefore, would not be easy to gain, not like approaching an open city with little or nothing to make entrance difficult. Rather, the Sovereign, Jehovah God, had placed barriers to shut out any not worthy. (Compare Joh 6:44; 1Co 6:9-11; Ga 5:19-21; Eph 5:5.) Those who would enter must traverse a narrow road, find the narrow gate, keep on asking, keep on seeking, keep on knocking, and the way would be opened. They would find the way to be “narrow” in that it restricts those who follow it from doing things that would result in injury to themselves or others. (Mt 7:7, 8, 13, 14; compare 2Pe 1:10, 11.) They might figuratively have to lose an eye or a hand to gain entrance. (Mr 9:43-47) The Kingdom would be no plutocracy in which one could buy the King’s favor; it would be a difficult thing for a rich man (Gr., plouʹsi·os) to enter. (Lu 18:24, 25) It would be no worldly aristocracy; prominent position among men would not count. (Mt 23:1, 2, 6-12, 33; Lu 16:14-16) Those apparently “first,” having an impressive religious background and record, would be “last,” and the ‘last would be first’ to receive the favored privileges connected with that Kingdom. (Mt 19:30–20:16) The prominent but hypocritical Pharisees, confident of their advantageous position, would see reformed harlots and tax collectors enter the Kingdom before them. (Mt 21:31, 32; 23:13) Though calling Jesus “Lord, Lord,” all hypocritical persons disrespecting the word and will of God as revealed through Jesus would be turned away with the words: “I never knew you! Get away from me, you workers of lawlessness.”​—Mt 7:15-23.

Those gaining entrance would be those putting material interests secondary and seeking first the Kingdom and God’s righteousness. (Mt 6:31-34) Like God’s anointed King, Christ Jesus, they would love righteousness and hate wickedness. (Heb 1:8, 9) Spiritually minded, merciful, purehearted, peaceable persons, though the objects of reproach and persecution by men, would become prospective members of the Kingdom. (Mt 5:3-10; Lu 6:23) The “yoke” Jesus invited such ones to take upon themselves meant submission to his kingly authority. It was a kindly yoke, however, with a light load for those who were “mild-tempered and lowly in heart” as was the King. (Mt 11:28-30; compare 1Ki 12:12-14; Jer 27:1-7.) This should have had a heartwarming effect on his listeners, assuring them that his rule would have none of the undesirable qualities of many earlier rulers, both Israelite and non-Israelite. It gave them reason to believe that his rule would bring no burdensome taxation, forced servitude, or forms of exploitation. (Compare 1Sa 8:10-18; De 17:15-17, 20; Eph 5:5.) As Jesus’ later words showed, not only would the Head of the coming Kingdom government prove his unselfishness to the point of giving his life for his people but all those associated with him in that government would also be persons who sought to serve rather than be served.​—Mt 20:25-28; see JESUS CHRIST (His Works and Personal Qualities).

Willing submission vital. Jesus himself had the deepest respect for the Sovereign will and authority of his Father. (Joh 5:30; 6:38; Mt 26:39) As long as the Law covenant was in effect, his Jewish followers were to practice and advocate obedience to it; any taking an opposite course would be rejected as regards his Kingdom. This respect and obedience, however, must be from the heart, not a mere formal or one-sided observing of the Law with emphasis on specific acts required, but the observing of basic principles inherent therein involving justice, mercy, and faithfulness. (Mt 5:17-20; 23:23, 24) To the scribe who acknowledged Jehovah’s unique position and who recognized that “loving him with one’s whole heart and with one’s whole understanding and with one’s whole strength and this loving one’s neighbor as oneself is worth far more than all the whole burnt offerings and sacrifices,” Jesus said, “You are not far from the kingdom of God.” (Mr 12:28-34) Thus, in all respects Jesus made clear that Jehovah God seeks only willing subjects, those who prefer his righteous ways and desire fervently to live under his Sovereign authority.

Covenant relationship. On his last night with his disciples, Jesus spoke to them of a “new covenant” to become operative toward his followers as a result of his ransom sacrifice (Lu 22:19, 20; compare 12:32); he himself would serve as the Mediator of that covenant between Jehovah the Sovereign and Jesus’ followers. (1Ti 2:5; Heb 12:24) Additionally, Jesus made a personal covenant with his followers “for a kingdom,” that they might join him in his royal privileges.​—Lu 22:28-30; see COVENANT.

Conquest of the world. Although Jesus’ subsequent arrest, trials, and execution made his kingly position appear weak, in reality it marked a powerful fulfillment of God’s prophecies and was allowed by God for that reason. (Joh 19:10, 11; Lu 24:19-27, 44) By his loyalty and integrity until death, Jesus proved that “the ruler of the world,” God’s Adversary, Satan, had “no hold” on him and that Jesus had indeed “conquered the world.” (Joh 14:29-31; 16:33) Additionally, even while his Son was impaled on the stake, Jehovah gave evidence of his superior power: The light of the sun was blacked out for a time; there was also a strong earthquake and the ripping in two of the large curtain in the temple. (Mt 27:51-54; Lu 23:44, 45) On the third day thereafter, he gave far greater evidence of his Sovereignty when he resurrected his Son to spirit life, despite the puny efforts of men to prevent the resurrection by posting guards before Jesus’ sealed tomb.​—Mt 28:1-7.

“The Kingdom of the Son of His Love.” Ten days after Jesus’ ascension to heaven, on Pentecost of 33 C.E., his disciples had evidence that he had been “exalted to the right hand of God” when Jesus poured out holy spirit upon them. (Ac 1:8, 9; 2:1-4, 29-33) The “new covenant” thus became operative toward them, and they became the nucleus of a new “holy nation,” spiritual Israel.​—Heb 12:22-24; 1Pe 2:9, 10; Ga 6:16.

Christ was now sitting at his Father’s right hand and was the Head over this congregation. (Eph 5:23; Heb 1:3; Php 2:9-11) The Scriptures show that from Pentecost 33 C.E. onward, a spiritual kingdom was set up over his disciples. When writing to first-century Christians at Colossae, the apostle Paul referred to Jesus Christ as already having a kingdom: “[God] delivered us from the authority of the darkness and transferred us into the kingdom of the Son of his love.”​—Col 1:13; compare Ac 17:6, 7.

Christ’s kingdom from Pentecost of 33 C.E. onward has been a spiritual one ruling over spiritual Israel, Christians who have been begotten by God’s spirit to become the spiritual children of God. (Joh 3:3, 5, 6) When such spirit-begotten Christians receive their heavenly reward, they will no longer be earthly subjects of the spiritual kingdom of Christ, but they will be kings with Christ in heaven.​—Re 5:9, 10.

“Kingdom of Our Lord and of His Christ.” The apostle John, writing toward the close of the first century C.E., foresaw through a divine revelation the future time when Jehovah God, by means of his Son, would make a new expression of divine rulership. At that time, as in the time of David’s bringing the Ark up to Jerusalem, it would be said that Jehovah ‘has taken his great power and begun ruling as king.’ This would be the time for loud voices in heaven to proclaim: “The kingdom of the world did become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ, and he will rule as king forever and ever.”​—Re 11:15, 17; 1Ch 16:1, 31.

It is “our Lord,” the Sovereign Lord Jehovah, who asserts his authority over “the kingdom of the world,” setting up a new expression of his sovereignty toward our earth. He gives to his Son, Jesus Christ, a subsidiary share in that Kingdom, so that it is termed “the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ.” This Kingdom is of greater proportions and bigger dimensions than “the kingdom of the Son of his love,” spoken of at Colossians 1:13. “The kingdom of the Son of his love” began at Pentecost 33 C.E. and has been over Christ’s anointed disciples; “the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ” is brought forth at the end of “the appointed times of the nations” and is over all mankind on earth.​—Lu 21:24.

Upon receiving a share in “the kingdom of the world,” Jesus Christ takes necessary measures to clean out opposition to God’s sovereignty. The initial action takes place in the heavenly realm; Satan and his demons are defeated and cast down to the earthly realm. This results in the proclamation: “Now have come to pass the salvation and the power and the kingdom of our God and the authority of his Christ.” (Re 12:1-10) During the short period of time remaining to him, this principal Adversary, Satan, continues to fulfill the prophecy at Genesis 3:15 by warring against “the remaining ones” of the “seed” of the woman, “the holy ones” due to govern with Christ. (Re 12:13-17; compare Re 13:4-7; Da 7:21-27.) Jehovah’s “righteous decrees” are made manifest, nevertheless, and his expressions of judgment come as plagues upon those opposing him, resulting in the destruction of mystic Babylon the Great, the prime persecutor on earth of God’s servants.​—Re 15:4; 16:1–19:6.

Thereafter “the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ” sends its heavenly armies against the rulers of all earthly kingdoms and their armies in an Armageddon fight, bringing them to an end. (Re 16:14-16; 19:11-21) This is the answer to the petition to God: “Let your kingdom come. Let your will take place, as in heaven, also upon earth.” (Mt 6:10) Satan is then abyssed and a thousand-year period begins in which Christ Jesus and his associates rule as kings and priests over earth’s inhabitants.​—Re 20:1, 6.

Christ “hands over the kingdom.” The apostle Paul also describes the rule of Christ during his presence. After Christ resurrects his followers from death, he proceeds to bring “to nothing all government and all authority and power” (logically referring to all government, authority, and power in opposition to God’s sovereign will). Then, at the end of his Millennial Reign, he “hands over the kingdom to his God and Father,” subjecting himself to the “One who subjected all things to him, that God may be all things to everyone.”​—1Co 15:21-28.

Since Christ “hands over the kingdom to his God and Father,” in what sense is his Kingdom “everlasting,” as repeatedly stated in the Scriptures? (2Pe 1:11; Isa 9:7; Da 7:14; Lu 1:33; Re 11:15) His Kingdom “will never be brought to ruin”; its accomplishments will endure forever; he will eternally be honored for his role as Messianic King.​—Da 2:44.

