IBHAR

(Ibʹhar) [May Jehovah Choose [Him]].

One of the sons born to King David in Jerusalem after he transferred his residence there from Hebron.​—2Sa 5:13-15; 1Ch 14:4, 5.

IBLEAM

(Ibʹle·am) [possibly from a root meaning “swallow down”].

A city in the territory of Issachar but assigned with its dependent towns to Manasseh. The Manassites, however, failed to dispossess the Canaanites from Ibleam. (Jos 17:11-13; Jg 1:27) Ibleam appears to be the same as the Bileam in Manasseh given to the Kohathite Levites. (1Ch 6:70) But the parallel passage mentioning Levite cities in the territory of the half tribe of Manasseh (Jos 21:25) reads “Gath-rimmon” instead of “Bileam” or “Ibleam.” Generally this is attributed to scribal error, “Gath-rimmon,” the name of a city in Dan, probably having been inadvertently repeated from verse 24.

Ibleam has been identified with Khirbet Belʽameh, about 18 km (11 mi) SSE of Megiddo.

Near Ibleam, King Ahaziah of Judah was fatally struck down at the command of Jehu. (2Ki 9:27) Later, Jehu’s dynasty ended with the assassination of Zechariah at Ibleam (according to the Lagardian edition of the LXX).​—2Ki 15:10-12, JB, NW, RS.

IBNEIAH

(Ib·neʹiah) [Jehovah Has Built].

Son of Jeroham; a Benjamite head of a paternal house returning from Babylonian exile.​—1Ch 9:1-3, 7-9.

IBNIJAH

(Ib·niʹjah) [Jehovah Has Built].

A Benjamite, forefather of a certain Meshullam.​—1Ch 9:7, 8.

IBRI

(Ibʹri) [A Hebrew].

Son of Jaaziah; a Merarite Levite of King David’s time.​—1Ch 24:27, 30, 31.

IBSAM

(Ibʹsam) [Perfumed; Balsam Oil; Spicy].

One of the sons of Tola; a paternal head of the tribe of Issachar.​—1Ch 7:1, 2.

IBZAN

(Ibʹzan).

The one who succeeded Jephthah as judge of Israel. Ibzan was the father of 30 sons and 30 daughters, indicating that he was a polygamist and evidently also a man of some means. He procured 30 daughters as wives for his sons. After judging for seven years, Ibzan died and was buried in his native city of Bethlehem, likely the Bethlehem in Zebulun.​—Jg 12:7-10; Jos 19:10, 14, 15; see BETHLEHEM No. 2.

ICE

Water in its solid state, produced by freezing. Both Elihu and Jehovah God called Job’s attention to the marvel of ice, the Almighty saying: “Out of whose belly does the ice actually come forth . . . ? The very waters keep themselves hidden as by stone, and the surface of the watery deep makes itself compact.” (Job 36:1; 37:10; 38:1, 29, 30) The formation of ice as here referred to is possible only because of a most unusual property of water. As the water in lakes and seas cools, it becomes heavier. The lighter, warmer water is displaced by the heavier water and rises to the top. But when the water as a whole reaches about 4° C. (39° F.), this process reverses. The water becomes lighter as it nears the freezing point and remains as a layer above the warmer water beneath. This upper layer then turns to ice, “makes itself compact.” Being lighter than water, the ice keeps the waters beneath “hidden as by stone,” thus protecting marine life. Were it not for this phenomenon, much of the water in the lakes and even the oceans would in time become solid ice, thus making the earth inhospitable to life.

The psalmist speaks of Jehovah’s “throwing his ice like morsels.” This evidently refers to hail or sleet.​—Ps 147:17; see HAIL.

The Hebrew term for “ice” (qeʹrach) is also used to refer to a temperature of freezing or below that as well as to “frost.”​—Jer 36:30.

ICHABOD

(Ichʹa·bod) [Where Is the Glory?].

Son of Phinehas born after the death of Phinehas; brother of Ahitub; grandson of High Priest Eli. The name Ichabod, given to him by his dying mother while giving birth, signified that glory had gone away from Israel in view of the capture of the Ark and the deaths of Phinehas and Eli.​—1Sa 4:17-22; 14:3.

ICONIUM

(I·coʹni·um).

An ancient city of Asia Minor lying about 1,027 m (3,370 ft) above sea level. Iconium is presently known as Konya (Konia), located about 240 km (150 mi) S of Ankara on the SW edge of the central Turkish plateau. In the first century C.E., Iconium was one of the principal cities in the Roman province of Galatia and lay astride the main trade route from Ephesus to Syria.

The city had an influential Jewish population. Paul and Barnabas, after being forced to leave Pisidian Antioch, preached in the city of Iconium and in its synagogue, and there they helped many Jews and Greeks to become believers. But when an attempt was made to stone them, they fled from Iconium to Lystra. However, Jews from Antioch and Iconium soon came to Lystra and stirred up the crowds there so that they stoned Paul. Thereafter Paul and Barnabas went to Derbe and then courageously returned to Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch, strengthening the brothers and appointing “older men” to positions of responsibility in the congregations established in these cities.​—Ac 13:50, 51; 14:1-7, 19-23.

Later, after the circumcision issue arose and was settled by the apostles and older men of the Jerusalem congregation, Paul may have revisited Iconium. It was on this second missionary journey that Paul took along Timothy, a young man having a fine reputation among the brothers at Lystra and Iconium.​—Ac 16:1-5; 2Ti 3:10, 11.

Iconium was on the border between Phrygia and Lycaonia. This may explain why certain ancient writers, including Strabo and Cicero, assigned it to Lycaonia, whereas Xenophon called it the last city of Phrygia. From a geographic standpoint, Iconium belonged to Lycaonia, but as indicated by archaeological discoveries, it was Phrygian in culture and speech. Inscriptions found at the site in 1910 show that Phrygian was the language used there for two centuries after Paul’s time. Appropriately, therefore, the writer of Acts did not include Iconium as part of Lycaonia, where the “Lycaonian tongue” was spoken.​—Ac 14:6, 11.

IDALAH

(Iʹda·lah).

A boundary city of Zebulun. (Jos 19:14-16) While its exact location is unknown, some link Idalah with Khirbet el-Huwarah, 1.5 km (1 mi) SW of the suggested location of Bethlehem in Zebulun.

IDBASH

(Idʹbash) [from a root meaning “honey”].

A man of Judah, evidently a son of the founder of Etam.​—1Ch 4:1, 3; see ETAM No. 3.

IDDO

(Idʹdo) [1-5: shortened form of Adaiah, meaning “Jehovah Has Decked [the nameholder]”].

1. Son of Joah; a Levite of the family of Gershom.​—1Ch 6:19-21.

2. Father of Ahinadab, the one serving as Solomon’s food deputy in Mahanaim.​—1Ki 4:7, 14.

3. A visionary whose writings were consulted by the compiler of Chronicles for information concerning the affairs of Kings Solomon, Rehoboam, and Abijah. Iddo’s writings are referred to as an “exposition,” a “commentary,” or a “midrash.”​—2Ch 9:29; 12:15; 13:22, ftn.

4. Father of Berechiah and grandfather of the prophet Zechariah. (Ezr 5:1; 6:14; Zec 1:1, 7) This Iddo may be the same as No. 5.

5. A priest listed among those returning to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E. In the days of High Priest Joiakim the paternal house of Iddo was headed by Zechariah. (Ne 12:1, 4, 12, 16) He may be the same as No. 4.

6. [possibly from a root meaning “laud”; or from a different root meaning “know”]. Son of a certain Zechariah; prince of the half tribe of Manasseh in Gilead in King David’s time.​—1Ch 27:21, 22.

7. Head of the Nethinim temple servants residing at Casiphia, 220 of whom accompanied Ezra to Jerusalem in 468 B.C.E.​—Ezr 8:17, 20.

IDOL, IDOLATRY

An idol is an image, a representation of anything, or a symbol that is an object of passionate devotion, whether material or imagined. Generally speaking, idolatry is the veneration, love, worship, or adoration of an idol. It is usually practiced toward a real or supposed higher power, whether such power is believed to have animate existence (as a human, an animal, or an organization) or is inanimate (as a force or lifeless object of nature). Idolatry generally involves some form, ceremony, or ritual.

The Hebrew terms used to refer to idols often highlighted the origin and inherent worthlessness of idols, or they were derogatory terms of contempt. Among these are words rendered “carved or graven image” (literally, something carved out); “molten statue, image, or idol” (literally, something cast or poured out); “horrible idol”; “vain idol” (literally, vanity); and “dungy idol.” “Idol” is the usual rendering of the Greek word eiʹdo·lon.

Not All Images Are Idols. God’s law not to form images (Ex 20:4, 5) did not rule out the making of all representations and statues. This is indicated by Jehovah’s later command to make two golden cherubs on the cover of the Ark and to embroider representations of cherubs on the inner tent covering of ten tent cloths for the tabernacle and the curtain separating the Holy from the Most Holy. (Ex 25:18; 26:1, 31, 33) Likewise, the interior of Solomon’s temple, the architectural plans for which were given to David by divine inspiration (1Ch 28:11, 12), was beautifully embellished with engraved carvings of cherubs, palm-tree figures, and blossoms. Two cherubs of oil-tree wood overlaid with gold stood in the Most Holy of that temple. (1Ki 6:23, 28, 29) The molten sea rested upon 12 copper bulls, and the sidewalls of the copper carriages for temple use were decorated with figures of lions, bulls, and cherubs. (1Ki 7:25, 28, 29) Twelve lions lined the steps leading up to Solomon’s throne.​—2Ch 9:17-19.

These representations, however, were not idols for worship. Only the officiating priests saw the representations of the tabernacle interior and, later, of the temple interior. No one but the high priest entered the Most Holy, and that only on the Day of Atonement. (Heb 9:7) Thus there was no danger of the Israelites’ being ensnared into idolizing the golden cherubs in the sanctuary. These representations primarily served as a picture of the heavenly cherubs. (Compare Heb 9:23, 24.) That they were not to be venerated is evident from the fact that the angels themselves were not to be worshiped.​—Col 2:18; Re 19:10; 22:8, 9.

Of course, there were times when images became idols, although not originally intended as objects of veneration. The copper serpent that Moses formed in the wilderness came to be worshiped, and therefore faithful King Hezekiah crushed it to pieces. (Nu 21:9; 2Ki 18:1, 4) The ephod made by Judge Gideon became “a snare” to him and to his household.​—Jg 8:27.

Images as Aids in Worship. The Scriptures do not sanction the use of images as a means to address God in prayer. Such a practice runs counter to the principle that those seeking to serve Jehovah must worship him with spirit and truth. (Joh 4:24; 2Co 4:18; 5:6, 7) He tolerates no mixing of idolatrous practices with true worship, as is illustrated by his condemnation of calf worship, although the Israelites had attached his name thereto. (Ex 32:3-10) Jehovah does not share his glory with graven images.​—Isa 42:8.

There is not a single instance in Scripture where faithful servants of Jehovah resorted to the use of visual aids to pray to God or engaged in a form of relative worship. Of course, some may cite Hebrews 11:21, which, according to the Catholic Douay Version, reads: “By faith Jacob, dying, blessed each of the sons of Joseph, and adored the top of his rod.” Then in a footnote on this scripture it is held that Jacob paid relative honor and veneration to the top of Joseph’s rod, and the comment is made: “Some translators, who are no friends to this relative honour, have corrupted the text, by translating it: he worshipped, leaning upon the top of his staff.” However, rather than being a corruption of the text, as this footnote maintains, this latter rendering and comparable variants thereof are in agreement with the sense of the Hebrew text at Genesis 47:31 and have been adopted even by a number of Catholic translations, including The Jerusalem Bible.

Forms of Idolatry. Acts of idolatry referred to in the Bible included such revolting practices as ceremonial prostitution, child sacrifice, drunkenness, and self-laceration to the point of causing blood to flow. (1Ki 14:24; 18:28; Jer 19:3-5; Ho 4:13, 14; Am 2:8) Idols were venerated by partaking of food and drink in festivals or ceremonies in their honor (Ex 32:6; 1Co 8:10), by bowing and sacrificing to them, by song and dance before them, and even by a kiss. (Ex 32:8, 18, 19; 1Ki 19:18; Ho 13:2) Idolatry was also committed by arranging a table of food and drink for false gods (Isa 65:11), by making drink offerings, sacrificial cakes, and sacrificial smoke (Jer 7:18; 44:17), and by weeping in religious ceremony (Eze 8:14). Certain actions, such as tattooing the flesh, making cuttings upon the flesh, imposing baldness on the forehead, cutting the sidelocks, and destroying the extremity of the beard, were prohibited by the Law, possibly, at least in part, because of being linked with prevailing idolatrous practices of neighboring peoples.​—Le 19:26-28; De 14:1.

Then there are the more subtle forms of idolatry. Covetousness is idolatry (Col 3:5), since the object of an individual’s cravings diverts affection from the Creator and thus, in effect, becomes an idol. Instead of serving Jehovah God in faithfulness, a person can become a slave to his belly, that is, to fleshly desire or appetite, and make this his god. (Ro 16:18; Php 3:18, 19) Since love for the Creator is demonstrated by obedience (1Jo 5:3), rebellion and pushing ahead presumptuously are comparable to acts of idolatry.​—1Sa 15:22, 23.

Pre-Flood Idolatry. Idolatry had its beginning, not in the visible realm, but in the invisible. A glorious spirit creature developed the covetous desire to resemble the Most High. So strong was his desire that it alienated him from his God, Jehovah, and his idolatry caused him to rebel.​—Job 1:6-11; 1Ti 3:6; compare Isa 14:12-14; Eze 28:13-15, 17.

Similarly, Eve constituted herself the first human idolater by coveting the forbidden fruit, this wrong desire leading her to disobey God’s command. By allowing selfish desire to rival his love for Jehovah and then by disobeying him, Adam likewise became guilty of idolatry.​—Ge 3:6, 17.

Since the rebellion in Eden, only a minority of mankind have remained free from idolatry. During the lifetime of Adam’s grandson Enosh, men apparently practiced a form of idolatry. “At that time a start was made of calling on the name of Jehovah.” (Ge 4:26) But evidently this was no calling upon Jehovah in faith, something done by righteous Abel many years earlier and for which he suffered martyrdom at the hands of his brother Cain. (Ge 4:4, 5, 8) Apparently, what was started in the days of Enosh was a false form of worship in which Jehovah’s name was misused or improperly applied. Either men applied Jehovah’s name to themselves or to other men (through whom they pretended to approach God in worship), or else they applied the divine name to idol objects (as a visible, tangible aid in their attempt to worship the invisible God).

To what extent idolatry was practiced from the days of Enosh until the Flood, the Bible record does not reveal. The situation must have progressively deteriorated, because in Noah’s day “Jehovah saw that the badness of man was abundant in the earth and every inclination of the thoughts of his heart was only bad all the time.” Besides the inherited sinful inclination of man, the materialized angels, who had relations with the daughters of men, and the hybrid offspring of these unions, the Nephilim, exerted upon the world of that time a strong influence toward bad.​—Ge 6:4, 5.

Idolatry in Patriarchal Times. Although the Flood of Noah’s day destroyed all human idolaters, idolatry began anew, spearheaded by Nimrod, “a mighty hunter in opposition to Jehovah.” (Ge 10:9) Doubtless under Nimrod’s direction, the building of Babel and its tower (likely a ziggurat for use in idolatrous worship) began. The plans of those builders were frustrated when Jehovah confused their language. No longer being able to understand one another, they gradually left off building the city and scattered. However, the idolatry that began at Babel did not end there. Wherever those builders went they carried their false religious concepts.​—Ge 11:1-9; see GODS AND GODDESSES.

The next city mentioned in the Scriptures, Ur of the Chaldeans, like Babel, was not devoted to the worship of the true God, Jehovah. Archaeological diggings there have revealed that the patron deity of that city was the moon-god Sin. It was in Ur that Terah, the father of Abram (Abraham), resided. (Ge 11:27, 28) Living in the midst of idolatry, Terah may have engaged in it, as is indicated centuries later by Joshua’s words to the Israelites: “It was on the other side of the River [Euphrates] that your forefathers dwelt a long time ago, Terah the father of Abraham and the father of Nahor, and they used to serve other gods.” (Jos 24:2) But Abraham displayed faith in the true God, Jehovah.

Wherever Abraham, and later his descendants, went they met up with idolatry, influenced by the original apostasy at Babel. So there was an ever-present danger of being contaminated by such idolatry. Even those related to Abraham had idols. Laban, who was the father-in-law of Abraham’s grandson Jacob, had teraphim, or family gods, in his possession. (Ge 31:19, 31, 32) Jacob himself found it necessary to instruct his household to put away all their foreign gods, and he hid the idols turned over to him. (Ge 35:2-4) Perhaps he disposed of them in this way so that none in his household might reuse the metal as something having special value on account of its previous idolatrous use. Whether Jacob initially melted or smashed the images is not stated.

Idolatry and God’s Covenant People. As Jehovah had indicated to Abraham, his descendants, the Israelites, became alien residents in a land not theirs, namely Egypt, and suffered affliction there. (Ge 15:13) In Egypt they came in contact with rank idolatry, for image making ran riot in that country. Many of the deities worshiped there were represented by animal heads, among them being the cat-headed Bast, the cow-headed Hathor, the falcon-headed Horus, the jackal-headed Anubis (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 946), and the ibis-headed Thoth, to name but a few. Creatures of sea, air, and land were venerated, and at death “sacred” animals were mummified.

The Law that Jehovah gave to his people after liberating them from Egypt was explicitly directed against idolatrous practices so prevalent among the ancients. The second of the Ten Commandments expressly prohibited making for worship a carved image or a representation of anything in the heavens, on the earth, or in the waters. (Ex 20:4, 5; De 5:8, 9) In his final exhortations to the Israelites, Moses emphasized the impossibility of making an image of the true God and warned them to beware of the snare of idolatry. (De 4:15-19) To further safeguard the Israelites from becoming idolaters, they were commanded not to conclude any covenant with the pagan inhabitants of the land they were entering or to form marriage alliances with them, but to annihilate them. All existing appendages of idolatry​—altars, sacred pillars, sacred poles, and graven images—​were to be destroyed.​—De 7:2-5.

Moses’ successor Joshua assembled all the tribes of Israel at Shechem and admonished them to remove the false gods and to serve Jehovah faithfully. The people agreed to do so and continued serving Jehovah during his lifetime and that of the older men who extended their days after Joshua. (Jos 24:14-16, 31) But thereafter wholesale apostasy set in. The people began worshiping Canaanite deities​—Baal, Ashtoreth, and the sacred pole, or Asherah. Hence, Jehovah abandoned the Israelites into the hands of their enemies. However, when they repented, he mercifully raised up judges to deliver them.​—Jg 2:11-19; 3:7; see ASHTORETH; BAAL No. 4; SACRED PILLAR; SACRED POLE.

Under the rule of the kings. During the reigns of Israel’s first king, Saul, of his son Ish-bosheth, and of David, there is no mention of large-scale idolatry being engaged in by the Israelites. Nevertheless, there are indications that idolatry lingered on in the kingdom. Saul’s own daughter, Michal, for instance, had a teraphim image in her possession. (1Sa 19:13; see TERAPHIM.) It was not until the latter part of the reign of David’s son Solomon, however, that outright idolatry came to be practiced, the monarch himself, under the influence of his many foreign wives, giving the impetus to idolatry by sanctioning it. High places were built to Ashtoreth, Chemosh, and Milcom, or Molech. The people in general succumbed to false worship and began bowing down to these idol gods.​—1Ki 11:3-8, 33; 2Ki 23:13; see CHEMOSH; MOLECH.

On account of this idolatry, Jehovah ripped ten tribes away from Solomon’s son Rehoboam and gave these to Jeroboam. (1Ki 11:31-35; 12:19-24) Although assured that his kingdom would remain firm if he continued serving Jehovah in faithfulness, Jeroboam, on becoming king, instituted calf worship, fearing that the people would revolt against his rule if they continued going to Jerusalem for worship. (1Ki 11:38; 12:26-33) Idolatrous calf worship continued all the days the ten-tribe kingdom existed, with Tyrian Baalism being introduced during Ahab’s reign. (1Ki 16:30-33) Not all apostatized, however. While Ahab reigned, there still was a remnant of 7,000 who had neither bent the knee to nor kissed Baal, and this at a time when Jehovah’s prophets were being killed with the sword, doubtless at the instigation of Ahab’s wife Jezebel.​—1Ki 19:1, 2, 14, 18; Ro 11:4; see CALF (Calf Worship).

With the exception of Jehu’s eradication of Baal worship (2Ki 10:20-28), there is no record of any religious reform being undertaken by a monarch of the ten-tribe kingdom. To the prophets repeatedly sent by Jehovah, the people and rulers of the northern kingdom gave no heed, so that finally the Almighty abandoned them into the hands of the Assyrians because of their sordid record of idolatry.​—2Ki 17:7-23.

In the kingdom of Judah, the situation was not much different, aside from the reforms carried out by certain kings. Whereas a divided kingdom had come about as a direct result of idolatry, Solomon’s son Rehoboam did not take to heart Jehovah’s discipline and shun idolatry. As soon as his position was secure, he and all Judah with him apostatized. (2Ch 12:1) The people built high places, equipping these with sacred pillars and sacred poles, and engaged in ceremonial prostitution. (1Ki 14:23, 24) Although Abijam (Abijah) expressed faith in Jehovah at the time he warred against Jeroboam and was blessed with victory, to a large extent he imitated the sinful course of his father and predecessor on the throne, Rehoboam.​—1Ki 15:1, 3; 2Ch 13:3-18.

The next two Judean kings, Asa and Jehoshaphat, served Jehovah in faithfulness and endeavored to rid the kingdom of idolatry. But Judah was so steeped in worship at high places that, despite the efforts of both of these kings to destroy them, the high places seem to have persisted secretly or they cropped up again.​—1Ki 15:11-14; 22:42, 43; 2Ch 14:2-5; 17:5, 6; 20:31-33.

The reign of Judah’s next king, Jehoram, commenced with bloodshed and began a new chapter in Judah’s idolatry. This is attributed to his having idolatrous Ahab’s daughter, Athaliah, as wife. (2Ch 21:1-4, 6, 11) The queen mother Athaliah also proved to be the counselor to Jehoram’s son Ahaziah. Hence, during the rule of Ahaziah and that of the usurper Athaliah, idolatry continued with the approval of the crown.​—2Ch 22:1-3, 12.

Early in the reign of Jehoash, following the execution of Athaliah, there was a restoration of true worship. But upon the death of High Priest Jehoiada, there was a return to idol worship at the instigation of Judah’s princes. (2Ki 12:2, 3; 2Ch 24:17, 18) Jehovah therefore abandoned the Judean forces into the hands of the invading Syrians, and Jehoash was murdered by his own servants.​—2Ch 24:23-25.

Undoubtedly the execution of God’s judgment upon Judah and the violent death of Amaziah’s father Jehoash made a deep impression upon Amaziah, so that he proceeded at first to do what was right in Jehovah’s eyes. (2Ch 25:1-4) But after defeating the Edomites and taking their images, he began serving the gods of his vanquished foes. (2Ch 25:14) Retribution came when Judah was defeated by the ten-tribe kingdom and later when Amaziah was murdered by conspirators. (2Ch 25:20-24, 27) Although Azariah (Uzziah) and his son Jotham are reported generally to have done what was right in Jehovah’s eyes, their subjects persisted in idolatry at the high places.​—2Ki 15:1-4, 32-35; 2Ch 26:3, 4, 16-18; 27:1, 2.

During the kingship of Jotham’s son Ahaz, Judah’s religious state reached a new low. Ahaz began to practice idolatry on a scale never known before in Judah; he was the first-reported Judean king to have sacrificed his offspring in the fire as a false religious act. (2Ki 16:1-4; 2Ch 28:1-4) Jehovah chastised Judah by means of defeats at the hands of their enemies. Ahaz, instead of repenting, concluded that the gods of the kings of Syria were giving them the victory and therefore decided to sacrifice to these deities so that they might also help him. (2Ch 28:5, 23) Furthermore, the doors of Jehovah’s temple were closed, and its utensils were cut to pieces.​—2Ch 28:24.

While Ahaz did not benefit from Jehovah’s discipline, his son Hezekiah did. (2Ch 29:1, 5-11) In the very first year of his becoming king, Hezekiah restored the true worship of Jehovah. (2Ch 29:3) His reign saw the destruction of appendages of false worship not only in Judah and Benjamin but also in Ephraim and Manasseh.​—2Ch 31:1.

But Hezekiah’s own son Manasseh completely revived idolatry. (2Ki 21:1-7; 2Ch 33:1-7) As to the reasons for this, the Bible record is silent. Manasseh, who began ruling as a 12-year-old, may have been wrongly directed initially by counselors and princes not exclusively devoted to Jehovah’s service. Unlike Ahaz, though, Manasseh, as a captive in Babylon, repented upon receiving this severe discipline from Jehovah and undertook reforms upon returning to Jerusalem. (2Ch 33:10-16) His son Amon, however, reverted to sacrificing to the graven images.​—2Ch 33:21-24.

Next came Josiah’s rule and a thorough eradication of idolatry in Judah. The sites of idolatrous worship were desecrated there and even in the cities of Samaria. The foreign-god priests and those making sacrificial smoke to Baal, as well as to the sun, the moon, the constellations of the zodiac, and all the army of the heavens, were put out of business. (2Ki 23:4-27; 2Ch 34:1-5) Still this large-scale campaign against idolatry did not effect permanent reform. The last four Judean kings, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah, persisted in idolatry.​—2Ki 23:31, 32, 36, 37; 24:8, 9, 18, 19; see ASTROLOGERS; HIGH PLACES; ZODIAC.

The references to idolatry in the writings of the prophets further cast light on what occurred during the last years of the kingdom of Judah. Sites of idolatry, ceremonial prostitution, and child sacrifice continued to exist. (Jer 3:6; 17:1-3; 19:2-5; 32:29, 35; Eze 6:3, 4) Even Levites were guilty of practicing idolatry. (Eze 44:10, 12, 13) Ezekiel, transported in vision to Jerusalem’s temple, there saw a detestable idol, “the symbol of jealousy,” and the veneration of representations of creeping things and loathsome beasts, as well as the according of reverence to the false god Tammuz and the sun.​—Eze 8:3, 7-16.