During the Thousand Year Reign, Christ’s rule toward earth involves priestly action toward obedient mankind. (Re 5:9, 10; 20:6; 21:1-3) By this means the dominion of sin and death as kings over obedient mankind, subjected to their “law,” ends; undeserved kindness and righteousness are the ruling factors. (Ro 5:14, 17, 21) Since sin and death are to be completely removed from earth’s inhabitants, this also brings to an end the need for Jesus’ serving as “a helper with the Father” in the sense of providing propitiation for the sins of imperfect humans. (1Jo 2:1, 2) That brings mankind back to the original status enjoyed when the perfect man Adam was in Eden. Adam while perfect needed no one to stand between him and God to make propitiation. So, too, at the termination of Jesus’ Thousand Year Rule, earth’s inhabitants will be both in position and under responsibility to answer for their course of action before Jehovah God as the Supreme Judge, without recourse to anyone as legal intermediary, or helper. Jehovah, the Sovereign Power, thus becomes “all things to everyone.” This means that God’s purpose to “gather all things together again in the Christ, the things in the heavens and the things on the earth,” will have been fully realized.​—1Co 15:28; Eph 1:9, 10.

Jesus’ Millennial Rule will have fully accomplished its purpose. Earth, once a focus of rebellion, will have been restored to a full, clean, and undisputed position in the realm, or domain, of the Universal Sovereign. No subsidiary kingdom will remain between Jehovah and obedient mankind.

Following this, however, a final test is made of the integrity and devotion of all such earthly subjects. Satan is loosed from his restraint in the abyss. Those yielding to his seduction do so on the same issue raised in Eden: the rightfulness of God’s sovereignty. This is seen by their attacking “the camp of the holy ones and the beloved city.” Since that issue has been judicially settled and declared closed by the Court of heaven, no prolonged rebellion is permitted in this case. Those failing to stand loyally on God’s side will not be able to appeal to Christ Jesus as a ‘propitiatory helper,’ but Jehovah God will be “all things” to them, with no appeal or mediation possible. All rebels, spirit and human, receive the divine sentence of destruction in “the second death.”​—Re 20:7-15.

Books of the Holy Scriptures relating the history of Israel from the last days of King David until the release of King Jehoiachin from prison in Babylon.

Originally the two books of Kings comprised one roll called Kings (Heb., Mela·khimʹ), and in the Hebrew Bible today they are still counted as one book, the fourth in the section known as the Former Prophets. In the Greek Septuagint the Books of the Kings were called Third and Fourth Kingdoms, the Books of Samuel having been designated First and Second Kingdoms. In the Latin Vulgate these books were together known as the four books of Kings because Jerome preferred the name Regum (Kings), in harmony with the Hebrew title, to the literal translation of the Septuagint title Regnorum (Kingdoms). Division into two books in the Septuagint became expedient because the Greek translation with vowels required almost twice as much space as did Hebrew, in which no vowels were used until the second half of the first millennium of the Common Era. The division between Second Samuel and First Kings has not always been at the same place in the Greek versions. Lucian, for one, in his recension of the Septuagint, made the division so that First Kings commenced with what is 1 Kings 2:12 in our present-day Bibles.

Writing of the Books. Although the name of the writer of the books of Kings is not given in the two accounts, Scriptural indications and Jewish tradition point to Jeremiah. Many Hebrew words and expressions found in these two books appear elsewhere in the Bible only in Jeremiah’s prophecy. The books of Kings and the book of Jeremiah complement each other; events, as a rule, are briefly covered in one if they are fully described in the other. Absence of any mention of Jeremiah in the books of Kings, although he was a very prominent prophet, could be expected if Jeremiah was the writer, because his activities were detailed in the book bearing his name. The books of Kings tell of conditions in Jerusalem after the exile had begun, indicating that the writer had not been taken to Babylon, even as Jeremiah was not.​—Jer 40:5, 6.

Some scholars see in the books of Kings what they consider to be evidence of the work of more than one writer or compiler. However, except for variation because of the sources used, it must be observed that the language, style, vocabulary, and grammar are uniform throughout.

First Kings covers a period of about 129 years, commencing with the final days of King David, about 1040 B.C.E., and running through to the death of Judean King Jehoshaphat in about 911 B.C.E. (1Ki 22:50) Second Kings begins with Ahaziah’s reign (c. 920 B.C.E.) and carries through to the end of the 37th year of Jehoiachin’s exile, 580 B.C.E., a period of about 340 years. (2Ki 1:1, 2; 25:27-30) Hence the combined accounts of the books of Kings cover about four and a half centuries of Hebrew history. As the events recorded therein include those up to 580 B.C.E., these books could not have been completed before this date, and because there is no mention of the termination of the Babylonian exile, they, as one roll, were undoubtedly finished before that time.

The place of writing for both books appears to have been, for the most part, Judah, because most of the source material would be available there. However, Second Kings was logically completed in Egypt, where Jeremiah was taken after the assassination of Gedaliah at Mizpah.​—Jer 41:1-3; 43:5-8.

The books of Kings have always had a place in the Jewish canon and are accepted as canonical. There is good reason for this, because these books carry forward the development of the foremost Bible theme, the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty and the ultimate fulfillment of his purpose for the earth, by means of his Kingdom under Christ, the promised Seed. Moreover, three leading prophets, Elijah, Elisha, and Isaiah, are given prominence, and their prophecies are shown to have had unerring fulfillments. Events recorded in the books of Kings are referred to and elucidated elsewhere in the Scriptures. Jesus refers to what is written in these books three times​—regarding Solomon (Mt 6:29), the queen of the south (Mt 12:42; compare 1Ki 10:1-9), and the widow of Zarephath and Naaman (Lu 4:25-27; compare 1Ki 17:8-10; 2Ki 5:8-14). Paul mentions the account concerning Elijah and the 7,000 men who did not bend the knee to Baal. (Ro 11:2-4; compare 1Ki 19:14, 18.) James speaks of Elijah’s prayers for drought and rain. (Jas 5:17, 18; compare 1Ki 17:1; 18:45.) These references to the actions of individuals described in the books of Kings vouch for the canonicity of these writings.

The books of Kings were largely compiled from written sources, and the writer shows clearly that he referred to these outside sources for some of his information. He refers to “the book of the affairs of Solomon” (1Ki 11:41), “the book of the affairs of the days of the kings of Judah” (1Ki 15:7, 23), and “the book of the affairs of the days of the kings of Israel” (1Ki 14:19; 16:14).

One of the oldest extant Hebrew manuscripts containing the books of Kings in full is dated 1008 C.E. The Vatican No. 1209 and the Alexandrine Manuscript contain the books of Kings (in Greek), but the Sinaitic Manuscript does not. Fragments of the books of Kings evidently dating from the B.C.E. period have been found in the Qumran caves.

The framework of these books shows that the writer or compiler gave pertinent facts about each king for the purpose of chronology and to reveal God’s estimate, favorable or unfavorable, of each king. The relationship of their reigns to the worship of Jehovah stands out as the most important factor. After considering the reign of Solomon, there is, with some exceptions, a general set pattern for describing each reign, as two parallel lines of history are interwoven. For the kings of Judah there is usually given first an introductory synchronism with the contemporaneous king of Israel, then the age of the king, the length of his reign, the place of rule, and the name and home of his mother, the latter being an item of interest and importance because at least some of the kings of Judah were polygamous. In concluding the account for each king, the source of the information, the burial of the king, and the name of his successor are given. Some of the same details are provided for each king of Israel, but the king’s age at the time of his accession and the name and home of his mother are not given. Information supplied in First and Second Kings has been very useful in the study of Bible chronology.​—See CHRONOLOGY.

The books of Kings are more than just annals or a recital of events as in a chronicle. They report the facts of history with an explanation of their significance. Eliminated from the account, it seems, is anything that does not have direct bearing on the developing purpose of God and that does not illustrate the principles by which Jehovah deals with his people. The faults of Solomon and the other kings of Judah and Israel are not disguised but are related with the utmost candor.

Archaeological Evidence. The discovery of numerous artifacts has furnished certain confirmation that the books of Kings are historically and geographically accurate. Archaeology, as well as living proof today, confirms the existence of the cedar forests of Lebanon, from which Solomon obtained timbers for his building projects in Jerusalem. (1Ki 5:6; 7:2) Evidence of industrial activity has been found in the basin of the Jordan, where Succoth and Zarethan once stood.​—1Ki 7:45, 46.

Shishak’s invasion of Judah in Rehoboam’s time (1Ki 14:25, 26) is confirmed by the Pharaoh’s own record on the walls of the temple of Karnak in Egypt. A black limestone obelisk of Assyrian King Shalmaneser III found at Nimrud in 1846 depicts perhaps an emissary of Jehu bowing before Shalmaneser, an incident that, though not mentioned in the books of Kings, adds testimony to the historicity of Israel’s King Jehu. The extensive building works of Ahab, including “the house of ivory that he built” (1Ki 22:39), are well attested by the ruins found at Samaria.

The Moabite Stone relates some of the events involved in King Mesha’s revolt against Israel, giving the Moabite monarch’s version of what took place. (2Ki 3:4, 5) This alphabetic inscription also contains the Tetragrammaton.

The name Pekah is found in an annalistic text credited to Tiglath-pileser III. (2Ki 15:27) The campaign of Tiglath-pileser III against Israel is mentioned in his royal annals and in an Assyrian building inscription. (2Ki 15:29) The name Hoshea has also been deciphered from inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser’s campaign.​—2Ki 15:30; Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 282-284.

While some of Assyrian King Sennacherib’s engagements are mentioned in his annals, the angelic destruction of his army of 185,000 when it threatened Jerusalem is not mentioned (2Ki 19:35), and we would not expect to find in his boastful records an account of this overwhelming setback. Notable archaeological confirmation of the last statement in the books of Kings has been found in cuneiform tablets excavated at Babylon. These indicate that Jaʼukinu (Jehoiachin) was imprisoned in Babylon and mention that he was provided with rations from the royal treasury.​—2Ki 25:30; Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 308.

Fulfillments of Prophecy. The books of Kings contain various prophecies and point to striking fulfillments. For example, 1 Kings 2:27 shows the fulfillment of Jehovah’s word against the house of Eli. (1Sa 2:31-36; 3:11-14) Prophecies regarding Ahab and his house were fulfilled. (Compare 1Ki 21:19-21 with 1Ki 22:38 and 2Ki 10:17.) What was foretold concerning Jezebel and her remains came true. (Compare 1Ki 21:23 with 2Ki 9:30-36.) And the facts of history confirm the veracity of the prophesied destruction of Jerusalem.​—2Ki 21:13.

Among the many points highlighted in the books of Kings is the importance of adherence to Jehovah’s requirements and the dire consequences of ignoring his just laws. The two books of Kings forcefully verify the predicted consequences of both obedience and disobedience to Jehovah God.

[Box on page 171]

HIGHLIGHTS OF FIRST KINGS

A concise summary of the history of both the kingdom of Judah and the kingdom of Israel from the last days of David until the death of Jehoshaphat

Originally the first book of Kings was part of one scroll with Second Kings

Solomon is known for outstanding wisdom at the start of his rule, but he ends up in apostasy

Nathan, by decisive action, blocks Adonijah’s attempt to be king in Israel; Solomon is enthroned (1:5–2:12)

Asked by Jehovah what he desires, Solomon requests wisdom; he is additionally granted riches and glory (3:5-15)

Divinely given wisdom is evident in Solomon’s handling of the case of two prostitutes, each claiming to be the mother of the same baby boy (3:16-28)

King Solomon and Israel under his rule prosper; the king’s unparalleled wisdom is world famous (4:1-34; 10:14-29)

Solomon builds Jehovah’s temple and later a palace complex; then all the older men of Israel gather for the inauguration (5:1–8:66)

Jehovah sanctifies the temple, assures Solomon of permanence of the royal line, but warns against unfaithfulness (9:1-9)

The queen of Sheba comes to see Solomon’s wisdom and prosperity for herself (10:1-13)

In old age, Solomon is influenced by his many foreign wives and goes after foreign gods (11:1-8)

The nation is split in two; calf worship is instituted to prevent those in the northern kingdom from going up to Jerusalem

Because of Solomon’s apostasy, Jehovah foretells division of the nation (11:11-13)

After Solomon’s death, his son Rehoboam threatens to impose a heavier yoke on the people; ten tribes revolt and make Jeroboam king (12:1-20)

Jeroboam establishes worship of golden calves in the northern kingdom to prevent his subjects from going to Jerusalem for worship and possibly wanting to reunite the kingdom (12:26-33)

The southern kingdom, Judah, has both good kings and bad ones

Rehoboam and Abijam after him allow detestable false worship (14:21-24; 15:1-3)

Abijam’s son Asa and his son Jehoshaphat actively promote true worship (15:9-15; 22:41-43)

The northern kingdom, Israel, is marred by power struggles, assassinations, and idolatry

Jeroboam’s son Nadab becomes king; Baasha assassinates him and seizes the throne (15:25-30)

Baasha’s son Elah succeeds to the throne and is assassinated by Zimri; Zimri commits suicide when facing defeat by Omri (16:6-20)

Omri’s victory leads to civil war; Omri finally triumphs, becomes king, and later builds Samaria; his sins are even worse than those of earlier kings (16:21-28)

Ahab becomes king and marries the daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians; he introduces Baal worship into Israel (16:29-33)

Wars between Judah and Israel end with an alliance

Wars take place between Jeroboam and both Rehoboam and Abijam; Baasha fights against Asa (15:6, 7, 16-22)

Jehoshaphat makes an alliance with Ahab (22:1-4, 44)

Jehoshaphat and Ahab battle together against Ramoth-gilead; Ahab is killed (22:29-40)

Prophetic activity in Israel and Judah

Ahijah foretells ripping of ten tribes away from David’s house; later he proclaims Jehovah’s judgment against Jeroboam (11:29-39; 14:7-16)

Shemaiah conveys Jehovah’s word that Rehoboam and his subjects should not fight against the rebellious ten tribes (12:22-24)

A man of God announces Jehovah’s judgment against the altar for calf worship at Bethel (13:1-3)

Jehu the son of Hanani pronounces Jehovah’s judgment against Baasha (16:1-4)

Elijah foretells a prolonged drought in Israel; during the drought, he miraculously extends the food supply of a widow and resurrects her son (17:1-24)

Elijah proposes a test on Mount Carmel to determine who is the true God; when Jehovah is proved true, the Baal prophets are killed; Elijah flees for his life from Ahab’s wife Jezebel, but Jehovah sends Elijah to anoint Hazael, Jehu, and Elisha (18:17–19:21)

Micaiah foretells Ahab’s defeat in battle (22:13-28)

[Box on page 172]

HIGHLIGHTS OF SECOND KINGS

Continuation of the history of Judah and of Israel begun in First Kings; it reaches to the destruction of Samaria and then of Jerusalem, due to unfaithfulness

The writing of it was likely completed in Egypt about 27 years after Jerusalem’s destruction by Babylon

After Elijah, Elisha serves as Jehovah’s prophet

Elijah predicts Ahaziah’s death; he also calls down fire upon two disrespectful military chiefs and their companies of 50 sent to get the prophet (1:2-17)

Elijah is taken away in a windstorm; Elisha receives his official garment (2:1-13)

Elisha divides the Jordan and heals water in Jericho; his inspired advice saves the allied armies of Israel, Judah, and Edom from perishing for lack of water and results in defeat of Moabites; he increases a widow’s oil supply, resurrects a Shunammite woman’s son, renders poisonous stew harmless, multiplies a gift of bread and grain, heals Naaman of leprosy, announces that Naaman’s leprosy would come upon greedy Gehazi and his offspring, and causes a borrowed axhead to float (2:14–6:7)

Elisha warns the king of Israel in advance of surprise attacks by the Syrians; a Syrian force comes to seize him but is stricken with temporary mental blindness; the Syrians besiege Samaria, and Elisha is blamed for the resulting famine; he foretells the end of the famine (6:8–7:2)

The commission given to Elijah is completed when Elisha tells Hazael that he will become king of Syria and sends a messenger to anoint Jehu as king over Israel (8:7-13; 9:1-13)

Jehu acts against Ahab’s house, eradicating Baal worship from Israel (9:14–10:28)

Elisha, on his deathbed, is visited by Jehu’s grandson King Jehoash; he foretells three victories over Syria (13:14-19)

Israel’s disrespect for Jehovah leads to exile in Assyria

The calf worship started by Jeroboam continues during the reigns of Jehu and his offspring​—Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam II, and Zechariah (10:29, 31; 13:6, 10, 11; 14:23, 24; 15:8, 9)

During Israel’s final days, King Zechariah is assassinated by Shallum, Shallum by Menahem, Menahem’s son Pekahiah by Pekah, and Pekah by Hoshea (15:8-30)

During Pekah’s reign, Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria, exiles many Israelites; in the ninth year of Hoshea, Samaria is destroyed and Israel is taken into exile because of disrespecting Jehovah; Israel’s territory is populated by other peoples (15:29; 17:1-41)

Religious reforms in Judah bring no lasting change; Babylon destroys Jerusalem and takes God’s people into exile

Jehoram of Judah marries Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel; Jehoram apostatizes, as does his son Ahaziah after him (8:16-27)

When Ahaziah dies, Athaliah tries to kill off the seed of David so that she herself can rule; Jehoash, son of Ahaziah, is rescued by his aunt and eventually made king; Athaliah is killed (11:1-16)

As long as High Priest Jehoiada lives and advises him, Jehoash restores true worship, but ‘sacrificing on the high places’ persists during his reign and that of his successors​—Amaziah, Azariah (Uzziah), and Jotham (12:1-16; 14:1-4; 15:1-4, 32-35)

Jotham’s son Ahaz practices idolatry; Ahaz’ son Hezekiah makes good reforms, but these are undone by the subsequent bad reigns of Manasseh and Amon (16:1-4; 18:1-6; 21:1-22)

Amon’s son Josiah undertakes firm measures to rid the land of idolatry; he is killed in a battle with Pharaoh Nechoh (22:1–23:30)

Judah’s last four kings are unfaithful: Josiah’s son Jehoahaz dies in captivity in Egypt; Jehoahaz’ brother Jehoiakim reigns after him; Jehoiakim’s son and successor Jehoiachin is carried into Babylonian exile; Jehoiakim’s brother Zedekiah reigns until Jerusalem is conquered by the Babylonians and most survivors of the conquest are taken into exile (23:31–25:21)

The road from which the Israelites promised not to depart if allowed to pass through Edomite territory and the Amorite realm of King Sihon. (Nu 20:17; 21:21, 22; De 2:26, 27) This road must have extended from the Gulf of ʽAqaba at least as far as the Jabbok, the apparent N boundary of Sihon’s territory, and many believe that it ran as far N as Damascus and generally corresponded to the paved Roman highway built by Emperor Trajan in the second century C.E. With the exceptions of needed adjustments for modern traffic, the present-day road called Tariq es-Sultan(i) closely follows the ancient Roman highway, portions of which still exist.

Apparently the northern portion of this road from Heshbon to Ashtaroth was called “the way of Bashan.”​—Nu 21:33; De 3:1.

See KIN, KINSMAN.

The place from which the Aramaeans came to Syria, although not necessarily their original home. (Am 9:7) Through his prophet Amos (1:5), Jehovah indicated that the Aramaeans would return to Kir, but as exiles. This prophecy was fulfilled when Tiglath-pileser III, after being bribed by Judean King Ahaz to do so, captured Damascus, the Aramaean capital, and led its inhabitants into exile at Kir.​—2Ki 16:7-9.

Isaiah 22:5, 6 depicts Kir as readying itself against “the valley of the vision” (thought to represent Jerusalem). This prophecy is generally understood to have been fulfilled at the time of Assyrian King Sennacherib’s campaign against Judah. Because Kir is associated with Elam in this text, some have suggested that it must have been located in the same general area as Elam, E of the Tigris River. (Compare Isa 21:2, where Elam’s known geographic neighbor Media is similarly coupled with Elam.) The Greek Septuagint does not use “Kir” in any of the previously cited texts but employs several different words for the Hebrew qir. The actual location thus remains uncertain.