Despite the fact that the Israelites adored idols to the point of sacrificing their own children, they carried on a semblance of worshiping Jehovah and reasoned that no calamity would befall them. (Jer 7:4, 8-12; Eze 23:36-39) So empty-headed had the people in general become by reason of their pursuit of idolatry that when calamity did come and Jerusalem was desolated by the Babylonians in 607 B.C.E., in fulfillment of Jehovah’s word, they attributed it to their failure to make sacrificial smoke and drink offerings to the “queen of the heavens.”​—Jer 44:15-18; see QUEEN OF THE HEAVENS.

Why Israel Turned to Idolatry. There were a number of factors that caused so many Israelites repeatedly to abandon true worship. Being one of the works of the flesh, idolatry appealed to the desires of the flesh. (Ga 5:19-21) Once settled in the Promised Land, the Israelites may have observed their pagan neighbors, whom they had failed to drive out entirely, having good success with their crops by reason of longer experience in working the land. Likely many made inquiry and heeded the advice of their Canaanite neighbors as to what was needed to please the Baal, or “owner,” of each piece of land.​—Ps 106:34-39.

Forming marriage alliances with idolaters was another inducement to apostatize. (Jg 3:5, 6) The unrestrained sexual indulgence associated with idolatry proved to be no little temptation. At Shittim on the Plains of Moab, for instance, thousands of Israelites yielded to immorality and engaged in false worship. (Nu 22:1; 25:1-3) To some, being able to give way to unrestrained drinking at the sanctuaries of false gods may have been tempting.​—Am 2:8.

Then there was the attraction of supposedly learning what the future had in store, this stemming from a desire to be assured that all would go well. Examples of this are Saul’s consulting a spirit medium and Ahaziah’s sending to inquire of Baal-zebub the god of Ekron.​—1Sa 28:6-11; 2Ki 1:2, 3.

The Folly of Idol Worship. Time and again the Scriptures call attention to the foolishness of relying on gods of wood, stone, or metal. Isaiah describes the manufacture of idols and shows the stupidity of a person who uses part of the wood of a tree to cook his food and to warm himself and then makes the remainder into a god to whom he looks for aid. (Isa 44:9-20) In the day of Jehovah’s fury, wrote Isaiah, false worshipers would throw their worthless idols to the shrewmice and to the bats. (Isa 2:19-21) “Woe to the one saying to the piece of wood: ‘O do awake!’ to a dumb stone: ‘O wake up!’” (Hab 2:19) Those making dumb idols will become just like them, that is, lifeless.​—Ps 115:4-8; 135:15-18; see Re 9:20.

Viewpoint Toward Idolatry. Faithful servants of Jehovah have always regarded idols with abhorrence. In Scripture, false gods and idols are repeatedly referred to in contemptible terms, as being valueless (1Ch 16:26; Ps 96:5; 97:7), horrible (1Ki 15:13; 2Ch 15:16), shameful (Jer 11:13; Ho 9:10), detestable (Eze 16:36, 37), and disgusting (Eze 37:23). Often mention is made of “dungy idols,” this expression being a rendering of the Hebrew word gil·lu·limʹ, which is related to a word meaning “dung.” (1Ki 14:10; Zep 1:17) This term of contempt, first appearing at Leviticus 26:30, is found nearly 40 times in the book of Ezekiel alone, beginning with chapter 6, verse 4.

Faithful Job recognized that even if his heart became enticed in secrecy at beholding heavenly bodies such as the moon and his ‘hand proceeded to kiss his mouth’ (apparently alluding to throwing a kiss with the hand in an idolatrous practice), this would have constituted a denial of God, hence idolatry. (Job 31:26-28; compare De 4:15, 19.) With reference to a practicer of righteousness, Jehovah said through the prophet Ezekiel, “His eyes he did not raise to the dungy idols of the house of Israel,” that is, to offer supplication to them or in expectation of help from them.​—Eze 18:5, 6.

Another fine example of shunning idolatry was that of the three Hebrews, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, who, although threatened with death in the fiery furnace, refused to bow before the image of gold erected by King Nebuchadnezzar in the Plain of Dura.​—Da 3.

The early Christians heeded the inspired counsel: “Flee from idolatry” (1Co 10:14), and image makers viewed Christianity as a threat to their profitable business. (Ac 19:23-27) As testified to by secular historians, remaining free from idolatry often placed Christians living in the Roman Empire in a position similar to that of the three Hebrews. Acknowledging the divine character of the emperor as head of the state by offering a pinch of incense could have spared such Christians from death, but few compromised. Those early Christians fully appreciated that once they turned away from idols to serve the true God (1Th 1:9), a return to idolatry would mean their being debarred from the New Jerusalem and their losing out on the prize of life.​—Re 21:8; 22:14, 15.

Servants of Jehovah must guard themselves from idols (1Jo 5:21), even today. It was foretold that great pressures would be brought to bear against all the inhabitants of the earth to worship the symbolic “wild beast” and its “image.” None who persist in such idolatrous worship will receive God’s gift of life everlasting. “Here is where it means endurance for the holy ones.”​—Re 13:15-17; 14:9-12; see DISGUSTING THING, LOATHSOME THING.

IDOLS, MEATS OFFERED TO

In the pagan world of the first century C.E., it was a common practice to offer meats to idols ceremonially. On such occasions parts of the sacrificial animal victim were placed on the idol altar, a portion went to the priests, and a portion went to the worshipers, who would use it for a meal or feast, either in the temple or in a private house. However, some of the flesh that had been offered to the idols was often turned over to the maʹkel·lon, or meat market, to be sold.

Many persons before becoming Christians had been accustomed to eating meats offered to idols with a feeling of reverence for the idol. (1Co 8:7) In so doing, these former pagans had been sharers with the demon god represented by the idol. (1Co 10:20) Quite fittingly, therefore, by formal letter from Jerusalem, the governing body of the early Christian congregation, under the guidance of the holy spirit, forbade such formal, religious eating of meats offered to idols, thus safeguarding Christians from idolatry in this regard.​—Ac 15:19-23, 28, 29.

Christians, like those living in pagan Corinth, were faced with a number of questions in this matter. Could they conscientiously go into an idol temple and eat meat if they did so with no thought of honoring the idol? And, would there be any objection to buying from the maʹkel·lon meats that had been ceremonially offered to idols? Finally, how should a Christian handle this matter when eating as a guest in someone else’s home?

Under inspiration Paul provided the Corinthian Christians with timely information to aid them in making the correct decisions. Although “an idol is nothing,” it would not be advisable for a Christian to go to an idol temple to eat meat (even though his eating was not part of a religious ceremony), because he could thereby be giving spiritually weak observers the wrong impression. Such observers might conclude that the Christian was worshiping the idol, and they could be stumbled by this. It could lead such weaker ones to the point of actually eating meats sacrificed to idols in religious ceremony, in direct violation of the decree of the governing body. There was also the danger that the Christian eater would violate his own conscience and yield to idol worship.​—1Co 8:1-13.

Since the ceremonial offering of meats to idols produced no change in the meat, the Christian could, however, with a good conscience buy meat from a market that received some of its meat from religious temples. This meat had lost its “sacred” significance. It was just as good as any other meat, and the Christian was therefore not under obligation to make inquiry respecting its origin.​—1Co 10:25, 26.

Furthermore, the Christian, upon being invited to a meal, did not have to make inquiry concerning the source of the meat but could eat it with a good conscience. If, however, an individual present at the meal were to remark that the meat had been “offered in sacrifice,” then the Christian would refrain from eating it to avoid stumbling others.​—1Co 10:27-29.

The words of the glorified Jesus Christ to John respecting the Christian congregations at Pergamum and Thyatira indicate that certain ones had failed to heed the apostolic decree in not keeping themselves clean from things sacrificed to idols.​—Re 2:12, 14, 18, 20.

IDUMEA

(Id·u·meʹa) [from Greek, meaning “[Land] of the Edomites”].

In Maccabean and Roman times the geographic boundaries of Idumea did not include the heartland of ancient Edom, E of the Arabah, but embraced parts of what had formerly been Simeonite and Judean territory. As indicated by the Apocryphal book of First Maccabees (4:29, 61; 5:65, JB), Idumea included the region around Hebron as far N as Beth-zur, about 26 km (16 mi) SSW of Jerusalem. It is reported that the Idumeans suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Judas Maccabaeus. (1 Maccabees 5:3) Later, according to Josephus, John Hyrcanus I subdued all the Idumeans, allowing them to remain in the land on condition that they submit to circumcision and adhere to Jewish law. Rather than leave the country, the Idumeans complied with this condition. (Jewish Antiquities, XIII, 257, 258 [ix, 1]) Inhabitants of Idumea were among those who personally came to Jesus upon hearing of the “many things he was doing.”​—Mr 3:8; see EDOM, EDOMITES.

IEZER

(Ieʹzer) [shortened form of Abi-ezer], Iezerites (Ieʹzer·ites).

Iezer is a shortened form of the name Abi-ezer, the prefix “Ab” (meaning “Father”) being removed. He and his descendants, the Iezerites, were of “the sons of Gilead.”​—Nu 26:30; see ABI-EZER No. 1.

IGAL

(Iʹgal) [May [God] Redeem (Repurchase); [God] Has Redeemed (Repurchased)].

1. Chieftain of the tribe of Issachar sent by Moses to spy out the land of Canaan.​—Nu 13:1-3, 7.

2. One of King David’s mighty men; son of Nathan of Zobah.​—2Sa 23:8, 36.

3. A man of the tribe of Judah who was of the royal line of David.​—1Ch 3:1, 22.

IGDALIAH

(Ig·da·liʹah) [Great Is Jehovah].

Father of Hanan.​—Jer 35:3, 4.

IIM

(Iʹim) [possibly, Heaps of Ruins].

A city in southern Judah. (Jos 15:21, 29) Its exact location is uncertain.

IJON

(Iʹjon).

One of the places taken by the military forces of Syria’s King Ben-hadad I during the reign of Baasha. (1Ki 15:20, 21; 2Ch 16:4) Nearly two centuries later, Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser III conquered Ijon and exiled its population. (2Ki 15:29) Ijon is generally linked with Tell ed-Dibbin about 15 km (9 mi) NNW of Dan.

IKKESH

(Ikʹkesh) [Crooked].

The Tekoite whose son Ira was one of King David’s mighty men.​—2Sa 23:8, 26; 1Ch 11:26, 28; 27:9.

ILAI

(Iʹlai).

An Ahohite; a mighty man of David’s military forces, apparently called Zalmon in 2 Samuel 23:28.​—1Ch 11:26, 29.

ILLEGITIMATE

Not according to law. The Hebrew word for an illegitimate child is mam·zerʹ, a word of uncertain etymology, possibly related to a Hebrew word rendered “ulcer” in Jeremiah 30:13 and Hosea 5:13 and to an Arabic word meaning “putrefy; cause nausea,” pointing to corruptness.

At Deuteronomy 23:2 the Law reads: “No illegitimate son may come into the congregation of Jehovah. Even to the tenth generation none of his may come into the congregation of Jehovah.” The number ten represents completeness; thus “the tenth” generation would mean that such ones could never come into the congregation. The same law is stated regarding the Ammonite and the Moabite, and there the words are added, “to time indefinite,” which makes the point clear. However, the Ammonite and Moabite were precluded, not, as some say, because their forefathers were born of incest, but because of the attitude they showed toward Israel when that nation was on its journey toward the Promised Land.​—De 23:3-6; see AMMONITES.

Fornication, adultery, and incest are detestable to Jehovah. Under the Law the adulterer and the incestuous one were to be put to death, and none of the daughters of Israel were to become prostitutes. (Le 18:6, 29; 19:29; 20:10; De 23:17) Furthermore, it would cause confusion and a breakdown of the family arrangement for the illegitimate son to inherit; he could have no inheritance in Israel.

Some commentators claim that Jephthah was an illegitimate son, but this is not correct. The Bible does not say that he was illegitimate; it says that “he was the son of a prostitute woman.” (Jg 11:1) Like Rahab, who had been a prostitute but who married the Israelite Salmon, Jephthah’s mother doubtless married honorably, and Jephthah was no more an illegitimate son than was the son of Salmon and Rahab, who was a fleshly ancestor of Jesus Christ. (Mt 1:5) Likely Jephthah’s mother was a secondary wife of Gilead, and Jephthah may even have been Gilead’s firstborn. He could not have been a member of the congregation of Israel had he been illegitimate, and his half brothers, who had driven him out, could not legally have asked him to become their head. (Jg 11:2, 6, 11) That Jephthah may have been the son of a secondary wife would not make him illegitimate. The son of a secondary wife had the same inheritance rights as the son of a favorite wife, as the Law states at Deuteronomy 21:15-17.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the word noʹthos (‘illegitimate child,’ NW; ‘bastard,’ KJ, Int) is used once, at Hebrews 12:8. As shown by the context, the writer likens God to a father who disciplines his son out of love. The writer therefore says, “If you are without the discipline of which all have become partakers, you are really illegitimate children, and not sons.” Those claiming to be sons of God but practicing sin and disobedience are cut off from the congregation of God and do not receive the discipline that God gives his legitimate sons to bring them to perfection.

Illegitimate Fire and Incense. At Leviticus 10:1 the Hebrew word zar (feminine, za·rahʹ; literally, strange) is used with regard to “illegitimate fire, which [God] had not prescribed for them” but which Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu presented before Jehovah and for which he executed them by fire. (Le 10:2; Nu 3:4; 26:61) Subsequently, Jehovah said to Aaron: “Do not drink wine or intoxicating liquor, you and your sons with you, when you come into the tent of meeting, that you may not die. It is a statute to time indefinite for your generations, both in order to make a distinction between the holy thing and the profane and between the unclean thing and the clean, and in order to teach the sons of Israel all the regulations that Jehovah has spoken to them by means of Moses.” (Le 10:8-11) This seems to indicate that Nadab and Abihu were in a state of intoxication, which condition emboldened them to offer fire not prescribed. Such fire was likely illegal as to its time, place, or manner of offering, or it could have been incense other than of the composition described at Exodus 30:34, 35. Their inebriated condition did not excuse their sin.

The same word, zar, is used at Exodus 30:9, with reference to the burning of illegitimate incense on the altar of incense in the Holy Place.​—See NW ftn.

ILLUSTRATIONS

The Greek expression pa·ra·bo·leʹ (literally, a placing beside or together) has a wider latitude of meaning than the English “proverb” or “parable.” However, “illustration” covers a wide range that can include “parable” and, in many cases, “proverb.” A “proverb” embodies a truth in expressive language, often metaphorically, and a “parable” is a comparison or similitude, a short, usually fictitious, narrative from which a moral or spiritual truth is drawn.

That the Scriptures use the word pa·ra·bo·leʹ with a wider meaning than the English “parable” is shown at Matthew 13:34, 35, where Matthew points out that it had been foretold concerning Jesus Christ that he would speak with “illustrations” (NW), “parables” (KJ, RS). Psalm 78:2, quoted by Matthew in this connection, refers to “a proverbial saying” (Heb., ma·shalʹ), and for this term the Gospel writer employed the Greek word pa·ra·bo·leʹ. As the literal meaning of the Greek term implies, the pa·ra·bo·leʹ served as a means of teaching or communicating an idea, a method of explaining a thing by ‘placing it beside’ another similar thing. (Compare Mr 4:30.) Most English translations simply use the anglicized form “parable” to render the Greek term. However, this translation does not serve to convey the full meaning in every instance.

For example, at Hebrews 9:9 and 11:19 most translations find it necessary to resort to expressions other than “parable.” In the first of these texts the tabernacle, or tent, used by Israel in the wilderness, is called by the apostle Paul “an illustration [pa·ra·bo·leʹ; “figure,” KJ; “similitude,” Ro; “symbolic,” AT, RS] for the appointed time.” In the second text Abraham is described by the apostle as having received Isaac back from the dead “in an illustrative way” (NW) (en pa·ra·bo·leiʹ; “figuratively speaking,” JB, RS). The saying, “Physician, cure yourself,” is also termed a pa·ra·bo·leʹ. (Lu 4:23) In view of this, a more basic term such as “illustration” (NW) serves for a consistent rendering of pa·ra·bo·leʹ in all cases.

Another related term is “allegory” (Gr., al·le·go·riʹa), which is a prolonged metaphor in which a series of actions are symbolic of other actions, while the characters often are types or personifications. Paul uses the Greek verb al·le·go·reʹo (allegorize) at Galatians 4:24, concerning Abraham, Sarah, and Hagar. It is translated ‘be an allegory’ (KJ), ‘be an allegorical utterance’ (AT), and “stand as a symbolic drama” (NW).

The apostle John also used a distinct term (pa·roi·miʹa) that denotes “comparison” (Joh 10:6; 16:25, 29); it is variously translated “figure,” “figurative language,” “parable,” “proverb,” and “comparison” (AT, KJ, NW). Peter employed the same term with regard to the “proverb” of the dog returning to its vomit and the sow to rolling in the mire.​—2Pe 2:22.

Effectiveness. Illustrations or parables as a powerful teaching device are effective in at least five ways: (1) They arrest and hold attention; few things command interest like an experience or a story. Who is not familiar with the illustrations of the prodigal son and of the one lost sheep? (2) They stir up the thinking faculty; one of the best mental exercises is to search out the meaning of a comparison, to get the abstract truths thus presented. (3) They stir emotions and, by the usually evident practical application of the truths to the hearer, reach the conscience and the heart. (4) They aid memory; one can later reconstruct the story and make application of it. (5) They preserve the truth, for they are always applicable and understandable in any time and age. This is because they deal with life and natural things, whereas mere words may change in meaning. This is one reason why the Bible truths remain in full clarity today, just as they were at the time they were spoken or written.

Purposes. The primary purpose of all illustrations is, as shown in the foregoing, to teach. But the illustrations of the Bible also serve other purposes:

(1) The fact that a person sometimes has to dig to get their full, deep, heart-reaching meaning tends to turn back those who do not love God but who have a mere surface interest and therefore do not desire the truth in their hearts. (Mt 13:13-15) God is not gathering such persons. Illustrations moved the humble ones to ask for further explanation; the proud refused to do so. Jesus said: “Let him that has ears listen,” and though the majority of the crowds hearing Jesus went their way, the disciples would come and ask for explanation.​—Mt 13:9, 36.

(2) Illustrations conceal truths from those who would misuse them and who desire to entrap God’s servants. Jesus answered the Pharisees’ catch question with the illustration of the tax coin, concluding: “Pay back, therefore, Caesar’s things to Caesar, but God’s things to God.” His enemies were left to make the application themselves; but Jesus’ disciples fully understood the principle of neutrality there set forth.​—Mt 22:15-21.

(3) Because the hearer is left to apply the principles of the illustration to himself, it can carry to him a clear message of warning and rebuke, at the same time disarming him so that he has no ground to retaliate against the speaker. In other words, as the saying goes, ‘If the shoe fits, wear it.’ When the Pharisees criticized Jesus for eating with tax collectors and sinners, Jesus replied: “Persons in health do not need a physician, but the ailing do. Go, then, and learn what this means, ‘I want mercy, and not sacrifice.’ For I came to call, not righteous people, but sinners.”​—Mt 9:11-13.

(4) Even when being used to give correction to a person, illustrations can be used to sidestep prejudice on the part of the hearer, keeping his mind from being beclouded by such prejudice, and thereby accomplishing more than would a mere statement of fact. Such was the case when Nathan found a hearing ear in reproving King David for his sin in connection with Bath-sheba and Uriah. (2Sa 12:1-14) This was also the case when an illustration was used to get wicked King Ahab unknowingly to weigh the principles involved in his own disobedient action in sparing the life of King Ben-hadad of Syria, an enemy of God, and to utter a judgment condemning himself.​—1Ki 20:34, 38-43.

(5) Illustrations can motivate persons to take action one way or another, to ‘show their true colors,’ as to whether or not they are genuine servants of God. When Jesus said: “He that feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood has everlasting life,” “many of his disciples went off to the things behind and would no longer walk with him.” In this way Jesus ‘weeded out’ those who did not really believe from the heart.​—Joh 6:54, 60-66.

Proper Viewpoint and Approach. Bible illustrations have more than one aspect. They set forth and illuminate principles, and they often have a prophetic meaning and application. Moreover, some had a prophetic meaning for the time when they were spoken or shortly thereafter, and some were to have, in addition, a fulfillment in the distant future.

There are two general misconceptions that can hinder the understanding of the illustrations of the Bible. One is the viewing of all the illustrations as being merely good stories, examples, or lessons. The parable of the prodigal son, for instance, is considered by some to be a mere piece of fine literature; the illustration of the rich man and Lazarus, an example of reward and punishment after death.

In this connection it may also be remarked that the illustrations, although drawn from life and natural things, did not necessarily take place in actuality. Although some illustrations begin with expressions such as: “Once upon a time,” “A man had,” “There was a man,” “A certain man was,” or similar phrases, they were devised by the speaker under influence of God’s spirit and were what they are called​—illustrations, or parables. (Jg 9:8; Mt 21:28, 33; Lu 16:1, 19) Of Jesus Christ it is said: “All these things Jesus spoke to the crowds by illustrations. Indeed, without an illustration he would not speak to them.”​—Mt 13:34; Mr 4:33, 34.

A second obstacle to understanding is the drawing of too fine an application of the illustration, trying to make every detail of the narrative of the literal events fit symbolically by arbitrary application or interpretation.

The proper approach is made, first, by reading the context, ascertaining the setting in which the illustration was spoken, asking, What were the conditions and the circumstances? For instance, when the rulers and people of Israel were addressed as “dictators of Sodom” and “people of Gomorrah,” it makes us think of a people who were gross sinners against Jehovah. (Isa 1:10; Ge 13:13; 19:13, 24) When the psalmist prays to Jehovah to do to the enemies of God and His people “as to Midian,” it calls to mind the complete rout of those oppressors of God’s people, over 120,000 being slain.​—Ps 83:2, 3, 9-11; Jg 8:10-12.

Next, a knowledge of the Law, the customs and usages, and the idiom of the day is often helpful. For example, a knowledge of the Law helps us to understand the illustration of the dragnet. (Mt 13:47-50) The fact that fruit trees were taxed in Palestine during that time and that unproductive trees were cut down helps us to understand why Jesus caused an unfruitful fig tree to wither so as to use it for illustrative purposes.​—Mt 21:18-22.

Finally, the factors in an illustration should not be given an arbitrary meaning, one gained from a private view or from philosophy. The rule is set forth for Christians: “No one has come to know the things of God, except the spirit of God. Now we received, not the spirit of the world, but the spirit which is from God, that we might know the things that have been kindly given us by God. These things we also speak, not with words taught by human wisdom, but with those taught by the spirit, as we combine spiritual matters with spiritual words.”​—1Co 2:11-13.

An application of this rule can be demonstrated in connection with the prophetic illustration in Revelation chapter 6. A white horse is the first of four mentioned here. (Re 6:2) What does it symbolize? We can turn to other parts of the Bible as well as to the context to get its significance. Proverbs 21:31 says: “The horse is something prepared for the day of battle.” White is often used to symbolize righteousness. God’s throne of judgment is white; the armies in heaven are on white horses and are clothed in white, clean, fine linen. (Re 20:11; 19:14; compare Re 6:11; 19:8.) We could conclude, therefore, that the white horse represents righteous warfare.

The horseman on the black mount has a pair of scales, and foodstuffs are being weighed out. (Re 6:5, 6) Famine is here evidently pictured, for in the famine prophecy of Ezekiel he was told: “Your food that you will eat will be by weight . . . and they will have to eat bread by weight and in anxious care, and it will be by measure and in horror that they will drink water itself.” (Eze 4:10, 16) Often by understanding Biblical symbolic usage, such as in the case of animals mentioned in illustrations, one can get help and spiritual light.​—See BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

A good number of illustrations are understood because of the Bible’s own explanation, often followed by a narrative of events in fulfillment of them. Among these, to name two, are: Ezekiel’s boring a hole through a wall and going out with his face covered (Eze 12:1-16; 2Ki 25:1-7, 11; Jer 52:1-15), as well as Abraham’s attempting to sacrifice Isaac but receiving him back by God’s intervention (these illustrations were also actual occurrences, carried out in dramalike manner). (Ge 22:9-13; Heb 11:19) Others, particularly many spoken by Jesus Christ, are explained afterward by Jesus himself. In many cases, the understanding of Bible illustrations is aided by modern events in fulfillment.

In the Hebrew Scriptures. The Hebrew prophets and Bible writers, moved by Jehovah’s spirit, recorded countless apt illustrations. Illustrative language appears in Genesis, in Jehovah’s promise that he would multiply Abraham’s seed “like the stars of the heavens and like the grains of sand that are on the seashore.” (Ge 22:15-18) To emphasize the sad plight to which sin had brought his people in Judah, Jehovah moved Isaiah to compare it to a loathsome physically diseased condition, saying: “The whole head is in a sick condition, and the whole heart is feeble. . . . Wounds and bruises and fresh stripes​—they have not been squeezed out or bound up, nor has there been a softening with oil.” (Isa 1:4-6) To King Nebuchadnezzar, Jehovah conveyed prophetic messages with visions of a huge image and a towering tree, and Daniel saw certain governments of earth depicted as beasts.​—Da chaps 2, 4, 7.

Frequently the prophets used a word or an expression in speaking of a person or a group with a view to imparting its characteristics to the individual or the group, that is, metaphorically. For example, Jehovah is described as “the Rock of Israel,” as a “crag,” and as a “stronghold,” thus conveying the idea that God is a solid source of security. (2Sa 23:3; Ps 18:2) Judah is said to be “a lion cub.” (Ge 49:9) The Assyrians are said to be “the rod” for God’s anger.​—Isa 10:5.