(Kir-harʹe·seth).

Apparently another name for Kir of Moab, a city usually identified with modern Karak.​—2Ki 3:25; Isa 16:7; see KIR OF MOAB.

(Kir-heʹres).

Evidently an alternate name for Kir-hareseth or Kir of Moab, a city commonly linked with modern Karak.​—Jer 48:31, 36; see KIR OF MOAB.

(Kirʹi·ath) [Town].

A city of Benjamin usually thought to be the same as Kiriath-jearim. Some scholars believe that the name Kiriath-jearim appeared in the original Hebrew text at Joshua 18:28, as it does in the Alexandrine Manuscript (LXX).​—See KIRIATH-JEARIM.

(Kir·i·a·thaʹim) [Double Town].

1. A city E of the Jordan, built or rebuilt by the Reubenites. (Nu 32:37; Jos 13:15, 19) At a later period the city came under Moabite control. It is mentioned in the prophecies of Jeremiah (48:1) and Ezekiel (25:9) as a city of Moab that would experience calamity. Earlier, Moabite King Mesha in the ninth century B.C.E. boasted about building Qaryaten (apparently Kiriathaim).

Scholars usually situate it in the area near Quraiyat, about 10 km (6 mi) WNW of Dibon. The remains found there, however, do not date prior to the first century B.C.E., so the exact location is uncertain.

2. A site in Naphtali given to the Levitical Gershonites (1Ch 6:71, 76) and called Kartan in Joshua 21:32.​—See KARTAN.

(Kirʹi·ath-arʹba) [Town of Arba].

The ancient name for the city of Hebron. The name was even used after the Babylonian exile. (Ne 11:25) This city, as its name suggests, appears to have been founded by Arba, “the great man among the Anakim.”​—Jos 14:15; see HEBRON No. 3.

(Kirʹi·ath-baʹal) [Town of Baal].

An alternate name for the Judean city of Kiriath-jearim. This place is usually identified with Deir el-ʽAzar (Tel Qiryat Yeʽarim), about 9 km (5.5 mi) S of Upper Beth-horon.​—Jos 15:60; 18:14; see KIRIATH-JEARIM.

(Kirʹi·ath-huʹzoth) [Town of Streets].

A site probably located in Moab somewhere between the torrent valley of Arnon and Bamoth-baal. (Nu 22:36, 39, 41) Its exact location is today unknown.

(Kirʹi·ath-jeʹa·rim) [Town of Forests].

A Hivite city associated with the Gibeonites (Jos 9:17), also known as Baalah (Jos 15:9), Baale-judah (2Sa 6:2), and Kiriath-baal (Jos 15:60). Kiriath-jearim later came to belong to Judah and bordered on Benjamite territory. (Jos 15:1, 9; 18:11, 14; Jg 18:12) Apparently descendants of Judah through Caleb settled there.​—1Ch 2:3, 50, 52, 53.

In the 12th century B.C.E., sometime after being returned by the Philistines, the Ark was taken to Kiriath-jearim at the request of the men of nearby Beth-shemesh. It apparently remained there until it was moved by King David to Jerusalem some 70 years later.​—1Sa 6:20–7:2; 1Ch 13:5, 6; 16:1; 2Ch 1:4.

Jeremiah’s contemporary, the prophet Urijah, was the son of Shemaiah of Kiriath-jearim. (Jer 26:20) Descendants of those who had lived in the city were also represented among those returning from Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 25; Ne 7:6, 7, 29.

Deir el-ʽAzar (Tel Qiryat Yeʽarim) is the place commonly suggested as corresponding to the Biblical description of Kiriath-jearim as a city of the mountainous region (Jos 15:48, 60) on the border between Judah and Benjamin in the vicinity of the other Gibeonite cities. This site is strategically situated atop a hill about 14 km (8.5 mi) ENE of Beth-shemesh and about 13 km (8 mi) WNW of Jerusalem. This location approximately fits Eusebius’ placing Kiriath-jearim once as 9 Roman miles (13 km; 8 mi) and another time as 10 Roman miles (15 km; 9 mi) from Jerusalem. Also, the fact that Deir el-ʽAzar lies in what at one time seems to have been a well-wooded region accords nicely with the name Kiriath-jearim, “Town of Forests.”

(Kirʹi·ath-sanʹnah) [Town of Sannah].

An alternate name for Debir, a Judean city assigned to the Aaronic priests, about 13 km (8 mi) SW of Hebron. (Jos 15:49; 21:13, 15) Some consider Kiriath-sannah to be a copyist’s error in the spelling of Kiriath-sepher.​—See DEBIR No. 2.

(Kirʹi·ath-seʹpher) [Town of the Book].

The ancient name of Debir, a priestly city in the territory of Judah, about 13 km (8 mi) SW of Hebron.​—Jos 15:15, 16; 21:13, 15; Jg 1:11, 12; see DEBIR No. 2.

An important city of Moab, probably a onetime capital. The Aramaic Targum consistently refers to Kir (of Moab), Kir-hareseth, and Kir-heres as Karak, indicating that these are but alternative names for the same place. “Kir of Moab” is therefore usually identified with modern Karak. (Isa 15:1) This city is situated on a small plateau over 900 m (3,000 ft) above sea level and about 35 km (22 mi) S of Dibon. Steep valleys separate most of Karak from the loftier neighboring mountains.

Toward the close of the tenth century B.C.E. the allied forces of Israel, Judah, and Edom attacked Kir-hareseth. If the site is correctly identified with Karak, it was doubtless from the nearby mountains that slingers bombarded the city with stones. Although Kir-hareseth evidently was not taken, the battle went hard against the king of Moab. For some unstated reason he, along with 700 warriors, sought to break through the battle lines in order to reach the king of Edom but was unsuccessful. As a last resort, it appears that the king of Moab publicly sacrificed his own firstborn son, probably to appease the god Chemosh. (2Ki 3:5, 9, 25-27) The Hebrew text (2Ki 3:27) may also be understood to refer to the firstborn son of the king of Edom, and some suggest that this is alluded to at Amos 2:1. But this is less likely.

Isaiah’s prophecy indicated that the Moabites would mourn for Kir-hareseth’s raisin cakes, perhaps a principal product of the city’s trade. (Isa 16:6, 7) Isaiah also spoke of his being boisterous like a harp over Moab and Kir-hareseth. As the strings of a harp vibrate with sound, so Isaiah’s inward parts were moved by the message of woe for Kir-hareseth.​—Isa 16:11; see also Jer 48:31, 36.

1. A Merarite Levite who was the son of Mahli and brother of Eleazar. As Eleazar died without sons, having had only daughters, the sons of Kish took these heiresses as wives. One of “the sons of Kish” was Jerahmeel.​—1Ch 23:21, 22; 24:29.

2. A Benjamite; the son of Jeiel and his wife Maacah. (1Ch 8:29, 30) His brother Ner was the grandfather of Saul, Israel’s first king. (1Ch 9:35-39) Apparently Kish’s father Jeiel was also called Abiel.​—See ABIEL No. 1.

3. A Benjamite who was the father of King Saul. (1Sa 14:51; Ac 13:21) He was a wealthy member of the family of the Matrites. (1Sa 9:1; 10:21) This Kish was the son of Ner and grandson of Jeiel (Abiel), thus being the nephew of the Kish mentioned above and the brother of Abner. (1Ch 8:29-33; 9:35-39) However, 1 Samuel 9:1 calls him the son of Abiel, apparently using the term “son” to represent him, not as the immediate son of Abiel (Jeiel), but rather as his grandson.

The home of Kish was evidently at Gibeah, in Benjamin (1Sa 10:26), although his burial place was in Zela. (2Sa 21:14) The only event mentioned in the Bible regarding Kish concerns his sending his son Saul and an attendant out to search for some lost she-asses.​—1Sa 9:3, 4.

4. A Levite of King Hezekiah’s time; son of Abdi of the sons of Merari. Kish was one of the Levites who helped to cleanse the temple in the first year of Hezekiah’s reign.​—2Ch 29:1-5, 12-17.

5. A Benjamite ancestor of Esther’s cousin Mordecai.​—Es 2:5-7.

(Kishʹi) [shortened form of Kushaiah].

Apparently the same person as the Merarite Levite Kushaiah, father of the musician Ethan.​—1Ch 6:19, 44; 15:17.

(Kishʹi·on).

A boundary city of Issachar assigned to the Gershonites. (Jos 19:17, 18, 20; 21:27, 28) “Kedesh,” found at 1 Chronicles 6:72, appears to be an alternate name for Kishion.​—See KEDESH No. 3.

(Kiʹshon).

A stream identified as the Nahr el-Muqattaʽ (Nahal Qishon). The Kishon winds its way in a northwesterly direction from the hills near Taanach through the Plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon (ʽEmeq Yizreʽel), and, after flowing through a narrow gorge between Mount Carmel and a spur of the Galilean hills, enters the Plain of Acco (Acre) before finally emptying into the Mediterranean. The airline distance from the Kishon’s sources to its mouth at the Bay of Acco is about 37 km (23 mi). Approximately 6 m (20 ft) wide in the spring, the portion of the Kishon flowing through the Plain of Jezreel increases in width by some 3 m (10 ft) in the western section of the plain. The Kishon’s greatest width of about 20 m (66 ft) is reached in the Plain of Acco. With the exception of about the last 10 km (6 mi) of its course, the Kishon is usually dry during the summer. But in the rainy season it becomes a rushing torrent, flooding its banks and sweeping everything in its path. The plain through which the Kishon flows then becomes a marshy region.

In the time of Barak and Deborah the torrent valley of Kishon figured in the deliverance of the Israelites from Canaanite oppression. Barak and his troops took a position on Mount Tabor, this action drawing army chief Sisera, with his well-equipped forces and 900 chariots, to the Kishon. (Jg 4:6, 7, 12, 13) The Israelites appeared to be at a military disadvantage. Yet, when directed to do so, Barak and his 10,000 men descended from Mount Tabor to engage the enemy in battle. Jehovah God then intervened. “From heaven did the stars fight, from their orbits they fought against Sisera.”​—Jg 4:14, 15; 5:20.

According to the traditional Jewish view expressed in the writings of Josephus, “there came up a great tempest with torrents of rain and hail; and the wind drove the rain in the faces of the Canaanites, obscuring their vision, so that their bows and their slings were of no service to them.” (Jewish Antiquities, V, 205 [v, 4]) Such a downpour would have turned the ground to mud, immobilizing chariots and causing horses to sink into the mire and the enemy to flee in terror before Barak’s men. By whatever means, with Jehovah’s help, “all the camp of Sisera fell by the edge of the sword. Not as much as one remained.” (Jg 4:15, 16; see also Ps 83:9, 10.) Apparently the treacherous torrent of Kishon swept the corpses of the enemy away. (Jg 5:21) Sisera himself escaped on foot, to suffer inglorious death by the hand of a woman, Jael the wife of Heber the Kenite.​—Jg 4:17-21.

Later, during the reign of Israel’s King Ahab, the prophet Elijah slaughtered 450 prophets of Baal at the torrent valley of Kishon.​—1Ki 18:22, 40.

“The waters of Megiddo” (Jg 5:19) and “the torrent valley that is in front of Jokneam” (Jos 19:11) are considered to be the Kishon.

In Biblical times the act of kissing or touching one’s lips to those of another (Pr 24:26), to another person’s cheek, or, in an exceptional case, even to his feet (Lu 7:37, 38, 44, 45), served as a token of affection or respect. Kissing was common not only between male and female relatives (Ge 29:11; 31:28) but also between male relatives. (Ge 27:26, 27; 45:15; Ex 18:7; 2Sa 14:33) It was likewise a gesture of affection between close friends.​—1Sa 20:41, 42; 2Sa 19:39.

Kissing might accompany a blessing. (Ge 31:55) Aged Israel, or Jacob, kissed and embraced Joseph’s sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, before blessing their father and them. (Ge 48:8-20) When the patriarch later finished giving commands to his 12 sons he expired, and “Joseph fell upon the face of his father and burst into tears over him and kissed him.” (Ge 49:33–50:1) Samuel kissed Saul when anointing him as Israel’s first king.​—1Sa 10:1.

A fond greeting included kissing, perhaps accompanied by weeping and embracing. (Ge 33:4) The father of the returning prodigal of Jesus Christ’s illustration fell upon his son’s neck and “tenderly kissed him.” (Lu 15:20) Kissing also went with a loving farewell. (Ge 31:55; Ru 1:9, 14) When the apostle Paul was about to depart from Miletus, the older men of the Ephesian congregation were so moved that they wept and “fell upon Paul’s neck and tenderly kissed him.”​—Ac 20:17, 37.

The Bible makes brief reference to kisses associated with love between the sexes. (Ca 1:2; 8:1) In giving advice to guard against the devices of a wicked woman, the book of Proverbs warns of the seductive kiss of a prostitute.​—Pr 7:13.

Kisses could be hypocritical. Absalom, shrewdly seeking power, kissed men who drew near to bow down to him. (2Sa 15:5, 6) Treacherous Joab’s kiss meant death to unsuspecting Amasa. (2Sa 20:9, 10) Also, it was with a deceitful kiss that Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus Christ.​—Mt 26:48, 49; Mr 14:44, 45.

False Worship. Kissing as an act of adoration toward false gods was forbidden by Jehovah, who mentions 7,000 men who did not bend the knee to Baal and kiss him. (1Ki 19:18) Ephraim was reproved for making idols and saying: “Let the sacrificers who are men kiss mere calves.” (Ho 13:1-3) The Greeks and Romans had the practice of throwing a kiss with the hand to their idols, if these were inaccessible, and in this way they also greeted the rising sun. Job 31:27 may allude to a similar idolatrous practice.

The “Holy Kiss.” Among early Christians there was the “holy kiss” (Ro 16:16; 1Co 16:20; 2Co 13:12; 1Th 5:26) or “kiss of love” (1Pe 5:14), possibly bestowed on individuals of the same sex. This early Christian form of greeting may correspond to the ancient Hebrew practice of greeting one with a kiss. Though the Scriptures provide no details, the “holy kiss” or “kiss of love” evidently reflected the wholesome love and unity prevailing in the Christian congregation.​—Joh 13:34, 35.

Figurative Use. Kissing, as representing a demonstration of respect and devotion, is mentioned in the inspired advice to “serve Jehovah with fear” and “kiss the son, that He may not become incensed and you may not perish from the way.” (Ps 2:11, 12) Persons responding favorably and submitting to the one God appoints as King and his Kingdom will realize great blessings when it can be said: “Righteousness and peace​—they have kissed each other,” because the connection of the two will be as evident to all as is the close association of affectionate friends.​—Ps 85:10.

[Heb., ʼai·yahʹ, “black kite”; da·ʼahʹ, “red kite”; and perhaps dai·yahʹ, “glede,” likely a variety of kite].

The kite is a bird of prey and scavenger combined. Both the black kite and the red kite, the common varieties found in Palestine, are included among the unclean birds according to the Law. (Le 11:13, 14; De 14:12, 13) The Deuteronomy list contains ra·ʼahʹ in place of da·ʼahʹ, as in Leviticus, but this is considered to be probably due to a scribal substitution of the Hebrew equivalent of “r” (ר) for “d” (ד), the letters being very similar in appearance.

The Hebrew name ʼai·yahʹ is believed to be in imitation of the piercing cry of the black kite (classified by ornithologists as Milvus migrans).

The original meaning of the Hebrew name da·ʼahʹ is uncertain, but it is suggested that it indicates a “swooping or darting flight,” as in the expression “he came darting [from Heb., da·ʼahʹ] upon the wings of a spirit” (Ps 18:10), and in references to the ‘pouncing’ of the eagle. (De 28:49; Jer 48:40; 49:22) The name thus points to a bird of prey, and Koehler and Baumgartner (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden, 1958, p. 198) suggest the red kite (Milvus milvus).

Job uses the black kite as an example of superior sharp-sightedness, while showing that man’s ingenuity and his search for wealth lead him into underground paths that even the farseeing birds of prey cannot see.​—Job 28:7.

Most black kites pass through Palestine to spend the winter in Africa. An increasing number winter in Israel. They build their nests in the forks of tall trees and store food in the nest before laying eggs. The red kite, a rare winter visitor, is a reddish-brown bird, barred with black, with a grayish-white head.

(Kitʹron) [from a root meaning “make sacrificial smoke”].

A city from which the Zebulunites failed to expel the Canaanite inhabitants. (Jg 1:30) Although various sites have been suggested, none is certain. This ancient city in Zebulun may be the same as Kattath.​—Jos 19:15.

(Kitʹtim).

Kittim is listed as one of the four “sons” of Javan, although the name appears only in the plural form in all Scriptural references. (Ge 10:4; 1Ch 1:7) The name thereafter is used to represent a people and region.

Josephus (Jewish Antiquities, I, 128 [vi, 1]) referred to Kittim as “Chethimos” and associated it with Cyprus and with “the name Chethim given by the Hebrews to all islands and to most maritime countries.” The ancient Phoenicians referred to the people of Cyprus as Kitti. Modern authorities generally agree with such identification of Kittim with Cyprus.

The city of Kition (Citium) on the SE coast of Cyprus is best known as a Phoenician colony, and so some scholars have viewed the listing of Kittim among the descendants of Japheth as out of place. (Ge 10:2, 4; 1Ch 1:5, 7) However, the evidence shows that the Phoenicians were relative latecomers to Cyprus and their colony at Kition is considered to date from only about the ninth century B.C.E. Thus, after The New Encyclopædia Britannica (1987, Vol. 3, p. 332) identifies Kition as the “principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,” it adds: “The earliest remains at Citium are those of an Aegean colony of the Mycenaean Age (c. 1400-1100 BC).”​—See also Vol. 16, p. 948.

That Kittim may embrace other areas in addition to the island of Cyprus is indicated by Josephus’ statement, quoted earlier, about the Hebrew usage of the term as embracing other Mediterranean islands and countries bordering the sea, Cyprus being but the nearest (to Palestine) of the Kittim lands. This seems to be borne out by the references to the “islands” or “coastlands” of Kittim at Ezekiel 27:6 and Jeremiah 2:10. Some commentators consider that Kittim is also used in this larger sense at Numbers 24:24, where the prophet Balaam, who lived contemporaneously with Moses, foretold that “ships from the coast of Kittim” would afflict Assyria and Eber but that the attacker would eventually perish. This view would allow for the attack perhaps to originate from the seacoast region of Macedonia, from which country Alexander the Great advanced, conquering the land of “Asshur” (Assyria-Babylonia) along with the Medo-Persian Empire; others suggest that the attackers were Romans from the Mediterranean coastlands of Italy. The Latin Vulgate uses “Italy” in place of “Kittim” at Numbers 24:24, and the Targum of Onkelos reads “Romans”; but the Apocryphal book of 1 Maccabees (1:1, JB) uses Kittim to represent the land of Macedonia.

In Isaiah’s pronouncement against Tyre, Kittim (likely Cyprus) is the point at which the eastbound ships of Tarshish receive the news of Tyre’s downfall, and “the virgin daughter of Sidon” is told by Jehovah to “cross over to Kittim itself,” in a vain effort to find refuge. (Isa 23:1, 11, 12) This is in harmony with the historical evidence for Phoenician colonies in Cyprus at the time of Isaiah’s prophesying (c. 778–a. 732 B.C.E.). An inscription of Sennacherib relates the flight of King Luli of Sidon to the island of Iadnana (Cyprus) as the result of the Assyrian attack. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, pp. 287, 288) Similarly, many from Tyre evidently sought haven in Cyprus during Nebuchadnezzar’s 13-year siege of Tyre, in fulfillment of Isaiah’s proclamation.