On numerous occasions the prophets acted out the message they had been commissioned to deliver, thus reenforcing the impact of the spoken word. Jeremiah foretold calamity for Jerusalem and emphasized it by breaking a flask before the eyes of assembled older men of the people and of the priests. He foretold servitude to Babylon and made it vivid by sending bands and yoke bars to various kings. (Jer chaps 19, 27) Isaiah walked about naked and barefoot to emphasize to the Israelites that it would be in this manner that the Egyptians and the Ethiopians, to whom they were looking for help, would be led away into exile. (Isa 20) Ezekiel engraved an illustration of Jerusalem on a brick, built a siege rampart against it, put an iron griddle between himself and his model, and lay on his side facing it, to depict the coming siege of Jerusalem.​—Eze 4.

At times stories were related to emphasize the point to be conveyed. Jotham did this to show the landowners of Shechem their folly in selecting so vile a man as Abimelech for their king. (Jg 9:7-20) In the book of Ezekiel an account was woven around two eagles and a vine, to illustrate the course of Judah in relation to Babylon and Egypt. (Eze 17) Similarly, Ezekiel used two sisters, Oholah and Oholibah, who became prostitutes, to illustrate the course of Samaria (the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel) and Jerusalem (Judah).​—Eze 23.

The illustrations mentioned here are only a few of the many illustrations of the Hebrew Scriptures. Virtually every Bible writer and prophet used illustrations, some being given to them directly by God himself in the form of visions, some in words, and some by means of actual realities, as, for instance, the tabernacle, which is called “an illustration.”​—Heb 9:9.

In the Greek Scriptures. The Christian Greek Scriptures, too, are filled with vivid illustrations. Of Jesus Christ it was said, “Never has another man spoken like this.” Of all humans who have ever lived on earth, he had the greatest resources of knowledge from which to draw. (Joh 7:46) He is the one through whom everything was made by God. (Joh 1:1-3; Col 1:15-17) He was intimately acquainted with all creation. Understandably, therefore, his comparisons were most apt and his portrayal of human emotions reflected deep understanding. He was like the wise man of old who said: “And besides the fact that the congregator had become wise, he also taught the people knowledge continually, and he pondered and made a thorough search, that he might arrange many proverbs in order. The congregator sought to find the delightful words and the writing of correct words of truth.”​—Ec 12:9, 10.

Jesus appropriately identified his disciples as “the salt of the earth” and “the light of the world.” (Mt 5:13, 14) He urged them to “observe intently the birds of heaven” and to “take a lesson from the lilies of the field.” (Mt 6:26-30) He likened himself to a shepherd who was willing to die for his sheep. (Joh 10:11-15) To Jerusalem he said: “How often I wanted to gather your children together, the way a hen gathers her chicks together under her wings! But you people did not want it.” (Mt 23:37) Hypocritical religious leaders he called “blind guides, who strain out the gnat but gulp down the camel!” (Mt 23:24) And concerning a person who would stumble others, he declared: “It would be of more advantage to him if a millstone were suspended from his neck and he were thrown into the sea.”​—Lu 17:1, 2.

While the illustrations used by Jesus could be short, terse expressions similar to the proverbial sayings found in the Hebrew Scriptures, they were usually longer and often were of story length and character. Jesus generally drew his illustrations from the surrounding creation, from familiar customs of everyday life, from occasional happenings or not-impossible situations, and from recent events well known to his hearers.

Some of Jesus’ prominent illustrations. In the material that follows, you will find helpful information concerning the background and context of 30 of the illustrations used by Jesus Christ in his earthly ministry and recorded by the Gospel writers:

(1) The two debtors (Lu 7:41-43). The purpose of the parable of the two debtors, one of whom owed ten times as much as the other, and the parable’s application are found in the context, Luke 7:36-40, 44-50.

The illustration was prompted by the attitude of Jesus’ host Simon toward the woman who came in and greased Jesus’ feet with perfumed oil. The presence of such an uninvited person was not regarded as unusual, for it seems that on some occasions uninvited persons could enter the room during a meal and sit along the wall, from there conversing with those reclining at the table in the center of the room. Jesus made fitting application of the situation of the two debtors, pointing out that Simon had failed to provide water for his feet, to greet him with a kiss, and to grease his head with oil; these were courtesies customarily accorded a guest. But the woman who had many sins showed the greater love and hospitality toward Jesus, even though she was not his hostess. He then told her: “Your sins are forgiven.”

(2) The sower (Mt 13:3-8; Mr 4:3-8; Lu 8:5-8). There are no clues to the interpretation in the illustration itself, but the explanation is plainly given at Matthew 13:18-23; Mark 4:14-20; and Luke 8:11-15. Attention is focused on the circumstances affecting the soil, or heart, and the influences that can hinder the growth of the seed, or the word of the Kingdom.

Various means of sowing seed were used in those days. One common way was for the sower to carry a bag of seed tied across his shoulder and around his waist; others would form a pouch for the seed from a part of their outer garment. They would scatter the seed broadcast by hand as they walked. Seed was covered as soon as possible, before the crows and ravens could get it. But when the plowman left footpaths between fields unplowed, or if some seed fell on hard ground alongside the road, the birds ate up the seed that fell there. “The rocky places” were not spots where rocks were merely scattered in the soil; but, as Luke 8:6 says, the seed fell on “the rock-mass,” or a concealed rock ledge, on which there was very little soil. Plants from these seeds would soon wither in the sun. The soil where the thorns were had evidently been plowed, but it had not been cleaned of weeds, so they grew up and choked out the newly planted seeds. The stated yields of the productive seeds​—a hundredfold, sixtyfold, and thirtyfold—​are well within reason. The sowing of seed and the various types of soil were familiar to Jesus’ hearers.

(3) Weeds among the wheat (Mt 13:24-30). Explanation is provided by Jesus, as recorded at Matthew 13:36-43, contrasting “the wheat” or “the sons of the kingdom” with “the weeds,” “the sons of the wicked one.”

Oversowing a wheat field with weeds is a deed of enmity not unknown in the Middle East. “The weeds” referred to are usually believed to be the poisonous bearded darnel (Lolium temulentum), its poisonous properties generally thought to stem from a fungus growing within these seeds. It has an appearance much like that of wheat until maturity, but then it can be readily identified. If eaten, it can result in dizziness and, under certain circumstances, even death. Since the roots of these weeds readily become intertwined with the roots of the wheat, to uproot them before harvest, even if they could be identified, would result in loss of wheat.

(4) The mustard grain (Mt 13:31, 32; Mr 4:30-32; Lu 13:18, 19). It is stated that the subject is “the kingdom of the heavens.” As shown in other texts, this can refer to some feature in connection with the Kingdom. In this case, the illustration highlights two things: first, the amazing growth of the Kingdom message; second, the protection given to those who accept its message.

The mustard grain was tiny and so it could be used to designate anything extremely small. (Lu 17:6) When fully developed, some mustard plants actually attain a height of 3 to 4.5 m (10 to 15 ft) and have sturdy branches, thus virtually becoming “a tree,” as Jesus said. In a comparable way, the Christian congregation started in a very small way on Pentecost 33 C.E. But in the first century, it grew rapidly, and in modern times, the branches of the mustard “tree” have expanded to beyond expectations.​—Isa. 60:22.

(5) The leaven (Mt 13:33). Again, the subject is “the kingdom of the heavens.” The “three large measures” are three saʹta, that is, three seahs, equaling a total of about 22 L (20 dry qt) of flour. The amount of leaven would be small in comparison, but it affects everything around it. What aspect of the Kingdom is illustrated in this illustration? Like leaven, spiritual growth related to the Kingdom is often unseen to human eyes, but it is constant, and it is pervasive. Like leaven in a large measure of flour, the Kingdom-preaching work that prompts spiritual growth has expanded to the point that the Kingdom is now preached “to the most distant part of the earth.”​—Acts 1:8.

(6) The hidden treasure (Mt 13:44). Spoken by Jesus, not to the crowds, but to his own disciples. (Mt 13:36) As stated in the text, the subject is “the kingdom of the heavens,” which brings joy to the one finding it; it requires that he make changes and adjustments in his life and seek the Kingdom first, giving up everything for it.

(7) The merchant seeking pearls (Mt 13:45, 46). Spoken by Jesus to his disciples. He likens the Kingdom of the heavens to a fine pearl of such value that a man sells all his possessions to acquire it.

Pearls are precious gems found in shells of oysters and certain other mollusks. Not all pearls are “fine,” however; some may be, not a translucent white, but yellow, or they may have a dusky tinge, or they may not be smooth. Among ancients in the Middle East, the pearl was prized and brought delight to its owner. In this illustration, the merchant was seeking pearls; he had the discernment to appreciate the surpassing value of this one and he was willing to take the trouble to make all the arrangements needed and to part with all else to acquire it.​—Compare Lu 14:33; Php 3:8.

(8) The dragnet (Mt 13:47-50). With this illustration Jesus describes a separating, or culling out, of those unfit for the Kingdom of the heavens. Verse 49 points to “the conclusion of the system of things” as the time when the fulfillment culminates.

A dragnet is a net of rope or flax cords designed to be drawn along the bottom of a body of water. By means of it all kinds of fish would be gathered. The illustration was most appropriate for Jesus’ disciples, some of whom were fishermen. They well knew that some fish were unsuitable and had to be discarded because, not having fins and scales, they were unclean and could not be eaten, according to the Mosaic Law.​—Le 11:9-12; De 14:9, 10.

(9) The unmerciful slave (Mt 18:23-35). The situation giving rise to Jesus’ use of the illustration is set out in Matthew 18:21, 22, and the application is stated in verse 35. It emphasizes how small the debts of our fellowmen to us are in comparison with our debt to God. The illustration impresses upon us as sinful humans, for whom God forgives so great a debt by means of Christ’s sacrifice, the need to show forgiveness for the relatively insignificant sins our fellowman commits against us.

A denarius equaled a day’s wages; so 100 denarii, the smaller debt, equaled approximately one third of a year’s wages. Ten thousand silver talents, the larger debt, equaled 60 million denarii, or wages that would require thousands of lifetimes to accumulate. The enormous size of the debt owed the king is indicated in that, according to Josephus, the territories of Judea, Idumea, and Samaria and certain cities together paid taxes in his day amounting to 600 talents a year; Galilee and Perea paid 200. Jesus himself (in verse 35) states the principle expressed in the parable: “In like manner my heavenly Father will also deal with you if you do not forgive each one his brother from your hearts.”

(10) The neighborly Samaritan (Lu 10:30-37). The setting, recorded at Luke 10:25-29, shows that the illustration was given in reply to the question, “Who really is my neighbor?” The proper conclusion to be drawn from the illustration is shown in verses 36 and 37.

The road from Jerusalem to Jericho led through wild and lonely terrain that was the scene of frequent robberies. So bad was it that, in time, a garrison was stationed there to protect travelers. First-century Jericho was about 21 km (13 mi) ENE of Jerusalem. To identify the “neighbor” toward whom the Law commanded the exercise of love, Jesus spoke of the reactions of a priest and of a Levite toward a man who had been robbed and left half-dead. The priests were men who were assigned to offer sacrifices at the temple in Jerusalem, and the Levites assisted them. The Samaritans recognized the Law as expressed in the Pentateuch, but the Jews were not neighborly toward them, in fact, they would have no dealings with them. (Joh 4:9) They viewed the Samaritans with great contempt (Joh 8:48), and there were those Jews who cursed them publicly in their synagogues and daily prayed to God that the Samaritans might not be partakers of eternal life. Oil and wine, poured into the wounds of the injured man, were often used for healing purposes. The two denarii that the Samaritan left with the innkeeper for the man’s care equaled about two days’ wages.​—Mt 20:2.

(11) The persistent friend (Lu 11:5-8). The illustration was part of Jesus’ reply to his disciples’ request for instruction on how to pray. (Lu 11:1-4) As shown in verses 9 and 10, the point to be drawn from it is not that God is disturbed by our requests but that he expects us to keep on asking.

Hospitality is a duty in which people of the Middle East love to excel. Even though the guest arrived unexpectedly at midnight, perhaps due to the uncertainties of travel then, his host would feel compelled to provide food. Since it is often difficult to judge exactly how much bread a household will need to have baked, there was some borrowing among neighbors. In this case the neighbor had gone to bed. Since some homes, especially those of the poor, might consist of only one large room, his getting up would disturb the whole family, hence the man’s reluctance to grant the request.

(12) The unreasonable rich man (Lu 12:16-21). The illustration was part of Jesus’ reply to a man who asked him to arbitrate in a matter of inheritance. As shown in verse 15, the point emphasized is that “even when a person has an abundance his life does not result from the things he possesses.” Compare it with what Jesus went on to say to his disciples, beginning in verse 22.

The Law required that two parts of everything belonging to the father be inherited by his eldest son. (De 21:17) Apparently the dispute came about because of failure to respect this law; hence the warning against covetousness.

(13) The unproductive fig tree (Lu 13:6-9). Spoken late in 32 C.E., a full three years after Jesus’ baptism. Report had just been made about Pilate’s killing some Galileans. Jesus had also cited the case of the death of 18 upon whom the tower of Siloam fell and told the people that, unless they repented, they would all be destroyed. (Lu 13:1-5) Then he went on to use this illustration.

It was common to set both fig and olive trees in the vineyards at certain distances, so that when the vineyards had a bad year, there would still be some income. New trees grown from cuttings usually produce at least a few figs within two or three years. The parallel between the three years mentioned in the illustration and the three years of Jesus’ ministry that had passed was evidently significant. As a taxable item, it was a burden, hence it deserved to be destroyed.

(14) The grand evening meal (Lu 14:16-24). Verses 1-15 give the setting; at a meal the illustration was related to a fellow guest who said: “Happy is he who eats bread in the kingdom of God.”

It was customary to notify those previously invited to a feast when the meal was actually ready. Those who begged off from this grand evening meal preferred to pursue other interests that would normally seem quite reasonable. However, their responses showed that they had no real desire to be present, nor did they have proper regard for the host. Most of the ones later invited, the poor, the crippled, the lame, the blind, and others finally brought in, were persons viewed by the world in general as unworthy.​—Compare vs 13.

(15) The one lost sheep (Lu 15:3-7). Luke 15:1, 2 shows that the illustration was prompted by the muttering of the Pharisees and the scribes over the fact that Jesus welcomed sinners and tax collectors. Matthew 18:12-14 records a similar illustration used on a different occasion.

Tax collectors, particularly those who were Jews, were hated because their occupation was to gather taxes for the hated Romans. They were held in scorn. Jesus’ illustration concerning the one lost sheep was one that his hearers would readily recognize from everyday life. A lost sheep is helpless; it is the shepherd who does the searching to recover it. The joy in heaven over the sinner who repents is in marked contrast with the muttering of the scribes and Pharisees over the concern that Jesus showed for such persons.

(16) The lost drachma coin (Lu 15:8-10). The setting is found in Luke 15:1, 2, and this illustration immediately follows the one concerning the one lost sheep. Verse 10 points out the application.

A drachma was worth 65 cents, almost a day’s wages. However, this lost coin may have had special value as one of a set of ten, perhaps an heirloom or part of a prized string used for adornment. It was necessary to light a lamp to search, because the light opening in a home, if any, was usually quite small; and the sweeping would facilitate the search, because the floor was generally just clay.

(17) The prodigal son (Lu 15:11-32). The Pharisees and scribes were muttering because Jesus welcomed tax collectors and sinners and ate with them. Jesus replied by giving the illustrations of the one lost sheep and the lost coin, followed by this parable.

The inheritance of the younger son was half that of the elder brother, according to Jewish law. (De 21:17) As the younger son went to a far country, so the Jews viewed the tax collectors as having left them to take up service to Rome. To be forced to take up swineherding was degrading to a Jew, since these animals were unclean according to the Law. (Le 11:7) On his return home, the younger son asked to be accepted, not as a son, but as a hired man. Such a man was not even part of the estate, as were the slaves, but was an outsider hired, often for just a day at a time. (Mt 20:1, 2, 8) The father called for a robe, the best one, for the younger son. This was not merely a simple article of clothing, but it probably was a richly embroidered vestment of the sort presented to an honored guest. The ring and sandals were possibly tokens of dignity and of a free man.

(18) The unrighteous steward (Lu 16:1-8). The lesson to be drawn from the illustration is stated in verses 9-13. The steward is commended, not for his unrighteousness, but for his practical wisdom.

The steward was placed in charge of the affairs of his master; it was a position of great trust. (Ge 24:2; 39:4) In Jesus’ illustration, the steward’s being dismissed meant that he was being sent out of the house, with no means of support. His lowering of the debts of his master’s debtors brought him no money but was done to win friends who might favor him in the future. One hundred bath measures of oil equaled 2,200 L (581 gal), and 100 cor measures of wheat came to 22,000 L (625 bu).

(19) The rich man and Lazarus (Lu 16:19-31). The setting, in Luke 16:14, 15, shows that the money-loving Pharisees were listening and sneering. But Jesus told them: “You are those who declare yourselves righteous before men, but God knows your hearts; because what is lofty among men is a disgusting thing in God’s sight.”

The “purple and linen” in which the rich man was decked out were comparable to garb worn only by princes, nobles, and priests. (Es 8:15; Ge 41:42; Ex 28:4, 5) They were very costly. Hades, where this rich man is said to have gone, is the common grave of dead mankind. That it cannot be concluded from this parable that Hades itself is a place of blazing fire is made clear at Revelation 20:14, where death and Hades are described as being hurled into “the lake of fire.” The death of the rich man and his being in Hades must therefore be figurative, figurative death being mentioned elsewhere in the Scriptures. (Lu 9:60; Col 2:13; 1Ti 5:6) So the fiery torment was experienced while he was figuratively dead but actually alive as a human. Fire is used in God’s Word to describe his fiery judgment messages (Jer 5:14; 23:29), and the work done by God’s prophets in declaring his judgments is said to ‘torment’ those who oppose God and his servants.​—Re 11:7, 10.

Lazarus is a Grecianized form of the Hebrew name Eleazar, which means “God Has Helped.” The dogs that licked his sores were apparently scavengers that roamed the streets and were viewed as unclean. Lazarus’ being in the bosom position of Abraham indicates that he was in a position of favor (compare Joh 1:18), this figure of speech being drawn from the practice of reclining at meals in such a way that one could lean back on the bosom of a friend.​—Joh 13:23-25.

(20) Good-for-nothing slaves (Lu 17:7-10). Verse 10 shows the lesson to be drawn from the illustration.

Slaves who worked in the fields of their master also frequently served his evening meal. Not only was it the usual thing for them to wait until their master had eaten before they would do so, but often it was a matter of dispute as to which one of them would have the honor of waiting on him. It was not viewed as an extra burden but as something to which their master was entitled.

(21) The widow and the judge (Lu 18:1-8). As stated in verse 1, the illustration was “with regard to the need for them always to pray and not to give up.” Verses 7 and 8 also show application. The illustration emphasizing prayer was particularly appropriate in view of what is stated in the preceding chapter, verses 20 to 37.

Apparently the judge was not connected with a Jewish tribunal. In the first century there were four Jewish courts: (1) the village court, consisting of three men; (2) a court consisting of seven older men of the village; (3) in Jerusalem there were lower courts consisting of 23 persons each, and such courts were established in cities of sufficient size elsewhere throughout Palestine; and (4) the principal court, the Great Sanhedrin, consisting of 71 members, with its seat at Jerusalem and with authority over the whole nation. (See COURT, JUDICIAL) But the judge of the illustration does not fit into the Jewish judicial arrangement in which at least a three-man court officiated; so he must have been one of the judges or police magistrates appointed by the Romans. It is plainly stated that he did not fear God nor was he constrained by concern over public opinion. The illustration does not say that God is like the unrighteous judge; rather, it contrasts God with the judge. If this judge would finally do what was right, how much more so would God! Persistence on the part of the widow moved the unrighteous judge to act; God’s servants likewise must persist in prayer. God, who is righteous, will respond in answer to their prayer, causing justice to be done.

(22) The self-righteous Pharisee and the penitent tax collector (Lu 18:9-14). The setting and the objective of the illustration are found in verses 9 and 14 respectively.

Those who went to the temple to pray did not go into the Holy or the Most Holy, but they were permitted to enter the surrounding courts. These men, Jews, probably stood in the outer court, the Court of Women, as it was called. The Pharisees were proud and self-righteous, viewing other men with contempt. (Joh 7:47, 49) They fasted twice a week, though this was not required by the Mosaic Law. The days they chose for this, it is reported, were the regular market days when many people would be in town, when special services were held in the synagogues, and when the local Sanhedrin met; so their piety would be observed. (Mt 6:16; compare 10:17, ftn) The Jewish tax collectors were permitted to go to the temple, but they were hated for their service to Rome.

(23) The workers paid a denarius (Mt 20:1-16). The illustration is part of Jesus’ answer to Peter’s question in Matthew 19:27: “Look! We have left all things and followed you; what actually will there be for us?” Note also Matthew 19:30 and 20:16.

Grape-gathering time is a season of anxious concern for the owners of vineyards. Some workers are employed for the entire harvesttime; others are hired as the need becomes apparent. Payment of wages at the end of the day was in harmony with the Mosaic Law; it was a necessity for poor laborers. (Le 19:13; De 24:14, 15) A denarius, which was payment for the day’s work, was a silver Roman coin. Its modern-day value would be 74 cents. In the first century C.E., the day, from sunrise to sunset, was divided by the Jews into 12 equal parts; so the 3rd hour would be about 8:00 to 9:00 a.m.; the 6th hour, about 11:00 a.m. to noon; the 9th hour, about 2:00 to 3:00 p.m.; and the 11th hour, about 4:00 to 5:00 p.m.

(24) The minas (Lu 19:11-27). Spoken as Jesus was on his way up to Jerusalem for the last time, 33 C.E. (Lu 19:1, 28) The reason for the illustration, as stated in verse 11, was that “they were imagining that the kingdom of God was going to display itself instantly.”

It was a common thing in the Roman Empire for a person of noble birth to travel to Rome in quest of kingly power. Archelaus, the son of Herod the Great, had done this, but the Jews sent 50 ambassadors to the court of Augustus to bring charges against him and, if possible, thwart his quest for power. The silver mina that was initially given to each slave would be worth $65.40 in today’s values but was equal to 88 days’ wages then.

(25) The two children (Mt 21:28-31). Spoken in the temple at Jerusalem, the illustration was part of Jesus’ reply to the questions in verse 23: “By what authority do you do these things? And who gave you this authority?” Having handled their questions, Jesus used some illustrations to show the religious leaders what kind of persons they really were.

Jesus points to the application of his illustration in verses 31 and 32. He indicates that the chief priests and the older men of influence to whom he was speaking were comparable to the second child, professing to serve God but actually failing to do so. On the other hand, the tax collectors and harlots who believed John the Baptizer were like the first child; at first they rudely refused to serve God but later felt regret and changed their course.

(26) The murderous cultivators (Mt 21:33-44; Mr 12:1-11; Lu 20:9-18). Spoken in the temple in Jerusalem, just three days before Jesus, God’s Son, was killed. This illustration, too, was in answer to the question about the source of Jesus’ authority. (Mr 11:27-33) Immediately after the illustration, the Gospel accounts state that the religious leaders realized that he was speaking about them.​—Mt 21:45; Mr 12:12; Lu 20:19.

The fence around the vineyard might have been of stone (Pr 24:30, 31) or it might have been a hedge. (Isa 5:5) The wine vat was frequently excavated in the rock and consisted of two levels, the juice flowing from the upper one to the lower. The tower was a lookout place for the guard, who was to keep out thieves and animals. In some cases, the cultivators employed received a certain portion of the fruits. In other cases, the cultivators paid rent in money or agreed to give the owner a definite amount of the produce, the latter apparently being the case in the illustration. By murdering the son, the heir, they may have thought to seize the vineyard as their own, since the one who planted it was out of the country. In Isaiah 5:1-7 “the vineyard of Jehovah” is said to be “the house of Israel.” As shown by the Gospel writers, Jesus quoted Psalm 118:22, 23 as a key to understanding the illustration.

(27) The marriage feast for the king’s son (Mt 22:1-14). As indicated by verse 1, this illustration is a continuation of the discussion that precedes it and is part of Jesus’ reply to the question about the authority by which he carried on his work. (Mt 21:23-27) For application, note verses 2 and 14.

Some months before this, Jesus had used a similar illustration concerning a grand evening meal to which many were invited; the invitees then showed preoccupation with other matters and disregard for their would-be host. (Lu 14:16-24) This time, just three days before his death, Jesus speaks not only of unwillingness to come but also of a murderous spirit on the part of some of those invited. Their murder of the king’s representatives amounted to rebellion; so the king’s armies destroyed the murderers and burned their city. This was a royal wedding, and it is likely that a special garment was provided by the royal host for his guests on an occasion such as this. If so, the failure of one of the guests to be clothed with the marriage garment indicated that he had spurned the garment provided by the king when it was offered to him.

(28) The ten virgins (Mt 25:1-13). This illustration concerning “the kingdom of the heavens” is part of Jesus’ reply to the question of his disciples recorded in Matthew 24:3. The purpose of the illustration is plainly shown in Matthew 25:13.

In those days an important feature of the marriage ceremony was the solemn bringing of the bride from her father’s home to the home of her bridegroom or the bridegroom’s father. The bridegroom, arrayed in his best attire, would leave his house in the evening for the home of the bride’s parents, escorted by his friends. From there, accompanied by musicians and singers and usually by persons bearing lamps, the procession moved toward the home of the bridegroom. The people along the route would take great interest in the procession; some would join it, particularly maids bearing lamps. (Jer 7:34; 16:9; Isa 62:5) The procession might be delayed until late, as there was no particular haste, so that some waiting along the way might get drowsy and fall asleep. The singing and exultation would be heard quite a distance ahead, those hearing it making the cry: “Here is the bridegroom!” Then, after the bridegroom and his entourage had gone into the house and closed the door, it was too late for tardy guests to enter. The lamps carried in the procession burned oil and required frequent refilling.

(29) The talents (Mt 25:14-30). This illustration about a man who was about to travel abroad was spoken by Jesus to four of his disciples just three days before his death, not long after which he was to ascend to heaven. It, too, is part of Jesus’ reply to the question found at Matthew 24:3.​—Mr 13:3, 4.

Unlike the illustration of the minas, in which each slave was given just one mina, here the talents are given “to each one according to his own ability.” (Lu 19:11-27) The silver talent, which is apparently referred to here, would be as much as a laboring man could earn in some 20 years in those days. The slaves should all have been interested in the master’s estate and so should have traded diligently and wisely with the master’s goods committed to their care. The least they should have done was to deposit the money with the bankers, so that, if they did not themselves want to increase their master’s goods, the money would not lie completely idle but would earn interest. But the wicked and sluggish slave hid in the ground the talent committed to him, thereby, in effect, working against his master’s interests.

(30) The sheep and the goats (Mt 25:31-46). As stated in verses 31, 32, 41, 46, what is here illustrated is the separating and judging of the people of the nations when the Son of man arrives in his glory. This illustration is part of Jesus’ reply to his disciples’ question concerning ‘the sign of his presence and the conclusion of the system of things.’​—Mt 24:3.

Sheep and goats commonly graze together in the Middle East, and the shepherd easily identifies the two kinds of animals when he wants to separate them. Jesus’ reference to goats in this illustration is with no discredit to animals of that kind. (On the annual Day of Atonement the blood of a goat was used to make atonement for sin in behalf of Israel.) So the goats merely represent one class of people, and the sheep represent another class. The “right hand,” where the “sheep” are put, is a place of honor. (Ac 2:33; Eph 1:19, 20) The “left,” where the “goats” are put, represents a place of dishonor. (Compare Ec 10:2.) Notice that the “sheep,” who are put on the right hand of the enthroned Son of man, are shown to be different from Jesus Christ’s “brothers,” to whom they did acts of kindness.​—Mt 25:34-40; Heb 2:11, 12.

The book of Revelation. The book of Revelation concludes the Holy Scriptures with one of the most outstanding concentrations of illustrations found in the entire Bible. As the writer John himself relates, it was presented to him “in signs.” (Re 1:1) Therefore, it can truthfully be said that, from beginning to end, the Bible is outstanding for its use of appropriate illustrations.

Illustrations by Christ’s disciples. Besides recording the illustrations spoken by Jesus Christ, the Christian Bible writers also made good use of such. In the book of Acts, Luke records the fine illustrations used by the apostle Paul when talking to non-Jews in Athens. Paul referred to objects of devotion with which they were acquainted and to the writings of their own poets. (Ac 17:22-31) As a reading of the letter to the Hebrews will reveal, the same apostle (who is generally credited with writing this letter) freely used illustrations from the history of God’s dealing with Israel. To those in Corinth, who were familiar with Greek sports, he likened the Christian course to a race. (1Co 9:24-27) Outstanding is the illustration of the olive tree, with its warning against complacency and its admonition to Christians to perform sacred service to God with their power of reason.​—Ro 11:13-32; 12:1, 2.

Jesus’ half brother James nicely wove into his writing common circumstances of daily life, referring to a man looking in a mirror, the bridle of a horse, the rudder of a ship, and so forth, to drive home spiritual truths. (Jas 1:23, 24; 3:3, 4) Peter and Jude drew heavily on earlier inspired writings for incidents to illustrate the message that they were moved by holy spirit to convey. All these fine illustrations, directed by the spirit of God, serve their purpose toward making God’s Word the Bible a living book.

ILLYRICUM

(Il·lyrʹi·cum).

A Roman province with varying boundaries, located in the NW part of the Balkan Peninsula along the coast of the Adriatic Sea.

In the period following Tiberius’ defeat of the Pannonians and Dalmatians in 9 C.E., the Roman province of Illyricum came to have two parts, which in time became two provinces. The southern province was eventually designated by the name Dalmatia.

At Romans 15:19 the apostle Paul speaks of preaching in a circuit “as far as Illyricum.” Whether the original Greek is to be understood to mean that Paul actually preached in or merely up to Illyricum cannot be established with certainty.

IMAGE

Any representation or likeness of a person or thing.​—Mt 22:20.

Whereas references to images in the Bible frequently relate to idolatry, this is not always the case. God, in creating man, said first, “Let us make man in our image [or, shadow, semblance], according to our likeness.” (Ge 1:26, 27, ftn) Since God’s Son stated that his Father is “a Spirit,” this rules out any physical likeness between God and man. (Joh 4:24) Rather, man has qualities reflecting, or mirroring, those of his heavenly Maker, qualities that positively distinguish man from the animal creation. (See ADAM No. 1.) Though in the image of his Creator, man was not made to be an object of worship, or veneration.

Even as Adam’s own son Seth (born to him in his imperfection, however) was in Adam’s “likeness, in his image” (Ge 5:3), Adam’s likeness to God originally identified him as God’s earthly son. (Lu 3:38) Despite man’s fall to imperfection, the fact of mankind’s originally having been made in God’s image was cited after the Noachian Flood as the basis for the divine law authorizing humans to serve as executioners in putting murderers to death. (Ge 9:5, 6; see AVENGER OF BLOOD.) In Christian instructions concerning feminine head covering, Christian men were told they ought not to wear such a covering, since the man “is God’s image and glory,” while the woman is man’s glory.​—1Co 11:7.

Has Jesus always reflected his Father’s likeness to the same degree?

God’s firstborn Son, who later became the man Jesus, is in his Father’s image. (2Co 4:4) Inasmuch as that Son was obviously the one to whom God spoke in saying, “Let us make man in our image,” this likeness of the Son to his Father, the Creator, existed from when the Son was created. (Ge 1:26; Joh 1:1-3; Col 1:15, 16) When on earth as a perfect man, he reflected his Father’s qualities and personality to the fullest extent possible within human limitations, so he could say that “he that has seen me has seen the Father also.” (Joh 14:9; 5:17, 19, 30, 36; 8:28, 38, 42) This likeness, however, was certainly heightened at the time of Jesus’ resurrection to spirit life and his being granted “all authority . . . in heaven and on the earth” by his Father, Jehovah God. (1Pe 3:18; Mt 28:18) Since God then exalted Jesus to “a superior position,” God’s Son now reflected his Father’s glory to an even greater degree than he had before leaving the heavens to come to earth. (Php 2:9; Heb 2:9) He is now “the exact representation of [God’s] very being.”​—Heb 1:2-4.

All anointed members of the Christian congregation are foreordained by God to be “patterned after the image of his Son.” (Ro 8:29) Christ Jesus is their model not only in their life pattern, as they follow in his footsteps and imitate his course and ways, but also in their death and resurrection. (1Pe 2:21-24; 1Co 11:1; Ro 6:5) Having borne the earthly “image of the one made of dust [Adam],” as spirit creatures they thereafter bear “the image of the heavenly one [the last Adam, Christ Jesus].” (1Co 15:45, 49) During their earthly life, they are privileged to “reflect like mirrors the glory of Jehovah” that shines to them from God’s Son, being progressively transformed into the image conveyed by that glory-reflecting Son. (2Co 3:18; 4:6) God thereby creates in them a new personality, one that is a reflection, or image, of his own divine qualities.​—Eph 4:24; Col 3:10.

Improper Use of Images. Whereas humans are to imitate and endeavor to mirror the qualities of their heavenly Father and model their lives after his Son, the veneration of physical images in worship is consistently condemned throughout the Scriptures. God’s detestation of such practice was clearly expressed in the Law given to Israel. Not only carved images but the making of the “form” of anything in heaven, on earth, or in the sea as an object of religious worship was prohibited. (Ex 20:4, 5; Le 26:1; Isa 42:8) Such objects might be made of any substance, in any form​—wood, metal, stone; carved, cast, hammered, hewn; in the figure of humans, animals, birds, inanimate objects, or just symbolic forms​—but none were approved by God for veneration. The making of them was a ‘ruinous act,’ the committing of evil in Jehovah’s eyes, a detestable and offensive thing bringing his curse upon those doing so. (De 4:16-19, 23-25; 27:15; Nu 33:52; Isa 40:19, 20; 44:12, 13; Eze 7:20) The decking of them with gold and silver would not make them less disgusting in God’s sight nor prevent their being defiled and discarded as “mere dirt!”​—De 7:5, 25; Isa 30:22.

Such use of images is shown to be inexcusable before God, since it goes contrary to all reason and intelligence and betrays foolish, empty-headed reasoning as well as a refusal to acknowledge obvious facts. (Isa 44:14-20; Jer 10:14; Ro 1:20-23) The images would prove to be of no benefit; giving no knowledge, guidance, or protection; being speechless, helpless, and lifeless, an eventual cause for shame. (Isa 44:9-11; 45:20; 46:5-7; Hab 2:18-20) Jehovah’s prophetic declarations, accurately foretelling future events, thwarted any efforts of the unfaithful Israelites to attribute the outworking of such events to their idolatrous images.​—Isa 48:3-7.

Despite God’s clear pronouncements, the Israelites and others foolishly attempted to combine the use of religious images with the worship of the true God, Jehovah. (Ex 32:1-8; 1Ki 12:26-28; 2Ki 17:41; 21:7) A woman in the time of the Judges even sanctified certain silver pieces to Jehovah and then used them in the making of a religious image. (Jg 17:3, 4; 18:14-20, 30, 31) Prior to Jerusalem’s destruction by the Babylonians, detestable religious images had been introduced into the temple area, and one such is described as a “symbol of jealousy,” evidently referring to the incitement of God’s jealousy by giving to an image the praise rightfully belonging to him.​—Eze 8:3-12; Ex 20:5.

However, certain objects, formed in the image of plants, flowers, animals, and even cherubs, were made at Jehovah’s command and hence were proper. While serving as symbolic representations in connection with God’s worship, they themselves were given no veneration, or worship, as in the matter of prayer or sacrifice.​—See IDOL, IDOLATRY.

Images in the Book of Daniel. In the second year of Nebuchadnezzar’s kingship (evidently counting from the time of his conquest of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E.), the Babylonian king had a dream, the effect of which greatly disturbed him, producing insomnia. He apparently did not recall the full contents of the dream, for he demanded of his wise men and priests that they reveal both the dream and its interpretation. Despite their boasted ability as revealers of secret things, the Babylonian wise men were unable to fulfill the royal request. This brought upon them the decree of death, and the lives of Daniel and his companions were likewise endangered. By divine help Daniel was able to reveal not only the dream but also its meaning. Daniel’s expression of praise and thanksgiving upon receiving the revelation draws attention to Jehovah God as the Source of wisdom and might and as the one who is “changing times and seasons, removing kings and setting up kings.” (Da 2:1-23) The dream was clearly the result of God’s doing and served to illustrate in a prophetic way God’s irresistible dominion over earth’s affairs.

Nebuchadnezzar’s dream was of an immense image, in human form. The body parts were of metal; from top to bottom, they were made of progressively less valuable but harder metals, beginning with gold and terminating with iron; the feet and toes, however, had clay mixed with the iron. The entire image was crushed to powder by a stone cut out of a mountain, the stone thereafter filling the entire earth.​—Da 2:31-35.

What is the meaning of the parts of the dream image seen by Nebuchadnezzar?

The image obviously relates to domination of the earth and Jehovah God’s purpose regarding such domination. This is made clear in Daniel’s inspired interpretation. The golden head represented Nebuchadnezzar, the one who, by divine permission, had gained power as the dominant world ruler and, more importantly, had overthrown the typical kingdom of Judah. However, in saying, “You yourself are the head of gold,” it does not seem that Daniel restricted the head’s significance to Nebuchadnezzar alone. Since the other body parts represented kingdoms, the head evidently represented the dynasty of Babylonian kings from Nebuchadnezzar down till Babylon’s fall in the time of King Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar.​—Da 2:37, 38.

The kingdom represented by the silver breasts and arms would therefore be the Medo-Persian power, which overthrew Babylon in 539 B.C.E. It was “inferior” to the Babylonian dynasty but not in the sense of having a smaller area of dominion or of having less strength militarily or economically. Babylon’s superiority may therefore relate to its having been the overthrower of the typical kingdom of God at Jerusalem, a distinction not held by Medo-Persia. The Medo-Persian dynasty of world rulers ended with Darius III (Codommanus), whose forces were thoroughly defeated by Alexander the Macedonian in 331 B.C.E. Greece is thus the power depicted by the image’s belly and thighs of copper.​—Da 2:39.

The Grecian, or Hellenic, dominion continued, though in divided form, until it was finally absorbed by the rising power of Rome. The Roman World Power thus appears in the image symbolized by the baser but harder metal, iron, found in the legs of the great image. Rome’s strength to break and crush opposing kingdoms, indicated in the prophecy, is well known in history. (Da 2:40) Yet Rome alone cannot fulfill the requirements of being represented by the image’s legs and feet, for the rule of the Roman Empire did not see the completion of the prophetic dream, namely, the coming of the symbolic stone cut out of the mountain as well as its crushing the entire image and thereafter filling the entire earth.

Thus, the expressions of some Bible commentators are much like those of M. F. Unger, who says: “Nebuchadnezzar’s dream, as unravelled by Daniel, describes the course and end of ‘the times of the Gentiles’ (Luke 21:24; Rev. 16:19); that is, of the Gentile world power to be destroyed at the Second Coming of Christ.” (Unger’s Bible Dictionary, 1965, p. 516) Daniel himself said to Nebuchadnezzar that the dream had to do with “what is to occur in the final part of the days” (Da 2:28), and since the symbolic stone is shown to represent the Kingdom of God, it may be expected that the domination pictured by the iron legs and feet of the image would extend down to the time of the establishment of that Kingdom and till the time it takes action to “crush and put an end to all these kingdoms.”​—Da 2:44.

History shows that, although the Roman Empire enjoyed an extension of life in the form of the Holy Roman Empire of the Germanic nation, it eventually gave way to the rising power of its onetime imperial subject, Britain. Because of their close affinity and general unity of action, Britain and the United States today are often referred to as the Anglo-American World Power, the present dominant power in world history.

The mixture of iron and clay in the feet of the great image graphically illustrates the condition due to be manifest in the final expression of political world domination. Clay is elsewhere used metaphorically in the Scriptures to stand for fleshly men, made of the dust of the earth. (Job 10:9; Isa 29:16; Ro 9:20, 21) Daniel’s interpretation thus appears to equate the clay with “the offspring of mankind,” the mixing in of which produces fragility in that which is symbolized by the image’s feet and toes. This points to a weakening and a lack of cohesion in the ironlike strength of the final form of world domination by earthly kingdoms. (Da 2:41-43) The common man would wield greater influence in affairs of government.

The golden image later set up by Nebuchadnezzar on the Plain of Dura is not directly related to the immense image of the dream. In view of its dimensions​—60 cubits (27 m; 88 ft) high and only 6 cubits (2.7 m; 8.8 ft) broad (or a ratio of ten to one)​—it does not seem likely to have been a statue in human form, unless it had a very high pedestal, one that was higher than the human statue itself. The human form has a ratio of only four to one as to height and breadth. So the image may have been more symbolic in nature, perhaps like the obelisks of ancient Egypt.​—Da 3:1.

The Image of the Wild Beast. After a vision of a seven-headed wild beast that rises out of the sea, the apostle John saw the vision of a two-horned beast ascending out of the earth, speaking like a dragon and telling those who dwell on the earth “to make an image to the [seven-headed] wild beast.” (Re 13:1, 2, 11-14) Beasts are consistently used in the Bible as symbols of political governments. The image of the seven-headed wild beast must therefore be some agency reflecting the characteristics and will of the globe-dominating political system represented by the seven-headed wild beast. Logically, it should also have seven heads and ten horns like the wild beast out of the sea that it represents. It is of interest to note, then, that another seven-headed beast, distinct from the wild beast out of the sea, is described at Revelation chapter 17. Its significance, as well as that of both the seven-headed wild beast and the two-horned beast, is considered under BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

After its first mention in Revelation chapter 13, the image of the beast is regularly referred to along with the wild beast, particularly in connection with the worship of that wild beast and the receiving of its mark. The image of the beast shares in these things.​—Re 14:9-11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4; see MARK, II.

IMAGE OF THE BEAST

See IMAGE.

IMLAH

(Imʹlah) [May [God] Fill; or, May [God] Cause to Reign].

Father of Micaiah, a prophet of Jehovah contemporaneous with Kings Ahab and Jehoshaphat.​—1Ki 22:8, 9; 2Ch 18:7, 8.

IMMANUEL

(Im·manʹu·el) [With Us Is God].

A name first mentioned by the prophet Isaiah (7:14; 8:8) during the reign of Ahaz (761-746 B.C.E.). In Matthew 1:23, the only other occurrence, Immanuel is a name-title applied to Christ the Messiah.

In view of the circumstances under which the prophecy was given, Bible commentators have looked for an “Immanuel” in Isaiah’s day, one who fittingly served then as a sign that ‘God was with them.’ In that eighth century B.C.E., Pekah and Rezin, the kings of Israel and Syria, were bent on overthrowing Ahaz, king of Judah, in order to put the son of Tabeel upon his throne. (Isa 7:1-6) Jehovah, however, remembered his kingdom covenant with David, the forefather of Ahaz, and sent his prophet with this reassuring message:

“Listen, please, O house of David. . . . Jehovah himself will give you men a sign: Look! The maiden herself will actually become pregnant, and she is giving birth to a son, and she will certainly call his name Immanuel. Butter and honey he will eat by the time that he knows how to reject the bad and choose the good. For before the boy will know how to reject the bad and choose the good, the ground of whose two kings you are feeling a sickening dread will be left entirely.”​—Isa 7:13-16.

Then, after telling about the birth of Isaiah’s second son, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, the prophecy next describes how the threat to Judah would be removed. As an irresistible flood, the Assyrians would completely inundate Syria and the northern kingdom of Israel, not stopping until they had dangerously spread over the land of Judah, even “to fill the breadth of your land, O Immanuel!” Then, in poetic grandeur, the prophet Isaiah warns all those in opposition to Jehovah: If you gird yourselves for war, if you plan out a scheme, if you speak a word against Jehovah​—“it will not stand, for God is with us [Immanuel]!”​—Isa 8:5-10.

Some have suggested that in the type back there “Immanuel” was a third son of Isaiah, perhaps by a Jewish maiden who may have become a second wife of the prophet. Certain Jewish commentators endeavored to apply the prophecy to the birth of Ahaz’ son Hezekiah. This, however, is ruled out, since the prophecy was uttered during Ahaz’ reign (Isa 7:1), making Hezekiah at least nine years old at the time.​—2Ki 16:2; 18:1, 2.

Another possible candidate was Isaiah’s second son, mentioned in the next chapter, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, concerning whom it was said: “Before the boy will know how to call out, ‘My father!’ and ‘My mother!’ one will carry away the resources of Damascus and the spoil of Samaria before the king of Assyria.” (Isa 8:1-4) Certainly this echoes what was said about Immanuel: “Before the boy will know how to reject the bad and choose the good, the ground of whose two kings [of Damascus and Samaria] you are feeling a sickening dread will be left entirely.” (Isa 7:16) Also, the birth of Isaiah’s second son is presented in close connection with the further prophecy involving Immanuel and, as Immanuel was to be a “sign,” so also Isaiah said: “I and the children whom Jehovah has given me are as signs.”​—Isa 7:14; 8:18.

The principal objection to this identification of Isaiah’s second son as the Immanuel of Ahaz’ day is on the grounds that Isaiah’s wife is spoken of as “the prophetess,” not as “the maiden,” as well as the fact that she was already the mother of Isaiah’s firstborn, Shear-jashub, hence no “maiden.” (Isa 7:3; 8:3) It may be noted, however, that the Hebrew word here translated “maiden” is not bethu·lahʹ, meaning, specifically, “virgin,” but is ʽal·mahʹ, having a broader reference to a young woman, who could be either a virgin maiden or a recently married woman. ʽAl·mahʹ as a common noun also occurs in six other texts, more than one of which specifically involves virgin maidens.​—Ge 24:43 (compare vs 16); Ex 2:8; Ps 68:25; Pr 30:19; Ca 1:3; 6:8.

The full and complete identity of Immanuel, of course, is found in the office and personage of the Lord Jesus Christ. The use, therefore, of the Hebrew word ʽal·mahʹ in the prophecy would accommodate both the type (if such was a young wife of Ahaz or of Isaiah) and the antitype (the betrothed and yet virgin Mary). In the case of Mary there was no question about her being a virgin when she became “pregnant by holy spirit,” both Matthew and Luke recording this historical fact. (Mt 1:18-25; Lu 1:30-35) “All this actually came about for that to be fulfilled which was spoken by Jehovah through his prophet,” Matthew observed. It was a sign that identified the long-awaited Messiah. So in keeping with these facts, Matthew’s Gospel (quoting Isa 7:14) uses the Greek word par·theʹnos, meaning “virgin,” to translate ʽal·mahʹ, saying: “Look! The virgin [par·theʹnos] will become pregnant and will give birth to a son, and they will call his name Immanuel.” (Mt 1:22, 23) In no way was this taking liberties or distorting the text. Over a century earlier, the Jewish translators of the Greek Septuagint had also used par·theʹnos in rendering Isaiah 7:14.

This identity of Jesus Christ as Immanuel did not mean he was the incarnation of God, ‘God in the flesh,’ which proponents of the Trinity teaching claim is implied by the meaning of Immanuel, namely, “With Us Is God.” It was a common practice among Jews to embody the word “God,” even “Jehovah,” in Hebrew names. Even today Immanuel is the proper name of many men, none of whom are incarnations of God.

If there seems to be a conflict between the angel’s instructions to Mary (“you are to call his name Jesus”) and Isaiah’s prophecy (“she will certainly call his name Immanuel”), let it be remembered that Messiah was also to be called by yet other names. (Lu 1:31; Isa 7:14) For example, Isaiah 9:6 said concerning this one: “His name will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace.” Yet none of these names were given to Mary’s firstborn as personal names, neither when he was a babe nor after he took up his ministry. Rather, they were all prophetic title-names by which Messiah would be identified. Jesus lived up to the meaning of these names in every respect, and that is the sense in which they were prophetically given, to show his qualities and the good offices he would perform toward all those accepting him as Messiah. So also with his title Immanuel. He measured up to and fulfilled its meaning.

Worshipers of Jehovah have always desired God to be with them, on their side, backing them up in their undertakings, and often he reassures them that he is, sometimes giving them visible signs to this effect. (Ge 28:10-20; Ex 3:12; Jos 1:5, 9; 5:13–6:2; Ps 46:5-7; Jer 1:19) If today the personal identity of Immanuel in the days of Ahaz remains uncertain, it may be that Jehovah so directed in order not to distract the attention of later generations from the Greater Immanuel, when he put in his appearance as a sign from heaven. With the coming of his beloved Son to earth as the promised Messianic “seed” (Ge 3:15) and rightful heir to the throne of David, Jehovah was furnishing his greatest sign that he had not forsaken mankind or his Kingdom covenant. The title-name Immanuel, therefore, was particularly appropriate to Christ, for his presence was indeed a sign from heaven. And with this foremost representative of Jehovah among mankind, Matthew under inspiration could truly say, “With Us Is God.”

IMMER

(Imʹmer).

1. A descendant of Aaron designated head of the 16th priestly division in David’s time. (1Ch 24:1, 6, 14) Apparently 1,052 of his descendants returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon in 537 B.C.E. (Ezr 2:37; Ne 7:40) Two of “the sons of Immer” were among those putting away their foreign wives in Ezra’s time.​—Ezr 10:20, 44.

2. Father of Meshillemith (or Meshillemoth); possibly the same as No. 1.​—1Ch 9:12; Ne 11:13.

3. Father of the priest Pashhur, an opposer of Jeremiah who had the prophet put in stocks. Jeremiah prophesied that Pashhur and all his house would be taken to Babylon. (Jer 20:1, 2, 6) If the designation “the son of Immer” is to be understood as denoting a descendant rather than an actual son, this Immer may be No. 1.

4. Father of Zadok, one who shared in repairing Jerusalem’s wall. (Ne 3:29) This Immer may, however, be the same as No. 1, if the designation “the son of Immer” is to be regarded as meaning a descendant.

5. Seemingly a place in Babylonia from which certain priests returned who were unable to prove their genealogy.​—Ezr 2:59; Ne 7:61.

IMMERSION

See BAPTISM.

IMMORTALITY

The Greek word a·tha·na·siʹa is formed by the negative prefix a followed by a form of the word for “death” (thaʹna·tos). Thus, the basic meaning is “deathlessness,” and refers to the quality of life that is enjoyed, its endlessness and indestructibility. (1Co 15:53, 54, ftn; 1Ti 6:16, ftn) The Greek word a·phthar·siʹa, meaning “incorruption,” refers to that which cannot decay or be corrupted, that which is imperishable.​—Ro 2:7; 1Co 15:42, 50, 53; Eph 6:24; 2Ti 1:10.

The expressions “immortal” or “immortality” do not occur in the Hebrew Scriptures, which do show, however, that Jehovah God, as the Source of all life, is not subject to death, hence, is immortal. (Ps 36:7, 9; 90:1, 2; Hab 1:12) This fact is also emphatically stated by the Christian apostle Paul in referring to God as “the King of eternity, incorruptible.”​—1Ti 1:17.

As the article SOUL shows, the Hebrew Scriptures also make plain that man is not inherently immortal. References to the human soul (Heb., neʹphesh) as dying, heading for the grave, and being destroyed are numerous. (Ge 17:14; Jos 10:32; Job 33:22; Ps 22:29; 78:50; Eze 18:4, 20) The Christian Greek Scriptures, of course, are in harmony and likewise contain references to the death of the soul (Gr., psy·kheʹ). (Mt 26:38; Mr 3:4; Ac 3:23; Jas 5:20; Re 8:9; 16:3) Therefore the Christian Greek Scriptures do not dispute or alter the inspired teaching of the Hebrew Scriptures that man, the human soul, is mortal, subject to death. The Christian Greek Scriptures, however, do contain the revelation of God’s purpose to grant immortality to certain of his servants.

How can Jesus be “the one alone having immortality”?