Final mention of Kittim (by that name) comes in Daniel’s prophecy of the rivalry between the “king of the north” and “king of the south,” where an attack by the “king of the north” is thwarted by “the ships of Kittim.”​—Da 11:30; see CYPRUS.

A shallow and generally portable bowl-shaped vessel. It was usually made of wood but sometimes was earthenware or was made of bronze. In it flour and water were mixed and worked into dough. In preparing leavened bread, the mass was usually leavened by working in a piece of sourdough saved from a previous baking. The mass of dough was left to rise in the kneading trough before baking. (Ge 18:6; 1Sa 28:24) The usual method was to knead the dough with one’s hands, though the Egyptians also used their feet at times, when kneading dough in a large trough.​—Ho 7:4.

The size of the kneading bowl, or trough, varied considerably. However, one earthenware type often used was a bowl approximately 25 cm (10 in.) in diameter and about 8 cm (3 in.) deep.

Bread was an important part of the Hebrew diet and was baked regularly. Hence, the kneading trough was an essential item among the Israelites and other peoples of antiquity. The frogs that covered Egypt during the second blow brought upon it by Jehovah in Moses’ day entered the homes and were even found in the kneading troughs. (Ex 8:3) The Israelites, later leaving Egypt hurriedly, “carried their flour dough before it was leavened, with their kneading troughs wrapped up in their mantles upon their shoulder.” (Ex 12:33, 34) Since the kneading trough was an important vessel in the home, having to do with the preparing of the ‘daily bread,’ Jehovah’s blessing upon it evidently signified an assured sufficiency of food in the home, while his curse upon it represented hunger.​—De 28:1, 2, 5, 15, 17.

This joint in the leg is important for support of the body. Hence, wobbling or enfeebled knees portray weakness; and knocking knees, fear.​—Job 4:4; Ps 109:24; Isa 35:3; Da 5:6; Heb 12:12.

All except 300 of Gideon’s 10,000 men bent down upon their knees to drink, apparently putting their faces down to the water. In this position they could not be alert, prepared in case of a surprise attack. They were more concerned with slaking their thirst than with the issue at hand. On the other hand, the 300 remained on their feet, picking up the water and lapping it out of their hands, alert, watchful, ready. The 9,700 negligent ones were therefore dismissed.​—Jg 7:3, 5-8.

Figuratively, a child said to be ‘born upon the knees’ of a person other than the mother, and thus enjoying that one’s favor and care, was acknowledged as that person’s child, or descendant, just as Bilhah’s child was counted as Rachel’s.​—Ge 30:3-6; compare Ge 50:23.

Jehovah promised restoration for his people and likened them to children of Zion, or Jerusalem, who would be ‘fondled upon the knees,’ that is, well cared for, brought back into a favored state.​—Isa 66:12, 13.

Kneeling. The Hebrew word for “kneel” (ba·rakhʹ) possibly has the same root as the one for “blessing,” which may indicate that at least at times blessings were conferred upon persons while they knelt.

While imploring favor. A person might kneel as an act of respect or to implore favor, as when a “chief of fifty” representing King Ahaziah knelt before Elijah to plead for his life and that of the men accompanying him. (2Ki 1:13, 14) It was on bended knee that a leper entreated Jesus to make him clean.​—Mr 1:40-42; also 10:17-22.

During prayer. True worshipers often knelt when praying to God, this posture being a suitable indication of their humility. (Ezr 9:5; Ac 9:36, 40; 21:3-6) Solomon assumed a kneeling position before the congregation of Israel during his prayer at the temple’s dedication. (2Ch 6:13) Despite a royal decree that for 30 days petition should be made only to King Darius, Daniel knelt in prayer to Jehovah three times a day, doing so while the windows of his roof chamber were open toward Jerusalem. (Da 6:6-11) Jesus Christ himself furnished an example of kneeling in prayer to Jehovah. In the garden of Gethsemane on the night of his betrayal, Jesus “bent his knees and began to pray.”​—Lu 22:41.

Practicers of false religion knelt before idols of their gods. But in Elijah’s day there were still 7,000 faithful persons in Israel, ‘all the knees that had not bent down to Baal.’​—1Ki 19:18; Ro 11:4.

Obeisance or acknowledgment of high station. Kneeling may denote obeisance or recognition of a superior’s high position. Soldiers knelt before Jesus and did obeisance to him, doing so, however, in mockery.​—Mt 27:27-31; Mr 15:16-20.

Jehovah has granted the faithful resurrected Jesus Christ a superior position and a name that is above every other name, “so that in the name of Jesus every knee should bend of those in heaven and those on earth and those under the ground.” All who gain life must bend their knees in worship to Jehovah in the name of Jesus Christ and acknowledge him as Lord to God’s glory. This includes “those under the ground,” evidently showing that those resurrected from the grave also come under this requirement.​—Php 2:9-11; Joh 5:28, 29; Eph 1:9, 10.

Primarily, recognition of Jehovah’s supremacy and sovereignty is required of those desiring divine favor. Jehovah has declared: “By my own self I have sworn . . . that to me every knee will bend down.” (Isa 45:23; Ro 14:10-12) Appropriately, therefore, the psalmist fervently urged fellow Israelites: “O come in, let us worship and bow down; let us kneel before Jehovah our Maker.”​—Ps 95:6; see ATTITUDES AND GESTURES.

A single- or double-edged cutting implement. Knives used in Biblical lands in times past were made of stone (particularly of flint), copper, bronze, or iron.

The Hebrew term ma·ʼakheʹleth, which literally refers to an instrument for eating, is also applied to large knives such as those employed in cutting up the carcasses of sacrificial animals. A “slaughtering knife” (Heb., ma·ʼakheʹleth) was the instrument faithful Abraham took in hand when about to sacrifice Isaac (Ge 22:6, 10), and the same type was used by a certain Levite to cut the body of his dead concubine into 12 pieces. (Jg 19:29) Also, Proverbs 30:14 speaks of “a generation whose teeth are swords and whose jawbones are slaughtering knives,” thus employing the same Hebrew term as a figure of rapaciousness.

“Flint knives” were made by Joshua for use in circumcising the sons of Israel at Gibeath-haaraloth. (Jos 5:2-4) Part of the Hebrew term designating these knives is cheʹrev, generally rendered “sword.” (Compare Jos 5:2, ftn.) The common “Canaanite” flint knife was about 15 cm (6 in.) in length and had a raised center ridge and a double edge.

Scribes and secretaries of ancient times used a type of knife to sharpen their reed pens and to make erasures. Jeremiah 36:23 tells of the use of a “secretary’s knife” to tear apart a roll of a book prepared by Jeremiah at Jehovah’s direction.

Many ancient knives of copper have a straight blade from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in.) in length; some with curved tips have also been discovered. Handles were often one piece with the blade. Other handles were made of wood and were fastened to the blade.

Proverbs 23:1, 2 makes figurative reference to a knife, recommending the ‘putting of a knife to one’s throat’ when eating with a king, evidently emphasizing the need to restrain one’s appetite in such a circumstance.

An ornamental part of the golden lampstand used in the tabernacle; designated by the Hebrew word kaph·tohrʹ, or kaph·torʹ, evidently referring to a round protrusion. (Ex 25:31-36; 37:17-22) These “knobs” alternated with the ornamental blossoms on the main stem and on each of the six branches of the lampstand. Some of the knobs seem to have formed a boss, or projecting support, for these branches. They are discernible on the lampstand as depicted in the relief on the Arch of Titus (in Rome), where Roman soldiers are shown carrying spoils from the temple in Jerusalem, destroyed in 70 C.E.

Essentially, knowledge means familiarity with facts acquired by personal experience, observation, or study. The Bible strongly urges the seeking for and treasuring of right knowledge, recommending it rather than gold. (Pr 8:10; 20:15) Jesus stressed the importance of truly knowing him and his Father, and knowledge is repeatedly emphasized in the books of the Christian Greek Scriptures.​—Joh 17:3; Php 1:9; 2Pe 3:18.

Source of Knowledge. Jehovah is actually the basic Source of knowledge. Life, of course, is from him and life is essential for one’s having any knowledge. (Ps 36:9; Ac 17:25, 28) Furthermore, God created all things, so human knowledge is based on a study of God’s handiwork. (Re 4:11; Ps 19:1, 2) God also inspired his written Word, from which man can learn the divine will and purposes. (2Ti 3:16, 17) Thus the focal point of all true knowledge is Jehovah, and a person seeking it ought to have a fear of God that makes him careful not to incur Jehovah’s displeasure. Such fear is the beginning of knowledge. (Pr 1:7) Such godly fear puts one in position to gain accurate knowledge, whereas those who do not consider God readily draw wrong conclusions from the things that they observe.

The Bible repeatedly links Jehovah and knowledge, calling him “a God of knowledge” and describing him as “perfect in knowledge.”​—1Sa 2:3; Job 36:4; 37:14, 16.

The role that Jehovah has assigned to his Son in the outworking of His purposes is of such importance that it can be said of Jesus: “Carefully concealed in him are all the treasures of wisdom and of knowledge.” (Col 2:3) Unless a person exercises faith in Jesus Christ as God’s Son, he cannot grasp the real meaning of the Scriptures and see how God’s purposes are working out in harmony with what He has foretold.

One is helped to appreciate more fully the meaning and importance of knowledge by examining the Hebrew and Greek words often translated “knowledge” as well as by noting the relationship between knowledge and wisdom, understanding, thinking ability, and discernment.

Meaning of Term. In the Hebrew Scriptures a number of words (nouns) that can be translated “knowledge” are related to the basic verb ya·dhaʽʹ, signifying “know (by being told),” “know (by observing),” “know (by personal acquaintance or experience),” or “be experienced, skillful.” The exact shade of meaning, and often the way each word should be translated, must be determined by the context. For instance, God said that he ‘knew’ Abraham and so was sure that that man of faith would command his offspring correctly. Jehovah was not saying simply that he was aware that Abraham existed but, rather, that He had become well acquainted with Abraham, for he had observed Abraham’s obedience and interest in true worship over many years.​—Ge 18:19, NW, La; Ge 22:12; compare JEHOVAH (Early Use of the Name and Its Meaning).