The first one described in the Bible as rewarded with the gift of immortality is Jesus Christ. That he did not possess immortality before his resurrection by God is seen from the inspired apostle’s words at Romans 6:9: “Christ, now that he has been raised up from the dead, dies no more; death is master over him no more.” (Compare Re 1:17, 18.) For this reason, when describing him as “the King of those who rule as kings and Lord of those who rule as lords,” 1 Timothy 6:15, 16 shows that Jesus is distinct from all such other kings and lords in that he is “the one alone having immortality.” The other kings and lords, because of being mortal, die, even as did also the high priests of Israel. The glorified Jesus, God’s appointed High Priest after the order of Melchizedek, however, has “an indestructible life.”​—Heb 7:15-17, 23-25.

The word “indestructible” here translates the Greek term a·ka·taʹly·tos, meaning, literally, “indissoluble.” (Heb 7:16, ftn) The word is a compound of the negative prefix a joined to other words relating to a “loosening down,” as in Jesus’ statement regarding the loosening down or throwing down of the stones of the temple at Jerusalem (Mt 24:1, 2), as well as in Paul’s reference to the loosening down of the earthly “tent” of Christians, that is, the dissolving of their earthly life in human bodies. (2Co 5:1) Thus, the immortal life granted Jesus upon his resurrection is not merely endless but is beyond deterioration or dissolution and is beyond destruction.

Kingdom Heirs Granted Immortality. For the anointed Christians called to reign with Christ in the heavens (1Pe 1:3, 4), the promise is that they share with Christ in the likeness of his resurrection. (Ro 6:5) Thus, as in the case of their Lord and Head, the anointed members of the Christian congregation who die faithful receive a resurrection to immortal spirit life, so that “this which is mortal puts on immortality.” (1Co 15:50-54) As with Jesus, immortality in their case does not mean simply everlasting life, or mere freedom from death. That they, too, are granted “the power of an indestructible life” as fellow heirs with Christ is seen from the apostle Paul’s association of incorruptibility with the immortality they attain. (1Co 15:42-49) Over them “the second death has no authority.”​—Re 20:6; see INCORRUPTION.

This grant of immortality to the Kingdom heirs is all the more remarkable, in view of the fact that even God’s angels are shown to be mortal, despite their possessing spirit bodies, not carnal ones. Angelic mortality is evident in view of the judgment of death entered against the spirit son who became God’s Adversary, or Satan, and also against those other angels who followed that satanic course and “did not keep their original position but forsook their own proper dwelling place.” (Jude 6; Mt 25:41; Re 20:10, 14) So the grant of “indestructible life” (Heb 7:16) or “indissoluble life” to those Christians who gain the privilege of reigning with God’s Son in the heavenly Kingdom marvelously demonstrates God’s confidence in them.​—See HEAVEN (The way to heavenly life); LIFE.

IMNA

(Imʹna) [[God] Has Held Back (Withheld)].

Son of Helem; a valiant, mighty man and head of a paternal house of the tribe of Asher.​—1Ch 7:35, 40.

IMNAH

(Imʹnah) [May [God] Appoint (or, Number); [God] Has Appointed (or, Numbered)].

1. First-named son of Asher and forefather of the Imnites.​—Ge 46:17; Nu 26:44; 1Ch 7:30.

2. The Levite whose son Kore was the gatekeeper to the east in temple service, in charge of the voluntary offerings of Jehovah, in Hezekiah’s time.​—2Ch 31:14.

IMNITES

(Imʹnites) [Of (Belonging to) Imnah].

A family of the tribe of Asher descended from Imnah.​—Nu 26:44.

IMPALEMENT

(im·paleʹment).

In the literal sense, the fastening of a victim either dead or alive to a stake, or pole. The execution of Jesus Christ is the best-known case. (Lu 24:20; Joh 19:14-16; Ac 2:23, 36) Impalements by nations in ancient times were carried out in a variety of ways.

The Assyrians, noted for their savage warfare, impaled captives by hanging their nude bodies atop pointed stakes that were run up through the abdomens into the chest cavities of the victims. Several reliefs have been found on monuments, one such depicting the Assyrian assault and conquest of Lachish, on which this method of impalement is shown.​—2Ki 19:8; PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 958.

The Persians also used impalement as a form of punishment. Some say the Persians customarily first beheaded or flayed those they impaled. Darius the Great forbade interference with the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple, and any violator of that decree was to be impaled on a timber pulled out of his own house. (Ezr 6:11) During the reign of Darius’ son, Ahasuerus (Xerxes I), two of the palace doorkeepers were hanged, or impaled, on a stake, the usual punishment meted out to traitors by the Persians. (Es 2:21-23) Haman and his ten sons were similarly hanged on a stake. (Es 5:14; 6:4; 7:9, 10; 9:10, 13, 14, 25) Herodotus (III, 125, 159; IV, 43) also cites other examples of Persian impalements.

It was Jewish law that those guilty of such heinous crimes as blasphemy or idolatry were first killed by stoning, or by some other method, and then their dead bodies were exposed on stakes, or trees, as warning examples to others. (De 21:22, 23; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 2Sa 21:6, 9) The Egyptians may also have first killed their criminals before fastening them to stakes, as is indicated by Joseph’s prophetic words to Pharaoh’s chief baker: “Pharaoh will lift up your head from off you and will certainly hang you upon a stake.”​—Ge 40:19, 22; 41:13.

The Greeks and Romans, it is said, adopted the practice of impalement from the Phoenicians, and not until the days of Constantine was it abolished in the empire. Very seldom was a Roman citizen impaled, for this was a punishment usually given slaves and criminals of the lowest sort. Impalement was looked upon by both Jews and Romans as a symbol of humiliation and shame, reserved for those accursed.​—De 21:23; Ga 3:13; Php 2:8.

In the first century, if the Jews had the right to impale a person for religious reasons (a point on which there is some doubt), it is quite certain they could not do so for civil offenses; only a Roman official like Pontius Pilate had such authority. (Joh 18:31; 19:10) Nevertheless, the Jews, and especially their chief priests and rulers, bore the prime responsibility for Christ’s impalement.​—Mr 15:1-15; Ac 2:36; 4:10; 5:30; 1Co 2:8.

The Romans sometimes tied the victim to the stake, in which case he might live for several days before his physical endurance was overcome by the torture of pain, thirst, hunger, and exposure to the sun. As in the case of Jesus, nailing the hands (and likely the feet also) of the accused to a stake was customary among the Romans. (Joh 20:25, 27; Lu 24:39; Ps 22:16, ftn; Col 2:14) Since the wrists have always been considered by anatomists as part of the hands, some medical men think the nails were driven between the small bones of the wrists to prevent the stripping out that could have occurred if they had been driven through the palms. (See The Journal of the American Medical Association, March 21, 1986, p. 1460.) This would be consistent with the Bible’s own use of the word “hand” to include the wrist in such texts as Genesis 24:47, where bracelets are said to be worn on the “hands,” and Judges 15:14, where reference is made to fetters that were on Samson’s “hands.”

The record does not say whether the evildoers impaled alongside Jesus were nailed or simply tied to the stakes. If only tied, this might explain why, when Jesus was found dead, they were still alive and had to have their legs broken. (Joh 19:32, 33) Death by suffocation soon followed the breaking of their legs, since, as some think, this would have prevented the raising of the body to ease tension of chest muscles. Of course, this is not a conclusive point on why the evildoers outlived Jesus, for they had not experienced the mental and physical torture inflicted on Jesus. He had previously undergone an all-night ordeal at the hands of his enemies, in addition to being beaten by the Roman soldiers, perhaps to the point that he could not carry his own torture stake, as was the custom.​—Mr 14:32–15:21; Lu 22:39–23:26.

What does the original Greek reveal as to the shape of the instrument on which Jesus was put to death?

Most Bible translations say Christ was “crucified” rather than “impaled.” This is because of the common belief that the torture instrument upon which he was hung was a “cross” made of two pieces of wood instead of a single pale, or stake. Tradition, not the Scriptures, also says that the condemned man carried only the crossbeam of the cross, called the patibulum, or antenna, instead of both parts. In this way some try to avoid the predicament of having too much weight for one man to drag or carry to Golgotha.

Yet, what did the Bible writers themselves say about these matters? They used the Greek noun stau·rosʹ 27 times and the verbs stau·roʹo 46 times, syn·stau·roʹo (the prefix syn, meaning “with”) 5 times, and a·na·stau·roʹo (a·naʹ, meaning “again”) once. They also used the Greek word xyʹlon, meaning “wood,” 5 times to refer to the torture instrument upon which Jesus was nailed.

Stau·rosʹ in both the classical Greek and Koine carries no thought of a “cross” made of two timbers. It means only an upright stake, pale, pile, or pole, as might be used for a fence, stockade, or palisade. Says Douglas’ New Bible Dictionary of 1985 under “Cross,” page 253: “The Gk. word for ‘cross’ (stauros; verb stauroo . . .) means primarily an upright stake or beam, and secondarily a stake used as an instrument for punishment and execution.”

The fact that Luke, Peter, and Paul also used xyʹlon as a synonym for stau·rosʹ gives added evidence that Jesus was impaled on an upright stake without a crossbeam, for that is what xyʹlon in this special sense means. (Ac 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Ga 3:13; 1Pe 2:24) Xyʹlon also occurs in the Greek Septuagint at Ezra 6:11, where it speaks of a single beam or timber on which a lawbreaker was to be impaled.

The New World Translation, therefore, faithfully conveys to the reader this basic idea of the Greek text by rendering stau·rosʹ as “torture stake,” and the verb stau·roʹo as “impale,” that is, to fasten on a stake, or pole. In this way there is no confusion of stau·rosʹ with the traditional ecclesiastical crosses. (See TORTURE STAKE.) The matter of one man like Simon of Cyrene bearing a torture stake, as the Scriptures say, is perfectly reasonable, for if it was 15 cm (6 in.) in diameter and 3.5 m (11 ft) long, it probably weighed little more than 45 kg (100 lb).​—Mr 15:21.

Note what W. E. Vine says on this subject: “STAUROS (σταυρός) denotes, primarily, an upright pale or stake. On such malefactors were nailed for execution. Both the noun and the verb stauroo, to fasten to a stake or pale, are originally to be distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two beamed cross.” Greek scholar Vine then mentions the Chaldean origin of the two-piece cross and how it was adopted from the pagans by Christendom in the third century C.E. as a symbol of Christ’s impalement.​—Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words, 1981, Vol. 1, p. 256.

Significant is this comment in the book The Cross in Ritual, Architecture, and Art: “It is strange, yet unquestionably a fact, that in ages long before the birth of Christ, and since then in lands untouched by the teaching of the Church, the Cross has been used as a sacred symbol. . . . The Greek Bacchus, the Tyrian Tammuz, the Chaldean Bel, and the Norse Odin, were all symbolised to their votaries by a cruciform device.”​—By G. S. Tyack, London, 1900, p. 1.

The book The Non-Christian Cross, by J. D. Parsons (London, 1896), adds: “There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross. . . . It is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as ‘cross’ when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting ‘cross’ in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape.”​—Pp. 23, 24; see also The Companion Bible, 1974, Appendix No. 162.

Figurative Usage. Not only do the Scriptures bear thorough witness concerning the physical impalement of the Lord Jesus Christ (1Co 1:13, 23; 2:2; 2Co 13:4; Re 11:8) but they also speak of impalement in a figurative, metaphoric sense, as at Galatians 2:20. Christians have put their old personality to death through faith in the impaled Christ. (Ro 6:6; Col 3:5, 9, 10) “Moreover, those who belong to Christ Jesus impaled the flesh together with its passions and desires,” Paul writes, adding that through Christ “the world has been impaled to me and I to the world.”​—Ga 5:24; 6:14.

Apostates in effect “impale the Son of God afresh for themselves and expose him to public shame,” doing so by their Judaslike rebellion against God’s arrangement for salvation.​—Heb 6:4-6.

IMPARTIALITY

Freedom from bias or favoritism; fairness. Impartiality is a matter of not letting position, ability to speak well, wealth, a bribe, or, on the other hand, sentimentality for a poor or otherwise disadvantaged person sway one’s judgment or actions in favor of the individual. Impartiality sees that all are treated in harmony with what is fair and just, according to what each deserves and needs.​—Pr 3:27.

The Hebrew expression na·saʼʹ pa·nimʹ, rendered ‘treat with partiality,’ literally means “lift up the face.” (Le 19:15) An Oriental way of greeting was to bow humbly and turn one’s face to the ground. As a sign of acknowledgment and recognition, the one greeted lifted up, or raised, the face of the one who had bowed. (Compare Ge 32:20, where “give a kindly reception” renders the Hebrew phrase literally meaning “lift up the face.”) The expression came to be used disparagingly when referring to corrupt preferential treatment. The Hebrew phrase na·kharʹ pa·nimʹ (rendered “be partial,” but literally meaning “recognize the face”) was similarly used. (De 1:17; 16:19) The Greek expression lam·baʹno proʹso·pon (‘show partiality’; literally, “take or accept the face”) is modeled on the Hebrew. (Lu 20:21; compare Int.) Compounded forms of these two words are rendered “partiality; favoritism” (Ro 2:11; Jas 2:1), ‘show favoritism’ (Jas 2:9), and “partial” (Ac 10:34).​—Compare Int.

Jehovah Impartial. Jehovah says that he “treats none with partiality nor accepts a bribe.” (De 10:17; 2Ch 19:7) The apostle Peter said, when God sent him to declare the good news to the uncircumcised Gentile Cornelius: “For a certainty I perceive that God is not partial, but in every nation the man that fears him and works righteousness is acceptable to him.”​—Ac 10:34, 35; Ro 2:10, 11.

Jehovah, the Creator and Supreme One, cannot be challenged on his decisions and actions. He can do as he pleases with what he has created and does not owe anyone anything. (Ro 9:20-24; 11:33-36; Job 40:2) He deals with individuals or groups, even nations, according to his purpose and his own appointed time. (Ac 17:26, 31) Nevertheless, God is impartial. He rewards each person, not according to his outward appearance or possessions, but according to what he is and what he does. (1Sa 16:7; Ps 62:12; Pr 24:12) His Son Jesus Christ follows the same impartial course.​—Mt 16:27.

Not partial toward Israel. Some persons have held that Jehovah dealt partially by using and favoring Israel as his people of ancient times. However, an honest examination of his dealings with Israel will reveal that such a charge is erroneous. Jehovah chose and dealt with Israel, not because of their greatness and numbers, but because of his love and appreciation for the faith and loyalty of his friend Abraham, their forefather. (Jas 2:23) Also, he was long-suffering toward them because he had placed his name upon them. (De 7:7-11; Eze 36:22; De 29:13; Ps 105:8-10) While obedient, Israel was blessed above the nations not having the Law. When Israel was disobedient, God was patient and merciful, but he punished them, nevertheless. And though their position was a favored one, they were under weightier responsibility before God because of bearing God’s name and because they were under the Law. For the Law carried curses against the one breaking it. It is written: “Cursed is the one who will not put the words of this law in force by doing them.” (De 27:26) The Jews, by violating the Law, came under this curse, which was in addition to their condemnation as offspring of sinful Adam. (Ro 5:12) Therefore, to redeem the Jews from this special disability, Christ not only had to die but also had to die on a torture stake, as the apostle Paul argues at Galatians 3:10-13.

Thus, God exercised no partiality toward Israel. God was using Israel with the blessing of all nations in view. (Ga 3:14) By this means God was actually working toward the benefit of people of all nations in his due time. In harmony with this, the apostle remarks: “Is he the God of the Jews only? Is he not also of people of the nations? Yes, of people of the nations also, if truly God is one, who will declare circumcised people righteous as a result of faith and uncircumcised people righteous by means of their faith.” (Ro 3:29, 30) Furthermore, in the ancient Jewish commonwealth, men from other nations could come under God’s favor and blessing by worshiping Jehovah the God of Israel and keeping his law, as did the Gibeonites, the Nethinim (meaning “Given Ones”), and many alien residents.​—Jos 9:3, 27; 1Ki 8:41-43; Ezr 8:20; Nu 9:14.

Although patient and merciful, repeatedly receiving Israel back when they repented, Jehovah finally cast them off as his name people. (Lu 13:35; Ro 11:20-22) The apostle’s statement applies here: “He will render to each one according to his works: . . . wrath and anger, tribulation and distress, upon the soul of every man who works what is injurious, of the Jew first and also of the Greek; but glory and honor and peace for everyone who works what is good, for the Jew first and also for the Greek. For there is no partiality with God.”​—Ro 2:6-11.

So, while a superficial, short-range view of God’s dealings might appear to reveal partiality, the deeper, long-range view brings to light marvelous impartiality and justice beyond anything man could have conceived. How finely he worked out matters so that all mankind would have opportunity to receive his favor and life!​—Isa 55:8-11; Ro 11:33.

Not partial toward David. As Jehovah told Moses, he is a God who will by no means give exemption from punishment for wrongdoing. (Ex 34:6, 7; Col 3:25) Even in the case of his beloved servant David, with whom Jehovah had made a covenant for the kingdom, God made no exception. He punished David severely for his sins. After David’s sin against God in the affair involving Bath-sheba and her husband Uriah, Jehovah told him: “Here I am raising up against you calamity out of your own house; and I will take your wives under your own eyes and give them to your fellowman, and he will certainly lie down with your wives under the eyes of this sun. Whereas you yourself acted in secret, I, for my part, shall do this thing in front of all Israel and in front of the sun.”​—2Sa 12:11, 12.

The Bible account reveals that David indeed suffered much trouble from his own family. (2Sa chaps 13-18; 1Ki 1) While God did not put him to death, out of respect for the kingdom covenant He had made with David (2Sa 7:11-16), David did suffer very great sorrows. As an earlier servant of God, Elihu, had said: “There is One who has not shown partiality to princes.” (Job 34:19) However, based on the coming sacrifice of Jesus Christ, God could forgive the repentant David and yet maintain His own justice and righteousness. (Ro 3:25, 26) Through the sacrifice of his Son, God has a just and impartial basis on which to undo the death of Uriah and others, so that, ultimately, none suffer unjustly.​—Ac 17:31.

Counsel to Judges. Jehovah gave strong counsel to the judges in Israel as to impartiality. Judges were under the strict command: “You must not be partial in judgment.” (De 1:17; 16:19; Pr 18:5; 24:23) They were not to show partiality to a poor man merely because of his poorness, out of sentimentality or out of prejudice against the wealthy. Neither were they to favor a rich man because of his wealth, perhaps catering to him for favor, for a bribe, or through fear of his power or influence. (Le 19:15) God eventually condemned the unfaithful Levitical priesthood in Israel for violation of his law and, as he particularly pointed out, for showing partiality, since they acted as judges in the land.​—Mal 2:8, 9.

In the Christian Congregation. In the Christian congregation impartiality is a law; the showing of favoritism is a sin. (Jas 2:9) Those guilty of acts of favoritism become “judges rendering wicked decisions.” (Jas 2:1-4) Such persons do not have the wisdom from above, which is free from partial distinctions. (Jas 3:17) Those in responsible positions in the congregation are under the serious obligation the apostle Paul placed on Timothy, an overseer: “I solemnly charge you before God and Christ Jesus and the chosen angels to keep these things without prejudgment, doing nothing according to a biased leaning.” This would apply especially when judicial hearings are being conducted in the congregation.​—1Ti 5:19-21.

‘Admiring personalities for own benefit.’ Violation of the principle of impartiality can result in the severest condemnation. Jesus’ half brother Jude describes men who are “murmurers, complainers about their lot in life, proceeding according to their own desires, and their mouths speak swelling things, while they are admiring personalities for the sake of their own benefit.” (Jude 16) These men are called “the ones that make separations, animalistic men, not having spirituality.” (Jude 19) Such ones may sway others by their swelling words and their admiration of personalities, like the ones Paul describes who “slyly work their way into households and lead as their captives weak women loaded down with sins, led by various desires.” (2Ti 3:6) Destruction awaits them.​—Jude 12, 13.

“Worthy of double honor”​—How? In view of these things, how can those in the Christian congregation reckon the older men who preside in a fine way “worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard in speaking and teaching”? (1Ti 5:17) This is, not because of the personalities of these men or their ability, but because of their diligence and hard work at the extra responsibilities placed upon them. God’s arrangements and appointments are to be respected. Such men should receive special cooperation and support in getting the work of God’s congregation accomplished. (Heb 13:7, 17) James the half brother of Jesus points out that teachers in the congregation are under weighty responsibility to God, receiving heavier judgment. (Jas 3:1) Therefore they deserve to be heard, obeyed, and given honor. For a similar reason the wife should honor and respect her husband, who is charged by God with responsibility for the household and is judged by Him accordingly. (Eph 5:21-24, 33) Such respect for men placed in responsible positions by God’s arrangement is not partiality.

Respect for rulers. Christians are also told to respect rulers of human governments. This is not because of the personal qualities of these men, some of whom may be corrupt, nor is it because they may be in position to grant special favors. Christians respect rulers because God commands it; also because of the position of responsibility the office stands for. The apostle says: “Let every soul be in subjection to the superior authorities, for there is no authority except by God; the existing authorities stand placed in their relative positions by God. Therefore he who opposes the authority has taken a stand against the arrangement of God.” (Ro 13:1, 2) These men, if they misuse their authority, must answer to God. The honor, or respect, due the office is rendered to the one filling that office by the Christian according to the rule: “Render to all their dues, to him who calls for the tax, the tax; to him who calls for the tribute, the tribute; to him who calls for fear, such fear; to him who calls for honor, such honor.” (Ro 13:7) The honor rendered in this particular respect by the Christian above that accorded to ordinary citizens is not a showing of partiality.

IMRAH

(Imʹrah) [He Rebels].

Son of Zophah; a paternal head and also a head of chieftains of the tribe of Asher, a valiant, mighty man.​—1Ch 7:36, 40.

IMRI

(Imʹri) [shortened form of Amariah, meaning “Jehovah Has Said”].

1. Son of Bani of the tribe of Judah through Perez.​—1Ch 9:4.

2. Father of the Zaccur who shared in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem.​—Ne 3:2.

INAUGURATION

(in·au·gu·raʹtion).

An initiation, with solemn ceremonies, of a structure, an arrangement, or a place. “Inaugurate” is translated from the Hebrew verb cha·nakhʹ (noun form, chanuk·kahʹ), when it means “to initiate, dedicate formally,” and from the Greek verb en·kai·niʹzo, which primarily means “make new, or innovate,” as by dedication. The Hebrew word neʹzer, the holy sign of dedication, is considered under the subject DEDICATION.

When the Mosaic Law covenant was put into operation, it was solemnly initiated by suitable ceremonies involving animal sacrifices and the sprinkling of blood on the altar, on the book, and on the people. This event was referred to by the apostle Paul as the act of inaugurating that covenant.​—Ex 24:4-8; Heb 9:18-20.

By Paul’s words “neither was the former covenant inaugurated [form of Gr. en·kai·niʹzo] without blood” (Heb 9:18), he indicates that the new covenant was similarly put into effect​—inaugurated by Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven, where Jesus presented the value of his human life and from where he thereafter poured out holy spirit upon his disciples. Since Jesus Christ was resurrected in the spirit, he could actually enter into the real “holy place,” the heavens of Jehovah’s presence, and with his ransom sacrifice make it possible for his anointed followers to enter also into heaven. Thus it could be said that he began, innovated, or inaugurated the way into the heavens, which provision would thereafter be used by others.​—Heb 10:19, 20.

We also read of solemn ceremonies involving the offerings by the tribal chieftains at the inauguration of the tabernacle altar in the wilderness. (Nu 7:10, 11, 84-88) There was a special assembly for the inauguration of Solomon’s temple and its great sacrificial altar.​—1Ki 8:63; 2Ch 7:5, 9.

When the temple was rebuilt under Zerubbabel following the Babylonian exile, there were solemn initiation ceremonies in which hundreds of animals were sacrificed. (Ezr 6:16, 17) Later, the walls around the rebuilt Jerusalem were restored under the direction of Nehemiah, and again an elaborate inauguration festival was held, with two large thanksgiving choirs participating in the praising of Jehovah.​—Ne 12:27-43.

In addition to these impressive national ceremonies of inauguration, we read of a man inaugurating, or initiating, his house (De 20:5), and the superscription of Psalm 30, ascribed to David, designates it as “A song of inauguration of the house.”

When Nebuchadnezzar completed the erection of the huge image of gold on the Plain of Dura, he called together all the satraps, prefects, governors, counselors, treasurers, judges, police magistrates, and all administrators of the jurisdictional districts for the impressive ceremonies of inauguration. Nebuchadnezzar thus hoped to unite all his subjects in worship. The three young Hebrews present at this affair refused to compromise their worship of Jehovah by participating in this national religion.​—Da 3:1-30.

To this day the Jews annually celebrate what they call Hanukkah in the month of December. This is in remembrance of the inauguration (Heb., chanuk·kahʹ) festival that followed the cleansing of the temple by Judas Maccabaeus in 165 B.C.E. after it had been polluted by Antiochus IV Epiphanes.​—Joh 10:22; see FESTIVAL OF DEDICATION.

INCENSE

A compound of aromatic gums and balsams that will burn slowly, giving off a fragrant aroma. The Hebrew words qetoʹreth and qetoh·rahʹ are from the root qa·tarʹ, meaning “make sacrificial smoke.” The equivalent in the Christian Greek Scriptures is thy·miʹa·ma.

The sacred incense prescribed for use in the wilderness tabernacle was made of costly materials that the congregation contributed. (Ex 25:1, 2, 6; 35:4, 5, 8, 27-29) In giving the divine formula for this fourfold mixture, Jehovah said to Moses: “Take to yourself perfumes: stacte drops and onycha and perfumed galbanum and pure frankincense. There should be the same portion of each. And you must make it into an incense, a spice mixture, the work of an ointment maker, salted, pure, something holy. And you must pound some of it into fine powder and put some of it before the Testimony in the tent of meeting, where I shall present myself to you. It should be most holy to you people.” Then, to impress upon them the exclusiveness and holiness of the incense, Jehovah added: “Whoever makes any like it to enjoy its smell must be cut off from his people.”​—Ex 30:34-38; 37:29.

At a later time the rabbinic Jews added other ingredients to the temple incense, Josephus saying it was made of 13 sweet-smelling spices. (The Jewish War, V, 218 [v, 5]) According to Maimonides, some of these extra items included amber, cassia, cinnamon, myrrh, saffron, and spikenard.

At the W end of the Holy compartment of the tabernacle, next to the curtain dividing it off from the Most Holy, was located “the altar of incense.” (Ex 30:1; 37:25; 40:5, 26, 27) There was also a similar incense altar in Solomon’s temple. (1Ch 28:18; 2Ch 2:4) Upon these altars, every morning and evening the sacred incense was burned. (Ex 30:7, 8; 2Ch 13:11) Once a year on the Day of Atonement coals from the altar were taken in a censer, or fire holder, together with two handfuls of incense, into the Most Holy, where the incense was made to smoke before the mercy seat of the ark of the testimony.​—Le 16:12, 13.

High Priest Aaron initially offered the incense upon the altar. (Ex 30:7) However, his son Eleazar was given oversight of the incense and other tabernacle items. (Nu 4:16) It appears that the burning of incense, except on the Day of Atonement, was not restricted to the high priest, as underpriest Zechariah (father of John the Baptizer) is mentioned as handling this service. (Lu 1:8-11) Soon after the tabernacle service began to function, Aaron’s two sons Nadab and Abihu were struck dead by Jehovah for attempting to offer up incense with “illegitimate fire.” (Le 10:1, 2; compare Ex 30:9; see ABIHU.) Later, Korah and 250 others, all Levites but not of the priestly line, rebelled against the Aaronic priesthood. As a test they were instructed by Moses to take fire holders and burn incense at the tabernacle entrance so that Jehovah might indicate whether he accepted them as his priests. The group perished while in the act, their fire holders in hand. (Nu 16:6, 7, 16-18, 35-40) So, too, King Uzziah was stricken with leprosy when he presumptuously attempted to burn incense in the temple.​—2Ch 26:16-21.

As time went on, the nation of Israel became so negligent in the prescribed worship of Jehovah that they closed the temple and burned incense on other altars. (2Ch 29:7; 30:14) Worse than that, they burned incense to other gods before whom they prostituted themselves, and in other ways they desecrated the holy incense, all of which was detestable in Jehovah’s sight.​—Eze 8:10, 11; 16:17, 18; 23:36, 41; Isa 1:13.

Significance. The Law covenant had a shadow of better things to come (Heb 10:1), and it seems that the burning of incense under that arrangement represented the acceptable prayers of God’s faithful servants. The psalmist declared, “May my prayer be prepared as incense before you [Jehovah].” (Ps 141:2) Likewise, the highly symbolic book of Revelation describes those around God’s heavenly throne as having “golden bowls that were full of incense, and the incense means the prayers of the holy ones.” “A large quantity of incense was given him [an angel] to offer it with the prayers of all the holy ones upon the golden altar that was before the throne.” (Re 5:8; 8:3, 4) In several respects the burning incense served as a fitting symbol of the prayers of the holy ones that are “offered up” (Heb 5:7) night and day (1Th 3:10), and are pleasant to Jehovah.​—Pr 15:8.

Incense, of course, could not make the prayers of false worshipers acceptable to God. (Pr 28:9; Mr 12:40) On the other hand, the prayers of a righteous one are effectual. (Jas 5:16) So, too, when a plague from God broke out, Aaron quickly “put the incense on and began making atonement for the people.”​—Nu 16:46-48.

Not Burned by Christians. Though incense is burned today in certain religions of Christendom, as also in Buddhist temples, we find no basis in Scripture for such practice by Christians. Censers are not listed among church vessels for the first four centuries of the Common Era, and not until Gregory the Great (latter part of the sixth century) is there clear evidence of incense being used in church services. Obviously, this is because with the coming of Christ and the nailing of the Law covenant and its regulations to the torture stake (Col 2:14), and especially after the temple and its Aaronic priesthood were completely removed, the burning of incense in the worship of God ceased. No authorization for its use in the Christian congregation was given, and early Christians, like the Jews, never individually burned incense for religious purposes.

Early Christians also refused to burn incense in honor of the emperor, even though it cost them their lives. As Daniel P. Mannix observes: “Very few of the Christians recanted, although an altar with a fire burning on it was generally kept in the arena for their convenience. All a prisoner had to do was scatter a pinch of incense on the flame and he was given a Certificate of Sacrifice and turned free. It was also carefully explained to him that he was not worshiping the emperor; merely acknowledging the divine character of the emperor as head of the Roman state. Still, almost no Christians availed themselves of the chance to escape.”​—Those About to Die, 1958, p. 137.

Tertullian (second and third centuries C.E.) says that Christians would not even engage in the incense trade. (On Idolatry, chap. XI) This, however, is not the case with the incense merchants doing business with symbolic Babylon the Great.​—Re 18:11, 13.

INCENSE, ALTAR OF

See ALTAR.

INCEST

See CRIME AND PUNISHMENT (Major crimes under the Law).

INCORRUPTION

The quality of a body that is not subject to decay, ruin, or destruction.

Direct references to incorruption are found only in the Christian Greek Scriptures. There the word translates the Greek a·phthar·siʹa, formed of the negative prefix a and a form of phtheiʹro. This latter word means “corrupt” (2Co 7:2) or “spoil” (1Co 15:33), hence to bring to a lower or inferior state; also “put to death” or “destroy.” (2Pe 2:12) The adjective form aʹphthar·tos (incorruptible) is also used.

Corruption and Corruptibility. In considering incorruption, it is helpful to analyze first the use of the Greek terms for corruption and corruptibility. Keep in mind that there is a difference between a thing’s being corrupt and its being corruptible, that is, capable of being corrupted.

Corruption and corruptibility may relate both to things material and to things not material. The crown that Greek athletes sought was corruptible​—subject to decay, deterioration, or disintegration. (1Co 9:25) Even gold (dissoluble in aqua regia) and silver are corruptible. (1Pe 1:18; compare Jas 5:3.) Boats can be “wrecked” or, literally, “corrupted through” (from the intensive form di·a·phtheiʹro), suffering breakdown of their structural form. (Re 8:9) The same Greek word is used with respect to the “ruining” of the earth. (Re 11:18) Man, the fleshly creature, is corruptible (Ro 1:23); in his imperfect state his body is subject to damaging diseases and eventually to dissolution in death, the body breaking down in decay. (Ac 13:36) As regards things not material, good habits can be corrupted, or spoiled, by bad associations (1Co 15:33); men may become mentally corrupted, turned away from sincerity, chastity, and truth (2Co 11:3; 1Ti 6:5; 2Ti 3:8), this resulting in moral decay, a corrupting of the individual’s personality.​—Eph 4:22; Jude 10.

Even perfect human bodies are corruptible, that is, they are not beyond ruin or destruction. For this reason, the apostle Paul could say that the resurrected Jesus was thereafter “destined no more to return to corruption” (Ac 13:34), that is, never to return to life in a corruptible human body. Only God’s action prevented the fleshly body of his Son’s earthly existence from seeing corruption in the grave. (Ac 2:31; 13:35-37) That body, however, was not preserved for the use of the resurrected Jesus, since the apostle Peter states that Jesus was “put to death in the flesh, but . . . made alive in the spirit.” (1Pe 3:18) It thus seems evident that God disposed of that body miraculously, thereby not letting it see ruinous decay.​—See BODY (Christ’s Body of Flesh).

Angels, though spirit creatures, are shown to have corruptible bodies, inasmuch as they are declared to be subject to destruction.​—Mt 25:41; 2Pe 2:4; compare Lu 4:33, 34.

Human enslavement to corruption. While Adam, even in his perfection, had a corruptible body, it was only because of his rebellion against God that he came into “enslavement to corruption” and passed this condition on to all of his offspring, the human race. (Ro 8:20-22) This enslavement to corruption results from sin or transgression (Ro 5:12) and produces bodily imperfection that leads to degradation, disease, aging, and death. For this reason, the one ‘sowing with a view to the flesh reaps corruption from his flesh’ and does not gain the everlasting life promised those who sow with a view to the spirit.​—Ga 6:8; compare 2Pe 2:12, 18, 19.

Attainment of Incorruption by Christians. As noted, the Hebrew Scriptures make no direct reference to incorruption, and they regularly stress the mortality of the human soul. Thus, the apostle says of Christ Jesus that he “has shed light upon life and incorruption through the good news.” (2Ti 1:10) Through Jesus, God revealed the sacred secret of his purpose to grant to anointed Christians the privilege of reigning with his Son in the heavens. (Lu 12:32; Joh 14:2, 3; compare Eph 1:9-11.) By resurrecting their Savior Jesus Christ from the dead, God has given such Christians the living hope of “an incorruptible and undefiled and unfading inheritance . . . reserved in the heavens.” (1Pe 1:3, 4, 18, 19; compare 1Co 9:25.) Such ones are born again while yet in the flesh, that is, granted the position of sons of God, born of “incorruptible reproductive seed, through the word of the living and enduring God.”​—1Pe 1:23; compare 1Jo 3:1, 9.

Though dealt with by God as his sons and although having the promise of an incorruptible inheritance, these Christians called to the heavenly Kingdom do not possess immortality or incorruption while yet on earth in the flesh. This is seen from the fact that they are “seeking glory and honor and incorruptibleness by endurance in work that is good.” (Ro 2:6, 7) The “incorruptibleness” sought evidently does not mean merely freedom from moral corruption. By following Christ’s example and by faith in his ransom sacrifice, these Christians have already “escaped from the corruption that is in the world through lust” (2Pe 1:3, 4); they are “loving our Lord Jesus Christ in incorruptness” and ‘showing incorruptness in their teaching.’ (Eph 6:24; Tit 2:7, 8) The incorruptibleness (along with glory and honor) they seek by faithful endurance relates to their glorification at the time of their resurrection as actual spirit sons of God, and this is evident from Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians.

Raised to Immortality and Incorruption. Christ Jesus entered into immortality upon his resurrection from the dead, thereafter possessing “an indestructible life.” (1Ti 6:15, 16; Heb 7:15-17) As the “exact representation of [the] very being” of his Father, who is the incorruptible God (Heb 1:3; 1Ti 1:17), the resurrected Jesus also enjoys incorruptibility.

United with Jesus in the likeness of his resurrection, his joint heirs also are resurrected not merely to everlasting life as spirit creatures but to immortality and incorruption. Having lived, served faithfully, and died in corruptible human bodies, they now receive incorruptible spirit bodies, as Paul clearly states at 1 Corinthians 15:42-54. Immortality therefore evidently refers to the quality of the life they enjoy, its endlessness and indestructibility, whereas incorruption apparently relates to the organism or body that God gives them, one that is inherently beyond decay, ruin, or destruction. It therefore appears that God grants them the power to be self-sustaining, not dependent upon outside sources of energy as are his other creatures, fleshly and spirit. This is a stirring evidence of God’s confidence in them. Such independent and indestructible existence, however, does not remove them from God’s control; and they, like their Head Christ Jesus, continue subject to their Father’s will and directions.​—1Co 15:23-28; see IMMORTALITY; SOUL.

INDIA

(Inʹdi·a).

The exact area designated by the Bible name “India” is uncertain. (Es 8:9) Scholars generally suggest that it denotes the area drained by the Indus River and its tributaries, that is, the Punjab region and perhaps also Sind. The testimony of the historian Herodotus (III, 88, 94; IV, 44) indicates that “India” first became a part of the Persian Empire during the rule of Darius Hystaspis (521-486 B.C.E.). In the time of Ahasuerus (considered to be Xerxes I, son of Darius Hystaspis), India was the eastern limit of the empire.​—Es 1:1.

Likely the Indus Valley was settled not long after the language of Babel’s builders was confused. A comparison of the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley with that of Mesopotamia reveals the erection of structures like the ziggurat platforms of Mesopotamia, sculptures of the human figure with heads having the masklike features typical of ancient Mesopotamian sculpture, and pictographic signs that bear a resemblance to early Mesopotamian forms. Assyriologist Samuel N. Kramer has suggested that the Indus Valley was settled by a people who fled from Mesopotamia when the Sumerians took control of the area.

INDUSTRIOUSNESS

Steady and persevering activity; painstaking effort; diligence; zeal. Commonly the term implies lawful and useful labor. It is the opposite of slothfulness or idleness.

In the Bible the Greek word that is translated “industriousness” is more often rendered “earnestness,” “real earnest,” or “earnest effort.” The sense of the word is also sometimes conveyed by the translation “haste,” “speed,” or “business.”

Christians are admonished not to slack their hands or become weary in well doing. Paul said: “We desire each one of you to show the same industriousness [literally, “speed up”] so as to have the full assurance of the hope down to the end, in order that you may not become sluggish, but be imitators of those who through faith and patience inherit the promises.” (Heb 6:11, 12; compare Pr 10:4; 12:24; 18:9.) Jesus Christ told his disciples: “Exert yourselves vigorously to get in through the narrow door, because many, I tell you, will seek to get in but will not be able.” (Lu 13:24) Paul himself was an example of such rigorous exertion. (Col 1:29; 2Th 3:7-9) Jehovah and his Son are, of course, the foremost examples of industriousness.​—Joh 5:17; Isa 40:26.

To prevent their being inactive or unfruitful, Christians must ‘contribute in response [to God’s promises] all earnest effort’ in supplying to their faith virtue, knowledge, self-control, endurance, godly devotion, brotherly affection, and love. (2Pe 1:4-8) This calls for the constant application of industrious perseverance (2Ti 2:15; Heb 4:11) and unflagging attention. (Heb 2:1) Much of the strength for this comes through the help of Jehovah’s spirit. What could more strongly express the need for industriousness than the apostle Paul’s counsel: “Do not loiter at your business. Be aglow with the spirit. Slave for Jehovah”? This requirement of industriousness applies to all ministers (“let us be at this ministry”), but with special force to those in positions in which they preside over meetings and activities in the congregation, for “he that presides, let him do it in real earnest.”​—Ro 12:7, 8, 11.

In the Christian congregation, needy ones receiving material help from the congregation must be industrious ones. The Scriptural rule is: “If anyone does not want to work, neither let him eat.” The exhortation to those not working is that they get busy, “that by working with quietness they should eat food they themselves earn.” (2Th 3:10-12) A professed Christian who refuses or neglects to provide for his household “has disowned the faith and is worse than a person without faith.” (1Ti 5:8) Even widows who were needy, before being put on the congregation’s list for regular provision of material assistance, had to have a record of Christian activity, having “diligently followed every good work.”​—1Ti 5:9, 10.

Rewards of Industriousness. Rich rewards come to the industrious person both now and in the future. “The hand of the diligent one is what will make one rich.” (Pr 10:4) “The hand of the diligent ones is the one that will rule.” (Pr 12:24) Their soul “will be made fat.” (Pr 13:4) The industrious wife is one whose “sons have risen up and proceeded to pronounce her happy; her owner rises up, and he praises her.” Of her, it is proclaimed: “Give her of the fruitage of her hands, and let her works praise her even in the gates.” (Pr 31:28, 31) Above all, the spiritual brothers of Christ are told: “Do your utmost to make the calling and choosing of you sure for yourselves; for if you keep on doing these things you will by no means ever fail. In fact, thus there will be richly supplied to you the entrance into the everlasting kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.”​—2Pe 1:10, 11.

INGATHERING, FESTIVAL OF

See FESTIVAL OF BOOTHS.

INHERITANCE

Any property passing at the owner’s death to the heir or to those entitled to succeed; anything received from progenitors or predecessors as if by succession. The principal Hebrew verb used is na·chalʹ (noun, na·chalahʹ). It involves getting or giving an inheritance or hereditary possession, usually as a result of succession. (Nu 26:55; Eze 46:18) The verb ya·rashʹ is used at times in the sense “succeed as heir,” but more often, “take possession” apart from succession. (Ge 15:3; Le 20:24) It also has the meaning “dispossess; drive away,” involving military action. (De 2:12; 31:3) The Greek words having to do with inheritance are related to kleʹros, which originally meant “lot” but came to mean “share” and finally “inheritance.”​—Mt 27:35; Ac 1:17; 26:18.

In Israel the inheritance applied primarily to land possessions, although it was used with respect to movable property as well. The Bible speaks of the inheritance of things of a spiritual nature also. Spirit-begotten Christians are called “heirs indeed of God, but joint heirs with Christ.” They look forward, if they remain faithful, to “the everlasting inheritance.”​—Ro 8:17; Heb 9:15.

Patriarchal Period. The faithful Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob possessed no land, except for the field with the cave used as a burial place and the field near Shechem purchased by Jacob. (Ge 23:19, 20; 33:19) Concerning Abraham’s residence in Canaan, the Christian martyr Stephen said: “Yet he did not give him any inheritable possession in it, no, not a footbreadth; but he promised to give it to him as a possession, and after him to his seed, while as yet he had no child.” (Ac 7:5) The material inheritance that these men passed on consisted of their cattle and their movable goods. The firstborn son inherited a double portion (two parts) of the property as compared with that allotted to other sons. In the case of the patriarch Job, his daughters received an inheritance in among their brothers. It is not stated whether this included land inheritance.​—Job 42:15.

The father could transfer the birthright if he had a good reason, giving the firstborn’s inheritance to a younger son. In the instances of this noted in the Bible, it was not through whim or favoritism, but there was a basis on which the father determined to make the change in the birthright inheritance. Ishmael, as Abraham’s oldest son, was prospective heir for about 14 years. (Ge 16:16; 17:18-21; 21:5) But at Sarah’s request and with Jehovah’s approval, Abraham dismissed Ishmael, then about 19 years of age. Isaac then possessed the firstborn’s right and later received everything that Abraham had, with the exception of gifts that Abraham gave to sons later born to him by Keturah. (Ge 21:8-13; 25:5, 6) Reuben the firstborn of Jacob lost his birthright inheritance by reason of fornication with his father’s concubine. (Ge 49:3, 4; 1Ch 5:1, 2) Jacob gave the greater blessing to Ephraim, Joseph’s younger son, rather than to Manasseh, the older.​—Ge 48:13-19.

Concubinage was legal. In fact, in the Bible the concubine is sometimes designated “wife,” and the man with whom she lives, “husband.” Her father is called his father-in-law, and he is called her father’s son-in-law. (Ge 16:3; Jg 19:3-5) The sons of concubines were legitimate and therefore had an inheritance status equal to that of the sons of a regular wife.

Before Abraham had any children, he spoke of his slave Eliezer as the prospective heir of his goods but was told by Jehovah that he would have a child as heir.​—Ge 15:1-4.

Period of the Law. Under the Law a father was prevented from constituting the son of a better-loved wife his firstborn at the expense of his actual firstborn from a wife less loved. He had to give to the firstborn a double portion of everything that he owned. (De 21:15-17) When there were no sons, the inheritance went to the daughters. (Nu 27:6-8; Jos 17:3-6) However, daughters who inherited land were required to marry only in the family of their father’s tribe, in order to prevent the circulation of their inheritance from tribe to tribe. (Nu 36:6-9) If there were no children, the order of passing on the inheritance was to (1) brothers of the deceased, (2) his father’s brothers, (3) the closest blood relation. (Nu 27:9-11) A wife received no inheritance from her husband. If there were no children, the wife was considered to be the owner of the land until it was redeemed by the one having the right of repurchase. In such case the wife was repurchased along with the property. (Ru 4:1-12) Under the law of brother-in-law marriage, the first child born to the woman by the repurchaser became heir of the deceased husband and carried on his name.​—De 25:5, 6.

Hereditary lands. The inheritance of the sons of Israel was given to them by Jehovah, who outlined the boundaries of the land to Moses. (Nu 34:1-12; Jos 1:4) The sons of Gad, the sons of Reuben, and half of the tribe of Manasseh were granted their allotment of territory by Moses. (Nu 32:33; Jos 14:3) The rest of the tribes received their inheritance by lot at the direction of Joshua and Eleazar. (Jos 14:1, 2) In harmony with Jacob’s prophecy at Genesis 49:5, 7, Simeon and Levi were not given a separate section of territory as inheritance. Simeon’s territory consisted of land (along with enclave cities) inside the territory of Judah (Jos 19:1-9), while Levi was granted 48 cities throughout the entire territory of Israel. Since the Levites received the appointment to special service at the sanctuary, Jehovah was said to be their inheritance. They received the tithe as their portion or inheritance in return for their service. (Nu 18:20, 21; 35:6, 7) Families were given assignments within the territory of their tribe. As families would increase and sons would inherit, the land would be progressively divided up into smaller and smaller parcels.

Since land was kept in the possession of the same family from generation to generation, it could not be sold in perpetuity. The sale of land was, in effect, only the leasing of it for the value of crops it would produce, the purchase price being on a graduated scale according to the number of years until the next Jubilee, at which time all land possession would revert to the original owner if it had not been repurchased or redeemed prior to the Jubilee. (Le 25:13, 15, 23, 24) This regulation included houses in unwalled cities, which were regarded as part of the open field. As for a house in a walled city, the right of repurchase remained only for one year from the time of sale, at which time it became the property of the buyer. In the case of houses in Levite cities, the right of repurchase continued to time indefinite because the Levites had no inheritance of land.​—Le 25:29-34.

The inviolability of the hereditary possession is illustrated in the case of Naboth’s vineyard. Naboth refused either to sell it to the king or to exchange it for another vineyard; the crown did not have the right of eminent domain. (1Ki 21:2-6) A person could, however, devote a part of his inheritance to Jehovah for the sanctuary. If so, it could not be redeemed, but it remained the property of the sanctuary and its priesthood. If a man wished to sanctify part of his property for the temporary use of the sanctuary, he could do so; and if he later wished to redeem it, he could do this by adding a fifth of its valuation. This doubtless protected the sanctuary treasury from loss and also created greater respect for the sanctuary and that which was offered in the worship of Jehovah. If the sanctified field was sold to another man, then in the Jubilee it would be as a field devoted and would not be returned to the original owner but would remain the property of the sanctuary and its priesthood.​—Le 27:15-21, 28; see SANCTIFICATION (Sanctifying of Land).

From the foregoing it can be seen that wills had no place in Hebrew terminology or practice, the laws of inheritance obviating any necessity of such a document. Even movable property was disposed of by its owner during his lifetime or by the laws of inheritance at the time of his death. In Jesus’ illustration of the prodigal son, the younger son, on request, received his share of the property before his father’s death.​—Lu 15:12.

Benefits of hereditary laws. The laws governing the hereditary possessions and the dividing of them into smaller portions as the population increased were in themselves a contributing factor to greater family unity. In a land such as Israel, consisting of much hill country, as in Judea, this was advantageous in that it caused the Israelites to make the optimum use of the land, even terracing hillsides, resulting in clothing the land with beauty and greenery, the olive, the fig tree, the palm, and the vine, providing food for a great population. The fact that every man was a possessor of land created a greater love for the soil on which he lived, promoted industriousness, and, along with the Jubilee regulation, restored the nation to its original theocratic status every 50th year. This helped maintain a balanced economy. However, as with other features of the Law, abuses eventually crept in.

As Jehovah had told Israel, he was the real Owner of the land. They were alien residents and settlers from his standpoint. Therefore, he was able to put them out of the land at any time he saw fit. (Le 25:23) Because of their many violations of God’s law, they were sent into exile for 70 years under the power of Babylon and remained under Gentile domination even after their restoration in 537 B.C.E. Finally, in 70 C.E., the Romans took them completely off the land, selling thousands into slavery. Even their genealogical records were lost or destroyed.

Christian Inheritance. Jesus Christ, as the son of David, inherits the throne of David. (Isa 9:7; Lu 1:32) As the Son of God, he inherits heavenly kingship through the covenant Jehovah made with him. (Ps 110:4; Lu 22:28-30) Christ, therefore, inherits the nations, to break to pieces all opposers and to rule forever.​—Ps 2:6-9.

The anointed members of the Christian congregation are spoken of as having a heavenly inheritance, sharing Jesus’ inheritance as his “brothers.” (Eph 1:14; Col 1:12; 1Pe 1:4, 5) This includes the earth.​—Mt 5:5.

Because God redeemed Israel out of Egypt, they became his possession or “inheritance.” (De 32:9; Ps 33:12; 74:2; Mic 7:14) They foreshadowed the “nation” of spiritual Israel, whom God considers his “inheritance” because he possesses them, having purchased them by means of the blood of his only-begotten Son, Jesus Christ.​—1Pe 2:9; 5:2, 3; Ac 20:28.

Jesus Christ pointed out that persons who give up valuable things for the sake of his name and for the sake of the good news “will inherit everlasting life.”​—Mt 19:29; Mr 10:29, 30; see BIRTHRIGHT; BROTHER-IN-LAW MARRIAGE; FIRSTBORN, FIRSTLING.

INK

The Hebrew word deyohʹ, found only at Jeremiah 36:18, may possibly be an Egyptian loanword. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, meʹlan occurs only three times (2Co 3:3; 2Jo 12; 3Jo 13) and is the neuter form of the masculine adjective meʹlas, meaning “black.”​—Mt 5:36; Re 6:5, 12.

Generally speaking, inks were made of a pigment or coloring material dispersed in a medium containing gum, glue, or varnish that acted both as a carrying agent, or vehicle, and as a binder to hold the pigment on the surface to which it was applied. The oldest ink formulas, and the oldest specimens found, show that the pigment was a carbonaceous black, either in the form of amorphous soot obtained from burning oil or wood, or a crystalline charcoal from animal or vegetable sources. The pigments of red inks were iron oxides. Certain tinctures were also used by the ancients. Josephus says the copy of the Law sent to Ptolemy Philadelphus was written in gold letters. (Jewish Antiquities, XII, 89 [ii, 11]) If vegetable juices or dyes were ever used in inks, they long ago disappeared because of their perishable nature.

To make the best inks, much time was required to grind and disperse the pigments in their vehicles. The inks were then usually stored as dried cakes or bars, which were moistened sufficiently by the scribe as he applied the ink to his brush or reed.

The Chinese inks long enjoyed the reputation of having the deepest tone and being the most durable. Documents written in some of these inks can be soaked in water for several weeks without washing out. On the other hand, inks were also made so they could be erased with a wet sponge or damp cloth. This may have been the basis for Jehovah’s saying, in a symbolic way, “Whoever has sinned against me, I shall wipe him out of my book.”​—Ex 32:33; see also Nu 5:23; Ps 109:13, 14.