As with the verb ya·dhaʽʹ (know), the principal Hebrew word rendered “knowledge” (daʹʽath) carries the basic idea of knowing facts or having information, but at times it includes more than that. For example, Hosea 4:1, 6 says that at a certain time there was no “knowledge of God” in Israel. That does not mean that the people were not aware that Jehovah was God and that he had delivered and led the Israelites in the past. (Ho 8:2) But by their course of murdering, stealing, and committing adultery, they showed that they rejected real knowledge because they were not acting in harmony with it.​—Ho 4:2.

Ya·dhaʽʹ sometimes denotes sexual intercourse, as at Genesis 4:17, where some translations render it literally “knew” (KJ; RS; Ro), whereas others suitably say that Cain “had intercourse” with his wife. (AT; Mo; NW) The Greek verb gi·noʹsko is used similarly at Matthew 1:25 and Luke 1:34.

After Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit (Ge 2:17; 3:5, 6), Jehovah said to his associate in creative work (Joh 1:1-3): “Here the man has become like one of us in knowing good and bad.” (Ge 3:22) This apparently did not mean merely having knowledge of what was good and what was bad for them, for the first man and woman had such knowledge by reason of God’s commands to them. Furthermore, God’s words at Genesis 3:22 could not pertain to their now knowing what was bad by experience, for Jehovah said that they had become like him and he has not learned what is bad by doing it. (Ps 92:14, 15) Evidently, Adam and Eve got to know what was good and what was bad in the special sense of now judging for themselves what was good and what was bad. They were idolatrously placing their judgment above God’s, disobediently becoming a law to themselves, as it were, instead of obeying Jehovah, who has both the right and the wisdom necessary to determine good and bad. So their independent knowledge, or standard, of good and bad was not like that of Jehovah. Rather, it was one that led them to misery.​—Jer 10:23.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures there are two words commonly translated “knowledge,” gnoʹsis and e·piʹgno·sis. Both are related to the verb gi·noʹsko, which means “know; understand; perceive.” The way this verb is used in the Bible, though, shows that it can indicate a favorable relationship between the person and one he “knows.” (1Co 8:3; 2Ti 2:19) Knowledge (gnoʹsis) is put in a very favorable light in the Christian Greek Scriptures. However, not all that men may call “knowledge” is to be sought, because philosophies and views exist that are “falsely called ‘knowledge.’” (1Ti 6:20) The recommended knowledge is about God and his purposes. (2Pe 1:5) This involves more than merely having facts, which many atheists have; a personal devotion to God and Christ is implied. (Joh 17:3; 6:68, 69) Whereas having knowledge (information alone) might result in a feeling of superiority, our knowing “the love of the Christ which surpasses knowledge,” that is, knowing this love by experience because we are personally imitating his loving ways, will balance and give wholesome direction to our use of any information we may have gained.​—Eph 3:19.

E·piʹgno·sis, a strengthened form of gnoʹsis (e·piʹ, meaning “additional”), can often be seen from the context to mean “exact, accurate, or full knowledge.” Thus Paul wrote about some who were learning (taking in knowledge) “yet never able to come to an accurate knowledge [“a real knowledge,” TC; “a personal knowledge,” Ro; “clear, full knowledge,” Da ftn] of truth.” (2Ti 3:6, 7) He also prayed that ones in the Colossian congregation, who obviously had some knowledge of God’s will, for they had become Christians, “be filled with the accurate knowledge of his will in all wisdom and spiritual comprehension.” (Col 1:9) Such accurate knowledge should be sought by all Christians (Eph 1:15-17; Php 1:9; 1Ti 2:3, 4), it being important in putting on “the new personality” and in gaining peace.​—Col 3:10; 2Pe 1:2.

Related Attributes. Frequently in the Bible, knowledge is linked with other attributes such as wisdom, understanding, discernment, and thinking ability. (Pr 2:1-6, 10, 11) Grasping the basic differences between these greatly illuminates many texts. It is to be acknowledged, though, that the original words involved cannot be said to match invariably certain English words. The setting and the use of a word affect the sense. Nonetheless, certain interesting differences emerge when one notes the Bible’s references to knowledge, wisdom, understanding, discernment, and thinking ability.

Wisdom. Wisdom is the ability to put knowledge to work, or to use it, the intelligent application of learning. A person might have considerable knowledge but not know how to use it because of lacking wisdom. Jesus linked wisdom with accomplishment in saying: “Wisdom is proved righteous by its works.” (Mt 11:19) Solomon asked for and received from God not just knowledge but also wisdom. (2Ch 1:10; 1Ki 4:29-34) In the case of two women who claimed the same child, Solomon had knowledge of a mother’s devotion to her child; he displayed wisdom by using his knowledge to settle the dispute. (1Ki 3:16-28) “Wisdom is the prime thing,” for without it knowledge is of little value. (Pr 4:7; 15:2) Jehovah abounds in and provides both knowledge and wisdom.​—Ro 11:33; Jas 1:5.

Understanding. Understanding is the ability to see how the parts or aspects of something relate to one another, to see the entire matter and not just isolated facts. The Hebrew root verb bin has the basic meaning “separate” or “distinguish,” and it is often rendered “understand” or “discern.” It is similar with the Greek sy·niʹe·mi. Thus at Acts 28:26 (quoting Isa 6:9, 10) it could be said that the Jews heard but did not understand, or did not put together. They did not grasp how the points or thoughts fitted together to mean something to them. Proverbs 9:10, in saying that “knowledge of the Most Holy One is what understanding is,” shows that true understanding of anything involves appreciation of its relation to God and his purposes. Because a person with understanding is able to connect new information to things he already knows, it can be said that “to the understanding one knowledge is an easy thing.” (Pr 14:6) Knowledge and understanding are allied, and both are to be sought.​—Pr 2:5; 18:15.

Discernment. A Hebrew word frequently rendered “discernment” (tevu·nahʹ) is related to the word bi·nahʹ, translated “understanding.” Both appear at Proverbs 2:3, which the translation by The Jewish Publication Society renders: “If thou call for understanding, and lift up thy voice for discernment . . . ” As with understanding, discernment involves seeing or recognizing things, but it emphasizes distinguishing the parts, weighing or evaluating one in the light of the others. A person who unites knowledge and discernment controls what he says and is cool of spirit. (Pr 17:27) The one opposing Jehovah displays lack of discernment. (Pr 21:30) Through his Son, God gives discernment (full understanding or insight).​—2Ti 2:1, 7, NW, NE.

Thinking ability. Knowledge is also related to what is sometimes translated “thinking ability” (Heb., mezim·mahʹ). The Hebrew word can be used in a bad sense (evil ideas, schemes, devices) or a favorable one (shrewdness, sagacity). (Ps 10:2; Pr 1:4) Thus the mind and thoughts can be directed to an admirable, upright end, or just the opposite. By paying close attention to the way Jehovah does things and by inclining one’s ears to all the various aspects of His will and purposes, a person safeguards his own thinking ability, directing it into right channels. (Pr 5:1, 2) Properly exercised thinking ability, harmonious with godly wisdom and knowledge, will guard a person against being ensnared by immoral enticements.​—Pr 2:10-12.

Caution in Gaining Knowledge. Solomon apparently put knowledge in a negative light when saying: “For in the abundance of wisdom there is an abundance of vexation, so that he that increases knowledge increases pain.” (Ec 1:18) This would appear contrary to the general view of knowledge one finds in the Bible. However, Solomon here stresses again the vanity of human endeavors in all matters other than the carrying out of God’s commands. (Ec 1:13, 14) Thus, a man may gain knowledge and wisdom in many fields, or he may explore deeply some specialized field, and such knowledge and wisdom may be proper in themselves, though not directly related to God’s declared purpose. Yet, with such increased knowledge and wisdom the man may well become more keenly aware of how limited his opportunities are to use his knowledge and wisdom because of his short life span and because of the problems and bad conditions that confront and oppose him in imperfect human society. This is vexing, producing a painful sense of frustration. (Compare Ro 8:20-22; Ec 12:13, 14; see ECCLESIASTES.) Thus, too, the knowledge obtained by ‘devotion to many books,’ unless tied in with and put to use in the carrying out of God’s commands, is “wearisome to the flesh.”​—Ec 12:12.

(Koʹa).

A people or region mentioned with Pekod and Shoa at Ezekiel 23:23 and foretold by Jehovah to supply part of the enemy forces that would assault unfaithful Jerusalem and Judah. Koa was probably located E of Babylonia and has been generally linked with the Qutu, a people who resided E of the Tigris on the steppes between the upper ʽAdhaim and Diyala rivers. The Qutu are frequently coupled with the Sutu (perhaps the Shoa of Eze 23:23) in Assyrian inscriptions, such records showing them as fighting against Assyria.

(Koʹhath).

The second named of the three sons of Levi (Ge 46:11; Ex 6:16; 1Ch 6:1) and father of Amram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel. (Ex 6:18; Nu 3:19; 1Ch 6:2) He was the progenitor of the Kohathites, one of the three main divisions of the Levites. (Nu 3:17, 27) He was likely born in the land of Canaan and is listed among the 66 souls who “came to Jacob into Egypt.” (Ge 46:8, 11, 26; see, however, BENJAMIN No. 1.) Kohath’s descendants included Moses, Aaron, Miriam (Ex 6:18, 20; Nu 26:58, 59), and rebellious Korah. (Nu 16:1-3) Kohath lived 133 years.​—Ex 6:18.

(Koʹhath·ite) [Of (Belonging to) Kohath].

A descendant of the family head Kohath, who was one of the three sons of Levi. (Ge 46:11; Nu 26:57) The “Kohathites” or “sons of Kohath” were divided into four families, these being descendants of the four sons of Kohath: the Amramites, the Izharites, the Hebronites, and the Uzzielites. (Nu 3:19, 27) Their chieftain at the time of Israel’s encampment at Mount Sinai (1513 B.C.E.) was Elizaphan the son of Uzziel.​—Nu 3:30.