INKHORN

See SECRETARY’S INKHORN.

INN

In Greek, pan·do·kheiʹon, literally meaning “a place where all are received or taken in,” that is, where travelers could find accommodations for themselves and their animals. Perhaps ancient Middle Eastern inns resembled those built there in more recent times. These commonly consist of a walled square with only one entrance. Along the walls on a raised platform there are unfurnished rooms for sheltering travelers and goods, entrance being gained from the inner courtyard. The animals are left in the large court, which often has a centrally situated well. Innkeepers of ancient times furnished a few necessary provisions to travelers and cared for persons left in their charge, receiving compensation for their services.​—Lu 10:33-35.

INSECTS

In the adult stage, these invertebrates are distinguished by a body consisting of three segments, head, thorax, and abdomen, with six legs, a pair of feelers, and generally two or four wings.

The picturesque language of the Bible refers to insects as ‘going on all fours.’ Obviously Moses was familiar with the fact that insects have six legs. So the reference is undoubtedly to their mode of travel rather than to the number of their legs. There are winged insects, including the bees, flies, and wasps, that walk with their six legs in the manner of four-legged animals. Other insects, such as the locusts, are equipped with two leaper legs and thus literally use the other four legs for crawling.​—Le 11:20-23.

The more than 800,000 known varieties of insects present a panorama of contrast. While some are somberly colored, others are arrayed in bright hues and with beautiful designs. All the shades of the rainbow are represented. In size, insects vary from beetles that are small enough to get through the eye of a needle to curious “walking sticks” that measure more than 30 cm (1 ft) in length. Among the insects can be found organized communities, builders, agriculturists, manufacturers, long-distance fliers, expert jumpers, swimmers, and burrowers. Through study and observation, man can learn much from the insects, most importantly that they are God’s creations, endowed with instinctive wisdom, not by chance, but by the Source of all wisdom, Jehovah.​—Job 12:7-9.

Although many are inclined to view insects as pests that damage crops and man’s possessions as well as spread disease, actually only a very small percentage of insects can be designated as harmful under present circumstances. The majority can be classified either as neutral or as directly or indirectly beneficial to man.

Insects stand in an important relationship to plants. It has been estimated that 85 percent of flowering plants are either completely or partly dependent on insect pollination. Insects also play a beneficial role as soil builders and scavengers. Dyes and shellac are produced from scale insects. In the Middle East, insects, such as locusts, have for centuries been used as an item of the diet. Were it not for the existence of insects, honey and silk would be unknown.

Insects indeed occupy an important place in relation to the rest of the earthly creation. Observed Carl D. Duncan, professor of entomology and botany: “It is not too much to say that insects determine the character of man’s world to a far greater extent than he does himself, and that if they were suddenly to disappear completely the world would be changed so extensively that it is extremely doubtful that man would be able to maintain any sort of organized society whatever.”​—Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1947, p. 346.

INSIGHT

Essentially, insight is the ability to see into a situation. To act with insight is to act with prudence, discretion. According to Wilson’s Old Testament Word Studies, the Hebrew verb sa·khalʹ means “to look at; to be prudent, circumspect; to act prudently, to be intelligent.” (1978, p. 461) Thus, sa·khalʹ is rendered ‘have insight’ (Ps 14:2), ‘act with discretion’ (Pr 10:19), “act prudently” (1Sa 18:5), ‘have success’ (Pr 17:8), ‘cause to show insight’ (Pr 16:23). The noun seʹkhel is translated “insight” (Ps 111:10) and “discretion.”​—1Sa 25:3.

Insight is closely related to understanding, but there is a fine distinction between the two terms. Says the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament: “While bin [understanding] indicates ‘distinguishing between,’ [sa·khalʹ] relates to an intelligent knowledge of the reason. There is the process of thinking through a complex arrangement of thoughts resulting in a wise dealing and use of good practical common sense. Another end result is the emphasis upon being successful.”​—Edited by R. L. Harris, 1980, Vol. 2, p. 877; see UNDERSTANDING.

In the Greek Scriptures, the verb sy·niʹe·mi is translated ‘has insight’ at Romans 3:11, where the apostle Paul quotes from Psalm 14:2. Sy·niʹe·mi is also rendered “get the sense of” (Mt 13:13-15), ‘grasp’ (Mt 16:12), “understand” (Ac 28:26), and ‘perceive’ (Eph 5:17).

Jehovah God gives insight to his servants by providing them with counsel and advice that they can use to direct their steps and control their actions. (Ps 32:8; compare Da 9:22.) He provides such wise guidance by means of his Word. To gain insight, though, a person must do more than read the Bible. He must appreciate it so as to be motivated to do all that God directs. (Jos 1:7, 8; 1Ki 2:3) Needed also is the help of God’s spirit. (Ne 9:20; compare 1Ch 28:12, 19.) Once acquired, insight must be safeguarded. One can lose it by turning from God’s ways.​—Ps 36:1-3; Pr 21:16.

Insight can be displayed in various ways, resulting in blessings both to the one who has it and to others. The psalmist pronounces happy the one “acting with consideration [with insight] toward the lowly one.” (Ps 41:1) A wife who is “discreet” (showing insight) is described as a blessing from Jehovah. (Pr 19:14) Insight, looking beyond the obvious, enables one to guard his mouth (Pr 10:19; 16:23) and to know when to keep silent. (Am 5:13) It also helps one to avoid anger and overlook transgression. (Pr 19:11) One who has insight accepts correction. (Ps 2:10) According to Proverbs 21:11, when a wise person obtains insight​—that is, when he carefully considers available information and as a result acquires a clearer picture of a matter—​he “gets knowledge,” that is, he knows what to do regarding the matter, what conclusions to draw, what counsel to give.

INSPECTION GATE

See GATE, GATEWAY.

INSPIRATION

The quality or state of being moved by or produced under the direction of a spirit from a superhuman source. When that source is Jehovah, the result is a pronouncement or writings that are truly the word of God. The apostle Paul stated at 2 Timothy 3:16: “All Scripture is inspired of God.” The phrase “inspired of God” translates the compound Greek word the·oʹpneu·stos, meaning, literally, “God-breathed” or “breathed by God.”

This is the only occurrence of this Greek term in the Scriptures. Its use here clearly identifies God as the Source and Producer of the Sacred Scriptures, the Bible. Their being “God-breathed” finds some parallel in the expression found in the Hebrew Scriptures at Psalm 33:6: “By the word of Jehovah the heavens themselves were made, and by the spirit [or breath] of his mouth all their army.”

Results From the Operation of God’s Spirit. The means or agency for the inspiration of “all Scripture” was God’s holy spirit, or active force. (See SPIRIT.) That holy spirit operated toward or upon men to move them and guide them in setting down God’s message. Thus, the apostle Peter says of Bible prophecy: “You know this first, that no prophecy of Scripture springs from any private interpretation. For prophecy was at no time brought by man’s will, but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.” (2Pe 1:20, 21) The evidence shows that God’s spirit operated on the minds and hearts of all the Bible writers to carry them along to the goal purposed by God. King David said: “The spirit of Jehovah it was that spoke by me, and his word was upon my tongue.” (2Sa 23:2) When Jesus quoted Psalm 110, he said that David had written it “by inspiration [literally, in spirit].” (Mt 22:43) The parallel passage in Mark 12:36 reads “by the holy spirit.”

Even as Jehovah’s spirit moved men or qualified them to perform other divine assignments​—the making of priestly garments and equipment for the tabernacle (Ex 28:3; 35:30-35), carrying the load of administration (De 34:9), leading military forces (Jg 3:9, 10; 6:33, 34)​—so it enabled men to record the Scriptures. By means of that spirit, they could be given wisdom, understanding, knowledge, counsel, and power, beyond what was normal and according to their particular need. (Isa 11:2; Mic 3:8; 1Co 12:7, 8) David is stated to have received the architectural plan of the temple “by inspiration [literally, by the spirit].” (1Ch 28:12) Jesus assured his apostles that God’s spirit would help them, teaching, guiding, and recalling to their minds the things they had heard from him, as well as revealing to them future things. (Joh 14:26; 16:13) This assured the truthfulness and accuracy of their Gospel accounts, including many lengthy quotations of Jesus’ speeches, even though John’s Gospel account, for example, was written scores of years after the death of Jesus.

Controlled by “the hand of Jehovah.” The Bible writers, therefore, came under Jehovah’s “hand,” or guiding and controlling power. (2Ki 3:15, 16; Eze 3:14, 22) Even as Jehovah’s “hand” could cause his servants to speak or to keep silent at appointed times (Eze 3:4, 26, 27; 33:22), so it could stimulate writing or act as a restraining force; it could prompt the writer to deal with certain matters or restrict him from including other material. The end product would, in every case, be that which Jehovah desired.

How Writers Received Divine Direction. As the apostle states, God spoke “in many ways” to his servants in pre-Christian times. (Heb 1:1, 2) In at least one case, that of the Ten Commandments, or Decalogue, the information was divinely supplied in written form, merely requiring copying into the scrolls or other material used by Moses. (Ex 31:18; De 10:1-5) In other cases, information was transmitted by verbal dictation, word for word. When presenting the large body of laws and statutes of God’s covenant with Israel, Jehovah instructed Moses: “Write down for yourself these words.” (Ex 34:27) The prophets also were often given specific messages to deliver, and these were then recorded, forming part of the Scriptures.​—1Ki 22:14; Jer 1:7; 2:1; 11:1-5; Eze 3:4; 11:5.

Among still other methods used for conveying information to the Bible writers were dreams and visions. Dreams, or night visions as they were sometimes called, evidently superimposed a picture of God’s message or purpose on the mind of the sleeping person. (Da 2:19; 7:1) Visions given while the person was conscious were an even more frequently used vehicle of communication of God’s thoughts to the mind of the writer, the revelation being impressed pictorially upon the conscious mind. (Eze 1:1; Da 8:1; Re 9:17) Some visions were received when the person had fallen into a trance. Though conscious, the person apparently was so absorbed by the vision received during the trance as to be oblivious to all else around him.​—Ac 10:9-17; 11:5-10; 22:17-21; see VISION.

Angelic messengers were used on many occasions to transmit the divine messages. (Heb 2:2) Such messengers played a larger part in the transmission of information than is at times apparent. Thus, whereas the Law given to Moses is presented as spoken by God, both Stephen and Paul show that God used his angels in transmitting that legal code. (Ac 7:53; Ga 3:19) Since the angels spoke in Jehovah’s name, the message they presented could therefore properly be called “the word of Jehovah.”​—Ge 22:11, 12, 15-18; Zec 1:7, 9.

No matter what the particular means employed for the transmission of the messages, all parts of the Scriptures would be of the same quality, all of them being inspired, or “God-breathed.”

Is the fact that Bible writers showed individuality in expression consistent with the Bible’s being inspired by God?

The evidence indicates, however, that the men used by God to record the Scriptures were not merely automatons, simply recording dictated material. We read concerning the apostle John that the “God-breathed” Revelation was presented to him through an angel “in signs” and that John then “bore witness to the word God gave and to the witness Jesus Christ gave, even to all the things he saw.” (Re 1:1, 2) It was “by inspiration [literally, “in spirit”]” that John “came to be in the Lord’s day” and he was told: “What you see write in a scroll.” (Re 1:10, 11) So, God apparently saw good to allow Bible writers to use their mental faculties in selecting words and expressions to describe the visions they saw (Hab 2:2), while always exercising sufficient control and guidance over them so that the end product would be not only accurate and true but also such as suited Jehovah’s purpose. (Pr 30:5, 6) That personal effort on the part of the writer was involved is shown by the statement at Ecclesiastes 12:9, 10, there being a pondering, searching, and arranging in order to present properly “delightful words and the writing of correct words of truth.”​—Compare Lu 1:1-4.

This doubtless explains why there are different styles of writing as well as expressions that apparently reflect the background of the individual writers. The natural qualifications of the writers may have been a factor in God’s selection of them for their particular assignment; he may also have prepared them prior thereto to serve his particular purpose.

As evidence of this individuality of expression, Matthew, who had been a tax collector, makes numerous particularly specific references to numbers and money values. (Mt 17:27; 26:15; 27:3) Luke, “the beloved physician” (Col 4:14), on the other hand, uses distinctive expressions that reflect his medical background.​—Lu 4:38; 5:12; 16:20.

Even where the writer speaks of receiving “the word of Jehovah” or a certain “pronouncement,” it may be that this was transmitted, not word for word, but by giving the writer a mental picture of God’s purpose, one that the writer would thereafter express in words. This is perhaps indicated by the writers’ speaking at times of ‘seeing’ (rather than ‘hearing’) “the pronouncement” or “the word of Jehovah.”​—Isa 13:1; Mic 1:1; Hab 1:1; 2:1, 2.

The men used to write the Scriptures therefore cooperated with the operation of Jehovah’s holy spirit. They were willing and submissive to God’s guidance (Isa 50:4, 5), eager to know God’s will and leading. (Isa 26:9) In many cases they had certain goals in mind (Lu 1:1-4) or were responding to an evident need (1Co 1:10, 11; 5:1; 7:1), and God directed them so that what they wrote coincided with and fulfilled his purpose. (Pr 16:9) As spiritual men, their hearts and minds were attuned to God’s will, they ‘had the mind of Christ’ and so were not setting down mere human wisdom nor a “vision of their own heart,” as false prophets did.​—1Co 2:13-16; Jer 23:16; Eze 13:2, 3, 17.

It can be seen that the holy spirit would, indeed, have “varieties of operations” toward or upon these Bible writers. (1Co 12:6) A considerable portion of the information was humanly accessible to them, sometimes already existing in written form, as in the case of genealogies and certain historical accounts. (Lu 1:3; 3:23-38; Nu 21:14, 15; 1Ki 14:19, 29; 2Ki 15:31; 24:5; see BOOK.) Here God’s spirit would operate to prevent inaccuracy or error from intruding into the Divine Record and also to guide in the selection of material to be included. Obviously, not everything stated by other persons and thereafter included in the Bible was inspired of God, but the selection of the material to be part of the Holy Scriptures and the accurate recording of it were under the direction of holy spirit. (See Ge 3:4, 5; Job 42:3; Mt 16:21-23.) In this way God has preserved in his inspired Word a record demonstrating what happens when people listen to him and work in harmony with his purpose, as well as the outcome when they think, speak, and act in ways that show disregard for God or ignorance of his righteous ways. On the other hand, the information concerning the prehuman history of the earth (Ge 1:1-26), heavenly events and activities (Job 1:6-12 and other texts), and prophecies, as well as revelations of God’s purposes and of doctrines, was not humanly obtainable and would need to be transmitted supernaturally by God’s spirit. As to wise sayings and counsel, even though the writer may have learned much from his personal experience in life and even more from his own study and application of those parts of the Scriptures already recorded, the operation of God’s spirit would still be required to ensure the information’s qualifying as part of the Word of God that is “alive and exerts power . . . and is able to discern thoughts and intentions of the heart.”​—Heb 4:12.

This may be seen by the expressions the apostle Paul makes in his first letter to the Corinthians. In giving counsel on marriage and singleness he says at one point: “But to the others I say, yes, I, not the Lord . . . ” Again: “Now concerning virgins I have no command from the Lord, but I give my opinion.” And finally, regarding a widowed woman, he states: “But she is happier if she remains as she is, according to my opinion. I certainly think I also have God’s spirit.” (1Co 7:12, 25, 40) The evident meaning of Paul’s statements is that he could quote no direct teaching by the Lord Jesus on certain points. Hence Paul gave his personal opinion as a spirit-filled apostle. His counsel, however, was “God-breathed” and so came to form part of the Sacred Scriptures, having equal authority with the rest of those Scriptures.

There is clearly a distinction between the inspired writings of the Bible and other writings that, while manifesting a measure of the spirit’s direction and guidance, are not properly classed with the Sacred Scriptures. As has been shown, in addition to the canonical books of the Hebrew Scriptures, there were other writings, such as official records concerning the kings of Judah and Israel, and these, in many cases, may have been drawn up by men devoted to God. They were even used in research done by those writers who were inspired to write part of the Sacred Scriptures. So, too, in apostolic times. In addition to the letters included in the Bible canon, there were doubtless many other letters written by the apostles and older men to the numerous congregations during the course of the years. While the writers were spirit-guided men, still God did not place his seal of guarantee distinguishing any such additional writings as part of the inerrant Word of God. The Hebrew noncanonical writings may have contained some error, and even the noncanonical writings of the apostles may have reflected to some degree the incomplete understanding that existed in the early years of the Christian congregation. (Compare Ac 15:1-32; Ga 2:11-14; Eph 4:11-16.) However, even as God by his spirit, or active force, granted to certain Christians the “discernment of inspired utterances,” he could also guide the governing body of the Christian congregation in discerning which inspired writings were to be included in the canon of the Sacred Scriptures.​—1Co 12:10; see CANON.

Recognition of Scriptures as Inspired. The evidence is clear that all the Sacred Scriptures, as progressively added to the Bible canon, were consistently recognized by God’s servants, including Jesus and his apostles, as inspired. By “inspiration” is meant, not a mere heightening of the intellect and emotions to a higher degree of accomplishment or sensitivity (as is often said of secular artists or poets), but the production of writings that are inerrant and that have the same authority as if written by God himself. For this reason the prophets who contributed to the writing of the Hebrew Scriptures ceaselessly credited their messages to God, with the pronouncement, “This is what Jehovah has said,” doing so over 300 times. (Isa 37:33; Jer 2:2; Na 1:12) Jesus and his apostles confidently quoted the Hebrew Scriptures as God’s own word spoken through the assigned writers, hence as certain of fulfillment and as the final authority in any controversy. (Mt 4:4-10; 19:3-6; Lu 24:44-48; Joh 13:18; Ac 13:33-35; 1Co 15:3, 4; 1Pe 1:16; 2:6-9) They contained “the sacred pronouncements of God.” (Ro 3:1, 2; Heb 5:12) After explaining in Hebrews 1:1 that God spoke to Israel through the prophets, Paul goes on to quote from several books of the Hebrew Scriptures, presenting the texts as though spoken personally by Jehovah God himself. (Heb 1:5-13) Compare similar references to the holy spirit at Acts 1:16; 28:25; Hebrews 3:7; 10:15-17.

Showing his full faith in the inerrancy of the Sacred Writings, Jesus said that “the Scripture cannot be nullified” (Joh 10:34, 35) and that “sooner would heaven and earth pass away than for one smallest letter or one particle of a letter to pass away from the Law by any means and not all things take place.” (Mt 5:18) He told the Sadducees that they were in error regarding the resurrection because “you know neither the Scriptures nor the power of God.” (Mt 22:29-32; Mr 12:24) He was willing to submit to arrest and death itself because of knowing that this was in fulfillment of the written Word of God, the Sacred Scriptures.​—Mt 26:54; Mr 14:27, 49.

These statements, of course, apply to the pre-Christian Hebrew Scriptures. That the Christian Greek Scriptures were likewise presented and accepted as inspired is also clear (1Co 14:37; Ga 1:8, 11, 12; 1Th 2:13), the apostle Peter in one statement including Paul’s letters with the rest of the Scriptures. (2Pe 3:15, 16) Thus the entire body of the Scriptures comprise the unified and harmonious written Word of God.​—Eph 6:17.

Authority of Copies and Translations. Absolute inerrancy is therefore to be attributed to the written Word of God. This is true of the original writings, none of which are known to exist today. The copies of those original writings and the translations made in many languages cannot lay claim to absolute accuracy. There is solid evidence and sound reason for believing, however, that the available manuscripts of the Sacred Scriptures do provide copies of the written Word of God in nearly exact form, the points in question having little bearing on the sense of the message conveyed. God’s own purpose in preparing the Sacred Scriptures and the inspired declaration that “the saying of Jehovah endures forever” give assurance that Jehovah God has preserved the internal integrity of the Scriptures through the centuries.​—1Pe 1:25.

What accounts for differences in wording of quotations made from the Hebrew Scriptures in the Christian Greek Scriptures?

In a number of cases the writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures evidently made use of the Greek Septuagint translation when quoting from the Hebrew Scriptures. At times the rendering of the Septuagint, as quoted by them, differs somewhat from the reading of the Hebrew Scriptures as now known (most translations today being based on the Hebrew Masoretic text dating back to about the tenth century C.E.). As an example, Paul’s quotation of Psalm 40:6 contains the expression “but you prepared a body for me,” an expression found in the Septuagint. (Heb 10:5, 6) The available Hebrew manuscripts of Psalm 40:6 have, in place of that expression, the words “these ears of mine you opened up.” Whether the original Hebrew text contained the phrase found in the Septuagint cannot be stated with certainty. Whatever the case, God’s spirit guided Paul in his quotation, and therefore these words have divine authorization. This does not mean that the entire Septuagint translation is to be viewed as inspired; but those portions quoted by the inspired Christian writers did become an integral part of God’s Word.

In a few cases the quotations made by Paul and others differ from both the Hebrew and Greek texts as found in available manuscripts. The differences are minor, however, and upon examination are seen to be the result of paraphrasing, epitomizing, the use of synonymous terms, or the addition of explanatory words or phrases. Genesis 2:7, for instance, says “the man came to be a living soul,” whereas Paul in quoting this portion said: “It is even so written: ‘The first man Adam became a living soul.’” (1Co 15:45) His addition of the words “first” and “Adam” served to emphasize the contrast he was making between Adam and Christ. The insertion was fully in accord with the facts recorded in the Scriptures and in no way perverted the sense or content of the text quoted. Those to whom Paul wrote had copies (or translations) of the Hebrew Scriptures older than those we have today and could investigate his quotations, in a way similar to that of the people of Beroea. (Ac 17:10, 11) The inclusion of these writings in the canon of the Sacred Scriptures by the Christian congregation of the first century gives evidence of their acceptance of such quotations as part of the inspired Word of God.​—Compare also Zec 13:7 with Mt 26:31.

“Inspired Expressions”​—True and False. The Greek word pneuʹma (spirit) is used in a special manner in some apostolic writings. At 2 Thessalonians 2:2, for example, the apostle Paul urges his Thessalonian brothers not to get excited or shaken from their reason “either through an inspired expression [literally, “spirit”] or through a verbal message or through a letter as though from us, to the effect that the day of Jehovah is here.” It is clear that Paul uses the word pneuʹma (spirit) in connection with means of communication, such as the “verbal message” or “letter.” For this reason Lange’s Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (p. 126) says on this text: “By this the Apostle intends a spiritual suggestion, pretended prediction, utterance of a prophet.” (Translated and edited by P. Schaff, 1976) Vincent’s Word Studies in the New Testament states: “By spirit. By prophetic utterances of individuals in Christian assemblies, claiming the authority of divine revelations.” (1957, Vol. IV, p. 63) Thus, while some translations simply render pneuʹma in this and similar cases as “spirit,” other translations read “message of the Spirit” (AT), “prediction” (JB), “inspiration” (D’Ostervald; Segond [French]), “inspired expression” (NW).

Paul’s words make it clear that there are true “inspired expressions” and false ones. He refers to both kinds at 1 Timothy 4:1 when saying that “the inspired utterance [from Jehovah’s holy spirit] says definitely that in later periods of time some will fall away from the faith, paying attention to misleading inspired utterances and teachings of demons.” This identifies the source of the false “inspired utterances” as the demons. This is supported by the vision given the apostle John in which he saw “three unclean inspired expressions,” froglike in appearance, proceeding from the mouths of the dragon, the wild beast, and the false prophet, and which expressions he specifically states are “inspired by demons,” serving to gather earth’s kings to the war at Har–Magedon.​—Re 16:13-16.

With good reason, then, John urged Christians to “test the inspired expressions to see whether they originate with God.” (1Jo 4:1-3; compare Re 22:6.) He then went on to show that God’s true inspired expressions were coming through the genuine Christian congregation, not through unchristian worldly sources. John’s statement was, of course, inspired by Jehovah God, but even aside from this, John’s letter had laid a solid foundation for making the straightforward statement: “He that gains the knowledge of God listens to us; he that does not originate with God does not listen to us. This is how we take note of the inspired expression of truth and the inspired expression of error.” (1Jo 4:6) Far from being mere dogmatism, John had shown that he and other true Christians were manifesting the fruits of God’s spirit, primarily love, and were proving by their right conduct and truthful speech that they were indeed “walking in the light” in union with God.​—1Jo 1:5-7; 2:3-6, 9-11, 15-17, 29; 3:1, 2, 6, 9-18, 23, 24; contrast Tit 1:16.

INSTALLATION

(in·stal·laʹtion).

The induction of the priesthood into office. The Hebrew word for “installation” (mil·lu·ʼimʹ) literally means “a filling,” that is, a filling of the hand with power, an empowering. (Ex 29:22, ftn; compare Eze 43:26, ftn; see FILL HAND WITH POWER.) The same term is used for the “setting” of jewels.​—1Ch 29:2.

Aaron and his sons were taken from the Kohathite family of the tribe of Levi to serve as the priesthood for Israel. (Ex 6:16, 18, 20; 28:1) Their installation occupied seven days, apparently falling on Nisan 1-7, 1512 B.C.E., while Israel was encamped at the foot of Mount Sinai in the Arabian Peninsula. (Ex 40:2, 12, 17) The tent of meeting had just been completed and set up on the first day of the month; the priestly family had been chosen by Jehovah; and now Moses, the brother of Aaron, as mediator of the Law covenant, was commanded to perform the ceremony of their sanctification and installation. Instructions for the procedure are given in Exodus chapter 29, and the record of Moses’ carrying out the ceremony is in Leviticus chapter 8.

On this first day, with Jehovah’s presence represented by the pillar of cloud above the tabernacle (Ex 40:33-38), Moses assembled all the sacrificial items: the bull, the two rams, the basket of unfermented cakes, the anointing oil, and the priestly garments. As instructed, he called the congregation of Israel, which likely meant the older men as representatives of the entire congregation, to gather at the entrance of the tent of meeting, outside the curtain that surrounded the courtyard. Since they evidently could observe what took place in the courtyard, the gateway screen, 20 cubits (8.9 m; 29 ft) wide, was probably removed.​—Le 8:1-5; Ex 27:16.