Moses and Aaron were Kohathites of the Amramite family (Ex 6:18, 20); rebellious Korah was a Kohathite of the family of the Izharites (Nu 16:1), as was the faithful prophet Samuel.​—1Sa 1:1, 19, 20; 1Ch 6:33-38.

The census taken in the Wilderness of Sinai revealed that there were 8,600 males a month old and upward belonging to the families of the Kohathites. (Nu 3:27, 28) According to some manuscripts of the Greek Septuagint, the figure is 8,300. When the smaller number is added to the 7,500 and the 6,200 of Numbers 3:22, 34, the sum total is 22,000​—the very figure found in Numbers 3:39. Their males between 30 and 50 years of age “who entered into the service group for the service in the tent of meeting” numbered 2,750.​—Nu 4:34-37.

During the wilderness trek, the Kohathites were assigned to camp on the S side of the tabernacle (Nu 3:29), between it and the encampment of the tribes of Reuben, Simeon, and Gad. (Nu 2:10, 12, 14) The Kohathites had the privilege and responsibility of transporting the ark of the covenant, the table of showbread, the lampstand, the altars, and the utensils of the holy place, as well as the screen of the Most Holy (Nu 3:30, 31), after these items were packed and covered by Aaron and his sons, who were also Kohathites. The Kohathites other than Aaron and his sons were not allowed to see the utensils even for a moment or to touch the holy place, for doing so would mean death. (Nu 4:4-15, 20) Though Israel provided the Levites with cattle and wagons for transporting the tabernacle equipment, the Kohathites were not given any. Doubtless because of the sacredness of their burdens, they carried their loads on the shoulder. (Nu 7:2-9) They were the last of the Levites to pull away from an encampment.​—Nu 10:17-21.

After the conquest of Canaan, when the Levites were assigned certain cities, the Kohathites received 23; the “sons” of Aaron (that is, the Kohathites) were assigned 13 cities out of the territories of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, and the rest of the Kohathites were assigned 10 other cities from the territories of Ephraim, Dan, and the half tribe of Manasseh.​—Jos 21:1-5, 9-26; 1Ch 6:54-61, 66-70.

Heman, a Kohathite of the family of Izhar, was given a position by David in connection with the singing at Jehovah’s sanctuary. (1Ch 6:31-38) One hundred and twenty Kohathites under Uriel their chief were among those whom David appointed to bring the ark of Jehovah from the house of Obed-edom to Jerusalem, on which occasion Heman figured prominently in the music and singing. (1Ch 15:4, 5, 11-17, 19, 25) According to First Chronicles, when David divided the Levites into courses, or divisions, some Kohathites were singers (25:1, 4-6) and gatekeepers (26:1-9); others were in charge of the stores and things made holy (26:23-28); and some acted as officers, judges, and administrators. (26:29-32) Certain Kohathites looked after baking and the preparation of layer bread for the Sabbath.​—1Ch 9:31, 32.

The Kohathites praised Jehovah upon learning that he would give Judah under Jehoshaphat victory over the combined forces of Ammon, Moab, and Seir. (2Ch 20:14-19) Kohathite Levites participated in cleansing the house of Jehovah in King Hezekiah’s day. (2Ch 29:12-17) Also, Kohathites Zechariah and Meshullam were among those acting as overseers when King Josiah repaired the temple.​—2Ch 34:8-13.

(Ko·laiʹah).

1. Father of the false prophet Ahab who was among the Jews in Babylonian exile before Jerusalem’s destruction in 607 B.C.E.​—Jer 29:21; see AHAB No. 2.

2. A Benjamite and apparent ancestor of a certain Sallu residing in Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s day after the Babylonian exile.​—Ne 11:4, 7.

(Koʹrah) [possibly, Bald; Baldness].

1. One of Esau’s three sons by his Hivite wife Oholibamah; born in Canaan prior to Esau’s withdrawal to the mountainous region of Seir. (Ge 36:2, 5-8, 14; 1Ch 1:35) Korah was a sheik of the land of Edom.​—Ge 36:18.

A “sheik Korah” is listed at Genesis 36:16 as a son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau. However, the name does not appear among the descendants of Eliphaz at Genesis 36:11, 12 or 1 Chronicles 1:36. The Samaritan Pentateuch omits the name at Genesis 36:16, and some scholars suggest its appearance in the Masoretic text may be the result of a copyist’s error.

2. One of the sons of Hebron of the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 2:43.

3. A Kohathite Levite of the family of Izhar. (Ex 6:16, 18, 21; 1Ch 6:1, 2, 22 [Amminadab was perhaps an alternative name for Izhar.]) During Israel’s wilderness trek Korah rebelled against the authority of Moses and Aaron, doing so in league with the Reubenites Dathan, Abiram, and On, as well as 250 “chieftains of the assembly” or “men of fame.” (Nu 16:1, 2) They contended that “the whole assembly are all of them holy and Jehovah is in their midst,” asking, “Why, then, should you lift yourselves up above the congregation of Jehovah?” (Nu 16:3-11) Moses later sent to call Dathan and Abiram, but they refused to be present, thinking Moses had no right to summon them. (Nu 16:12-15) Korah, his assembly, and High Priest Aaron were told to present themselves before Jehovah, all supplied with fire holders and burning incense.​—Nu 16:16, 17.

The following day Korah and the 250 men with him, all carrying fire holders with burning incense, stood at the entrance of the tent of meeting with Moses and Aaron. Jehovah’s glory appeared to all the assembly and God spoke to Moses and Aaron, telling them to separate themselves from the midst of the assembly, “that I may exterminate them in an instant.” However, Moses and Aaron interceded for the people, and God then directed Moses to have the assembly get away from the tabernacles of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. This was done. (Nu 16:18-27) Shortly thereafter, “the earth proceeded to open its mouth and to swallow up them and their households and all humankind that belonged to Korah and all the goods.” They and all that belonged to them went down alive into Sheol, and the earth covered them over.​—Nu 16:28-34.

Those who were before the tent of meeting with the incense-filled fire holders did not escape, for “a fire came out from Jehovah and proceeded to consume the two hundred and fifty men offering the incense.” (Nu 16:35) Korah himself was with them at that time and thus perished in that fire from God.​—Nu 26:10.

The fire holders of those who conspired with Korah were made into metal plates with which to overlay the altar. This was done “because they presented them before Jehovah, so that they became holy; and they should serve as a sign to the sons of Israel.” (Nu 16:36-40) Despite this powerful evidence of divine judgment, the very next day the whole assembly of Israel murmured against Moses and Aaron, complaining, “You men, you have put Jehovah’s people to death.” This gave rise to indignation on God’s part, and despite the pleas of Moses and Aaron, 14,700 died as a result of a scourge from Jehovah, halted only after Aaron made atonement for the people. (Nu 16:41-50) Thereafter, Aaron’s priestly position was confirmed by the budding of his rod.​—Nu 17.

That the sons of Korah did not follow their father in rebellion seems apparent from the Bible record, for it states: “However, the sons of Korah did not die.” (Nu 26:9-11) Korah’s descendants later became prominent in Levitical service.​—See KORAHITE.

The writer of the book of Jude linked Cain, Balaam, and Korah together when warning Christians to guard against animalistic men who “have perished in the rebellious talk of Korah!” Korah evidently sought glory for himself. He challenged Jehovah’s appointments, becoming a rebel, and thus justly suffered death as a consequence of his improper course of action.​—Jude 10, 11.

(Koʹrah·ite) [Of (Belonging to) Korah].

A descendant of Korah, who rebelled in Moses’ day. The Korahites were a paternal house of the Kohathite Levites and descended from Korah through his three sons Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph. (Ex 6:18, 21, 24; Nu 16:1-3) “The sons of Korah did not die” with their father (Nu 26:10, 11), evidently because they did not follow him in rebellion.

In the census of Israel taken on the Plains of Moab, “the family of the Korahites” was registered with the Levite families. (Nu 26:57, 58) When David was still under restrictions imposed by King Saul, certain Korahites were among the mighty men who joined him at Ziklag. (1Ch 12:1, 6) The Levitical singer Heman and the prophet Samuel were Korahites (1Ch 6:33-38), and King David organized members of Heman’s family as singers. (1Ch 15:16, 17; 16:37, 41, 42; 25:1, 4-6) Korahites were among the gatekeepers for the house of Jehovah (1Ch 26:1-9, 19), and in Jehoshaphat’s day “Levites of the sons of the Kohathites and of the sons of the Korahites rose up to praise Jehovah the God of Israel with an extraordinarily loud voice,” because of promised deliverance from the combined forces of Moab, Ammon, and Seir.​—2Ch 20:14-19.

The superscriptions of Psalms 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, and 88 specifically mention the sons of Korah. Though their forefather had been rebellious, Jehovah did not hold the sons of Korah accountable for his error, and because of their faithfulness they were blessed and honored with temple service.

(Koʹre).

1. A Kohathite Levite “of the sons of Asaph” and a descendant of Korah. (Ex 6:16, 18, 21; 1Ch 9:19; 26:1) Shallum, one of “the doorkeepers of the tent,” is described as “the son of Kore the son of Ebiasaph the son of Korah,” at 1 Chronicles 9:19. This text does not mention all the generations between Shallum and Ebiasaph, but the names given belong in this one genealogy. First Chronicles 26:1 calls the gatekeeper Meshelemiah “the son of Kore.”

2. A Levite, “the son of Imnah” and “the gatekeeper to the east” of the temple in King Hezekiah’s day. He was “in charge of the voluntary offerings of the true God, to give Jehovah’s contribution and the most holy things,” and had other men under his control.​—2Ch 31:14-16.

[Thorn].

A descendant of Judah. Koz “became father to Anub and Zobebah and the families of Aharhel the son of Harum.”​—1Ch 4:1, 8.

(Kush·aʹiah).

A Levite of the family of Merari and the father or ancestor of Ethan, one of the group of Levite singers and musicians of David’s day. (1Ch 15:16, 17) Kushaiah is evidently called Kishi at 1 Chronicles 6:44.

See LORD.