Moses washed Aaron and Aaron’s sons Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar (or, he commanded them to wash themselves) at the copper basin in the courtyard and put upon Aaron the glorious garments of the high priest. (Nu 3:2, 3) Now clothed in beautiful apparel, Aaron was invested with the garments representing the qualities and responsibilities of his office. Moses then anointed the tabernacle, all its furnishings and utensils, and the altar of burnt offering, as well as the basin and the utensils used in connection with them. This sanctified them, set them aside for the exclusive use and service of God for which they would now be employed. Finally Moses anointed Aaron by pouring the oil upon his head.​—Le 8:6-12; Ex 30:22-33; Ps 133:2.

Bull of the Sin Offering. Following this, Moses clothed Aaron’s sons, after which he caused Aaron and his sons to lay their hands on the head of the bull of the sin offering, their action signifying their acknowledgment of the offering as being for them, the priestly house. After slaughtering the bull, Moses put some of the blood on the altar and poured the rest out at the base of the altar, thus symbolizing cleansing from the defilement brought because of the sinful nature of the priests who officiated at the altar. The blood being put on the horns of the altar evidently signified that the power of the sacrificial arrangement lay in the shed blood of the sacrifice. (Heb 9:22) The sprinkling of the altar was likewise required in connection with other offerings. (Le 1:5, 11; 3:2; 4:6; 16:18) Notice, however, that this being ‘ordination day’ for the priesthood and not the national atonement day for sins, the bull’s blood was not taken into the Most Holy. (See Le 16:14.) As with other sin offerings, the fat upon the intestines, the appendage of the liver, and the two kidneys with their fat were placed on the altar. (Le 4:8-10, 20, 26, 31) The rest of the bull, with its skin and dung, was taken outside the camp to be burned.​—Le 8:13-17.

Sacrificial Rams. Then Aaron and his sons laid hands on the ram of the burnt offering, and it was slaughtered, some of its blood being sprinkled upon the altar. The ram was then cut into parts, washed, and burned on the altar; but this did not include the dung and the skin. (Le 7:8) As this ram of the burnt offering was offered up completely, nothing being retained for consumption by any human, so these priests were completely sanctified to Jehovah’s holy, priestly service.​—Le 8:18-21; compare Le 1:3-9.

The other ram, “the ram of the installation,” after having the priests’ hands laid upon it, was slaughtered. Here the blood was used differently. Some of it was put on the right earlobe, right thumb, and right big toe of Aaron and his sons; so the faculties represented by these body members were to be used fully in connection with the sacrificial feature of their ministry. The rest of the blood Moses sprinkled upon the altar.​—Le 8:22-24.

The fat around the ram’s organs, before being offered in the usual way, was placed, along with one of each of the three kinds of unfermented cakes taken from the basket, on the right leg of the ram. All of this was now put on the palms of Aaron and his sons and was waved before Jehovah by Moses, who evidently put his hands under the priests’ hands to do so. This signified that their hands were ‘filled with power,’ that is, filled with sacrificial gifts and fully equipped and empowered for sacrificial duty. They were shown to be authorized not only to offer the fat portions on the altar but also to receive the gifts provided for their sustenance as Jehovah’s abundant arrangement for his priesthood. The part of the ram waved, the right leg, usually went to the officiating priest as his portion. (Le 7:32-34; Nu 18:18) In this instance, it was all burned on the altar. Thus it was both presented (waved) before Jehovah and actually offered, acknowledging all of it as his bestowal upon the priesthood.​—Le 8:25-28.

Moses, acting in a priestly capacity during the installation service, now received the breast from the installation ram as his own portion, after presenting it as a wave offering.​—Le 8:29; see also Ex 29:26-28.

Some of the ram’s blood with the anointing oil (apparently mixed) was spattered upon Aaron, his sons, and their garments, to sanctify them. This also identified them with the sacrificial office, as directed by God’s spirit. There is no mention of Aaron’s sons being anointed by pouring oil over the head, as Aaron had been.​—Le 8:30.

At the entrance of the tent of meeting, Aaron and his sons were to boil the portion of the ram’s flesh that had not been burned on the altar or given to Moses. They would eat it, along with the cakes remaining in the basket, but any of this food left over was to be burned the next morning. This emphasized the cleanness and also stressed the completeness of their sanctification and service (because what was eaten was free from any putrefaction or staleness, and remainders were completely disposed of). It is notable also that no leaven was in the cakes.​—Le 8:31, 32; Ex 29:31-34.

Completion of the Installation. The installation took seven days, before the end of which the priesthood could not officiate in the fullest sense. On each of the days, a bull was sacrificed as a sin offering to purify the altar. During the entire seven days, day and night, the newly ordained priests had to man posts of duty at the entrance of the tent of meeting, keeping “the obligatory watch of Jehovah,” that they might not die.​—Le 8:33-36; Ex 29:35-42.

On the eighth day, fully equipped and installed in office, the priesthood officiated (without Moses’ assistance) for the first time, performing an atonement service for the nation of Israel, especially in need of cleansing not only because of their natural sinfulness but also because of their recent disobedience in connection with the golden calf, which had brought Jehovah’s displeasure. (Le 9:1-7; Ex 32:1-10) At the conclusion of this first service by the newly installed priesthood, Jehovah manifested his approval and confirmation of them in office by sending miraculous fire, doubtless from the pillar of cloud above the tabernacle, devouring the remainder of the sacrifice on the altar.​—Le 9:23, 24.

The Bible gives no record of an installation ceremony for the successors of Aaron. Evidently the one installation service was sufficient to place the Aaronic house and all its male offspring in their priestly office once and for all, to continue to time indefinite, down until the installation in office of the true and everlasting high priest Jesus Christ.​—Heb 7:12, 17; 9:11, 12; see HIGH PRIEST; PRIEST.

INSTRUCTION

Direction or teaching that calls for compliance. The Hebrew verb ya·rahʹ means “instruct; direct; teach.” The Hebrew term leʹqach (instruction) basically means “a taking.” (De 32:2; compare Jer 9:20, where the related verb occurs in the expression “may your ear take the word of his mouth.”) The same term is rendered “persuasiveness” in Proverbs 16:21. The Greek pai·deuʹo means “instruct; chastise; discipline,” and the Greek ka·te·kheʹo means “teach orally; instruct.”

Jehovah is the “Grand Instructor” of his people (Isa 30:20), and those who receive his instruction are under obligation to act in harmony with it​—they “will walk in his paths” and “will have to beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning shears.” (Isa 2:3, 4; Mic 4:2, 3) Appreciating the value of Jehovah’s instruction and having a desire to comply with it, his servants pray: “Instruct me, O Jehovah, about your way. I shall walk in your truth. Unify my heart to fear your name.”​—Ps 86:11; 27:11; 119:33.

In ancient Israel, Jehovah assigned the priests as instructors of his people. Emphasizing the importance of compliance with instruction received through this channel, Moses said: “You must do in accordance with the word that they will hand down to you from that place which Jehovah will choose; and you must be careful to do according to all that they instruct you. In accordance with the law that they will point out to you, and according to the judicial decision that they will say to you, you should do. You must not turn aside from the word that they will hand down to you, to the right or to the left.” (De 17:10, 11; 24:8) To those in the Christian congregation, the apostle Paul wrote: “All the things that were written aforetime were written for our instruction, that through our endurance and through the comfort from the Scriptures we might have hope.” (Ro 15:4) We do well, therefore, to search out the commandments, take note of the underlying principles, and learn well the lessons that are set forth throughout God’s inspired Word and then comply with these in our own lives.​—See PUBLIC INSTRUCTOR.

Instruction can be received even from the domestic animals and from the earth, as stated at Job 12:7-10. (Pr 6:6) In these, wise persons will see evidence of the handiwork of God and of the fact that all life is dependent upon God. Humans who fail to act in harmony with this abundant evidence are, as the apostle Paul wrote, “inexcusable.”​—Ro 1:20.

Those who became disciples of Jesus Christ addressed him as Instructor, thus acknowledging his authority and their responsibility to comply with his directions. (Lu 5:5; 9:33) A group of ten leprous men who implored Jesus for mercy likewise addressed him in this manner.​—Lu 17:13.

Although instruction calls for compliance and is not merely for entertainment, it can be imparted in a refreshing way. Jehovah directed Moses to teach Israel a song in which he said: “My instruction will drip as the rain, my saying will trickle as the dew, as gentle rains upon grass.” (De 32:2) To the Christian overseer Timothy, Paul wrote about “instructing with mildness those not favorably disposed; as perhaps God may give them repentance leading to an accurate knowledge of truth.” (2Ti 2:25) Instruction can, however, involve discipline in the form of chastisement. Such discipline is not always easy to take, but when one responds to it, it will yield “peaceable fruit, namely, righteousness.”​—Heb 12:7-11.

Not all instruction is given by one whose motivation is proper, nor is the objective necessarily beneficial for the one who receives it. “Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” but at the age of 40 he openly identified himself with the Hebrews and left behind what could have been his inheritance in the royal courts of Egypt. (Ac 7:22) Isaiah spoke of prophets in Israel who gave false instruction, and Micah wrote regarding priests who instructed “just for a price.” (Mic 3:11; Isa 9:15) Some persons foolishly turned to molten statues for instruction. (Hab 2:18) The soldiers who had been guarding Jesus’ tomb were willing, after they had been bribed, to comply with the instruction given them to lie regarding what had happened to Jesus’ body.​—Mt 28:12-15.

INSTRUMENT

See STRINGED INSTRUMENT; LEVELING INSTRUMENT.

INTEGRITY

Moral soundness, completeness, one’s being blameless and faultless.

The Hebrew terms relating to integrity (tom, tum·mahʹ, tam, ta·mimʹ) have the root meaning of that which is “complete” or “whole.” (Compare Le 25:30; Jos 10:13; Pr 1:12.) Ta·mimʹ is used several times to refer to physical completeness, or soundness, and freedom from impairment, for example, regarding sacrificial animals. (Ex 12:5; 29:1; Le 3:6) But more frequently these terms describe moral soundness or blamelessness.

When applied to God, ta·mimʹ may properly be translated “perfect,” as in describing Jehovah’s activity and works, his way, knowledge, and law. (De 32:4; Job 36:4; 37:16; Ps 18:30; 19:7) All these divine qualities and expressions manifest such unmatchable completeness and fullness, are so sound and free from defect, or fault, that they clearly identify their Source as the one true God.​—Ro 1:20; see PERFECTION.

Significance of Human Integrity. In a few cases the Hebrew tom conveys simply the idea of honest motive, innocence as to wrong intention. (Compare Ge 20:5, 6; 2Sa 15:11.) But mainly these related Hebrew terms describe unswerving devotion to righteousness. Biblical usage and examples emphasize unbreakable devotion to a person, Jehovah God, and to his expressed will and purpose as the course of vital importance.

Involved in the supreme issue. The first human pair were given the opportunity to manifest integrity in Eden. The restriction regarding the tree of knowledge put to the test their devotion to their Creator. Under the pressure of outside influence from God’s Adversary and his appeal to selfishness, they gave way to disobedience. Their shame, their reluctance to face their Creator, and their lack of candor in responding to his questions all gave evidence of their lack of integrity. (Compare Ps 119:1, 80.) Obviously, however, they were not the first to break integrity, since the spirit creature who led them into a rebellious course had already done so.​—Ge 3:1-19; compare his course with the dirge pronounced against the king of Tyre at Eze 28:12-15; see SATAN.

Satan’s rebellion, visibly initiated in Eden, produced an issue of universal importance​—that of the rightfulness of God’s sovereignty over all his creatures, his right to require full obedience of them. Since the issue was not one of superiority of power but, rather, was a moral issue, it could not be settled merely by the exercise of power, as by God’s immediately crushing Satan and the human pair out of existence. This fact is an aid in understanding why wickedness and its author, Satan, have been allowed to continue so long. (See WICKEDNESS.) Since God’s Adversary first drew upon humans for support and endorsement of his rebel course (the earliest evidence for any siding with Satan on the part of spirit sons of God not appearing until sometime prior to the Flood; Ge 6:1-5; compare 2Pe 2:4, 5), this made the question of man’s integrity to God’s sovereign will an essential part of the overall issue (though Jehovah’s sovereignty is not itself dependent on the integrity of his creatures). Proof of this is seen in the case of Job.

Job. Job, who evidently lived in the period between the death of Joseph and the time of Moses, is described as a man who had “proved to be blameless [Heb., tam] and upright, and fearing God and turning aside from bad.” (Job 1:1; see JOB.) That human integrity forms part of the issue between Jehovah God and Satan is clear from God’s questioning his Adversary about Job when Satan appeared during an angelic assembly in the courts of heaven. Satan imputed false motive to Job’s worship of God, alleging that Job served not out of pure devotion but for selfish benefits. He thereby placed in question Job’s integrity to God. Permitted to divest Job of his vast possessions and even of his children, Satan failed to crack Job’s integrity. (Job 1:6–2:3) He then claimed that Job was selfishly willing to endure the loss of possessions and children as long as he could save his own skin. (Job 2:4, 5) Thereafter stricken with a painful, consuming disease and subjected to dissuasion from his own wife as well as to disparaging criticism and slurs from companions who misrepresented God’s standards and purposes (Job 2:6-13; 22:1, 5-11), Job’s response was that he would not deny having been a man of integrity. “Until I expire I shall not take away my integrity from myself! On my justness I have laid hold, and I shall not let it go; my heart will not taunt me for any of my days.” (Job 27:5, 6) His maintaining integrity demonstrated that God’s Adversary was a liar.

Satan’s challenging statements in Job’s case show he held the position that all persons could be drawn away from God’s side, that none served out of a purely unselfish motive. Thus humans, as well as God’s spirit sons, have the remarkable privilege of contributing to the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty by a course of integrity to him. In doing so they also sanctify his name. The ones “blameless in their way are a pleasure” to Jehovah.​—Pr 11:20; contrast this with the false view advanced by Eliphaz at Job 22:1-3.

Basis for divine judgment. Having a favorable judgment from God is dependent on the creature’s integrity-keeping course. (Ps 18:23-25) As King David wrote: “Jehovah himself will pass sentence on the peoples. Judge me, O Jehovah, according to my righteousness and according to my integrity in me. Please, may the badness of wicked ones come to an end, and may you establish the righteous one.” (Ps 7:8, 9; compare Pr 2:21, 22.) Suffering Job expressed the confidence that “[Jehovah] will weigh me in accurate scales and God will get to know my integrity.” (Job 31:6) Job thereafter lists about a dozen examples from actual life that, if true of him, would have demonstrated a lack of integrity.​—Job 31:7-40.

What does integrity keeping include in the case of imperfect humans?

Since all men are imperfect and unable to measure up perfectly to God’s standards, it is evident that their integrity does not mean perfection of action or of speech. Rather, the Scriptures show it means wholeness or completeness of heart devotion. David, through weakness, committed several serious wrongs, but he, nevertheless, ‘walked with integrity of heart’ (1Ki 9:4), for he accepted reproof and corrected his way. He thereby proved that his heart still retained genuine love for Jehovah God. (Ps 26:1-3, 6, 8, 11) As David later told his son Solomon: “Know the God of your father and serve him with a complete heart and with a delightful soul; for all hearts Jehovah is searching, and every inclination of the thoughts he is discerning.” Solomon’s heart, however, did not “prove to be complete with Jehovah his God like the heart of David his father.”​—1Ch 28:9; 1Ki 11:4; the word “complete” in these two texts is from another Hebrew term, sha·lemʹ, as at Pr 11:1; 1Ki 15:14.

Integrity is therefore not restricted to any one aspect of human conduct; it does not apply just to matters obviously “religious.” For God’s servant it is a way of life in which the individual ‘walks,’ constantly searching to know Jehovah’s will. (Ps 119:1-3) David shepherded the nation of Israel “according to the integrity of his heart,” both in matters directly relating to Jehovah’s worship and in his conduct of governmental affairs. He also desired that those around him and those acting as his ministers likewise be persons of integrity, “walking in a faultless way.” (Ps 78:72; 101:2-7) One ‘proves himself faultless’ before God over a period of time, as did Noah, Abraham, and others.​—Ge 6:9; 17:1; 2Sa 22:24.

Integrity requires uncompromising loyalty to God and adherence to righteousness, not merely under favorable conditions or circumstances, but under all conditions and at all times. After stressing that only the integrity-keeper, “speaking the truth in his heart,” is acceptable to Jehovah, the psalmist says of such a one that “he has sworn to what is bad for himself, and yet he does not alter,” that is, even if something he has solemnly agreed to turns out to be apparently against his personal interests, he still stays true to his agreement. (Ps 15:1-5; contrast Ro 1:31; 1Ti 1:10.) Integrity, then, is most evident when the individual’s devotion is under test and he is pressured to abandon his righteous course. Though made a laughingstock by opposers (Job 12:4; compare Jer 20:7) or made the object of their bitter speech (Ps 64:3, 4), hatred, and violent persecution (Pr 29:10; Am 5:10), whether in sickness or in distressful adversity, a person must ‘hold fast his integrity’ as did Job, no matter what the cost.​—Job 2:3.

Such an integrity-keeping course is possible, not by the individual’s personal moral strength, but only through deep faith and trust in Jehovah and His saving power. (Ps 25:21) God’s promise is that he will be a “shield” and “stronghold,” guarding the way of those walking in integrity. (Pr 2:6-8; 10:29; Ps 41:12) Their constant concern for gaining Jehovah’s approval brings stability to their lives, enabling them to follow a straight course to their goal. (Ps 26:1-3; Pr 11:5; 28:18) Though, as Job perplexedly observed, the blameless may suffer because of the rule of the wicked and may die along with the wicked, Jehovah assures that he is aware of the life of the faultless person and guarantees that such a person’s inheritance will continue, his future will be peaceful, and he will come into the possession of good. (Job 9:20-22; Ps 37:18, 19, 37; 84:11; Pr 28:10) As in Job’s case, it is being a man of integrity, rather than one’s wealth, that makes one a person of genuine worth, meriting respect. (Pr 19:1; 28:6) Children privileged to have such a person for a parent are to be counted happy (Pr 20:7), receiving a splendid legacy in their father’s life example, enjoying a share in his good name and the respect he gained.

In addition to the examples of Job and David, the Hebrew Scriptures are replete with other examples of men of integrity. Abraham showed unswerving loyalty to God in his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. (Ge 22:1-12) Daniel and his three companions provide sterling illustrations of integrity under test, in youth and in later life. (Da 1:8-17; 3:13-23; 6:4-23) At Hebrews chapter 11, the apostle Paul lists a long line of men of pre-Christian times who through faith displayed integrity under a wide variety of difficult circumstances.​—Note particularly vss 33-38.

Integrity in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Whereas no exact word for “integrity” appears in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the idea pervades this entire portion of the Bible. God’s Son, Jesus Christ, gave the finest example of integrity and of supreme trust in his heavenly Father’s strength and care. He thereby was “made perfect” for his position as High Priest, as well as Anointed King of the heavenly Kingdom, one greater than David’s. (Heb 5:7-9; 4:15; 7:26-28; Ac 2:34, 35) Integrity is embraced in the commandment Jesus singled out as the greatest of all​—loving Jehovah God with one’s whole heart, mind, soul, and strength. (Mt 22:36-38) His injunction that “you must accordingly be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect” (Mt 5:48) also stressed a completeness of one’s devotion to righteousness. (The Greek terms for perfection convey the idea of that which has been ‘brought to completion’ and so are somewhat similar in meaning to the Hebrew terms already discussed.)

Jesus’ teachings emphasized purity of heart, singleness of outlook and intent, freedom from hypocrisy​—all these being qualities that characterize integrity. (Mt 5:8; 6:1-6, 16-18, 22, 23; Lu 11:34-36) The apostle Paul showed the same concern as had David and earlier servants of God for proving blameless and faultless. He was free from any charge of corruption or deviousness in his ministry and in all his dealings with others.​—2Co 4:1, 2; 6:3-10; 8:20, 21; 1Th 1:3-6.

Perseverance in a God-given commission in the face of opposition, and endurance of privations, persecution, and suffering for adhering to a course of godly devotion, also marked Paul and other early Christians as persons of integrity.​—Ac 5:27-41; 2Co 11:23-27.

INTEREST

The price or rate paid by a debtor for the use of what he borrows.

Already in the second millennium B.C.E., Babylon had a fully developed loan system. The Code of Hammurabi indicates a 20-percent interest rate on money and grain, and it stipulates that a merchant charging a higher rate would forfeit the amount lent. By contrast God’s law to Israel prohibited making loans on interest to needy fellow Israelites. No one was to profit from another’s financial reverses. (Ex 22:25; Le 25:36, 37; De 23:19) And Proverbs 28:8 indicates that fortunes acquired from interest wrongfully collected would eventually become the possession of “the one showing favor to the lowly ones.”

Foreigners, however, could be charged interest by the Israelites. (De 23:20) Jewish commentators understand this to apply, not to cases of need, but to business loans. (The Pentateuch and Haftorahs, edited by J. H. Hertz, London, 1972, p. 849) Usually foreigners were in Israel only temporarily, often as merchants, and could reasonably be expected to pay interest, particularly since they would also be lending to others on interest.

Whereas upright Israelites obeyed God’s law about making interest-free loans (Ps 15:5; Eze 18:5, 8, 17), lending on interest apparently became common and brought hardships on needy debtors. (Ne 5:1-11; Isa 24:2; Eze 18:13; 22:12) Jesus Christ, though, upheld God’s law in this regard and gave it an even broader application, saying: “Continue . . . to lend without interest, not hoping for anything back.” (Lu 6:34, 35) It would therefore be improper to withhold assistance from a person who because of continued adversity and through no fault of his own might be unable to repay a debt. But when the loan is not needed to relieve poverty, there would be no objection to a person’s charging interest on a loan. Jesus himself, by having the wicked slave in one of his illustrations censured for failing to deposit his master’s money with the bankers so as to draw interest, implied that receiving interest from invested capital is proper.​—Mt 25:26, 27; Lu 19:22, 23.

INTERPRETATION

In the Bible an interpreter may be either of two kinds. He may be a translator, one who conveys the meaning of words spoken or written in one language to persons reading or speaking another, and he can do this either orally or in writing. On the other hand, an interpreter may be one who explains Bible prophecy by giving others the meaning, significance, and understanding of prophetic dreams, visions, and messages of divine origin.

Translation. The confusion of man’s language during the building of the Tower of Babel resulted in the human family’s suddenly becoming a multilingual race. This, in turn, gave rise to a new profession, that of interpreter or translator. (Ge 11:1-9) Some five centuries later, in order to conceal his identity as their brother, Joseph employed a translator to interpret for him when speaking to his Hebrew brothers in the Egyptian language. (Ge 42:23) A form of the Hebrew word lits (deride; scorn) is rendered “interpreter” in this text. The same word is sometimes rendered ‘spokesman’ when referring to an envoy versed in a foreign language, as were “the spokesmen of the princes of Babylon” sent to converse with King Hezekiah of Judah.​—2Ch 32:31.

The gift of speaking in foreign tongues was one of the manifestations of God’s outpoured holy spirit upon the faithful disciples of Christ on Pentecost 33 C.E. However, this was no duplication of what occurred on the Plains of Shinar 22 centuries earlier. For, instead of replacing their original language with a new one, these disciples retained their mother tongue and at the same time were enabled to speak in the tongues of foreign-language groups about the magnificent things of God. (Ac 2:1-11) Along with this ability to speak in different tongues, other miraculous gifts of the spirit were bestowed on members of the early Christian congregation, including the gift of translating from one language to another. Christians were also given instruction on the proper use of this gift.​—1Co 12:4-10, 27-30; 14:5, 13-28.

The most remarkable example of translation from one language to another is the rendering of the Bible into many, many tongues, a monumental task that has consumed centuries of time. Today this Book, the whole or in part, appears in well over 3,000 languages. However, none of such translations or their translators were inspired. Historically, such translation work dates back to the third century B.C.E. when work on the Greek Septuagint was begun in which the inspired Holy Scriptures in Hebrew and Aramaic, the 39 books as they are now reckoned, were rendered into the common Greek, or Koine, the international language of that time.

Bible writers of the 27 books that make up the Christian Greek Scriptures, which books completed the Bible’s canon, often quoted from the Hebrew Scriptures. Apparently they sometimes used the Greek Septuagint instead of personally translating from the Hebrew text of the Scriptures. (Compare Ps 40:6 [39:7, LXX] with Heb 10:5.) They also made their own rather free translations, however, as is seen by comparing Hosea 2:23 with Romans 9:25. An example of where they paraphrased, instead of making a literal translation, may be noted by comparing Deuteronomy 30:11-14 with Romans 10:6-8.

These Bible writers often translated the names of persons, titles, places, and expressions for the benefit of their readers. They gave the meaning of such names as Cephas, Barnabas, Tabitha, Bar-Jesus, and Melchizedek (Joh 1:42; Ac 4:36; 9:36; 13:6, 8; Heb 7:1, 2); also the meaning of the titles Immanuel, Rabbi, and Messiah (Mt 1:23; Joh 1:38, 41); the meaning of places like Golgotha, Siloam, and Salem (Mr 15:22; Joh 9:7; Heb 7:2); and translations of the terms “Talʹi·tha cuʹmi” and “Eʹli, Eʹli, laʹma sa·bach·thaʹni?”​—Mr 5:41; 15:34.

Matthew first wrote his Gospel account in Hebrew, according to the ancient testimony of Jerome, Eusebius Pamphili, Origen, Irenaeus, and Papias. Who translated this Gospel later into Greek is not known. If Matthew did so himself, as some think, then it is the only known inspired translation of Scripture.

In classical Greek the word her·me·neuʹo often means “explain, interpret.” In the Christian Greek Scriptures it has the meaning “translate.” (Joh 1:42; 9:7; Heb 7:2) It is similar to the name of the Greek god Hermes (Mercury), regarded by ancient mythologists not only as the messenger, envoy, and interpreter for the gods but also the patron of writers, speakers, and translators. The pagans in Lystra called Paul “Hermes, since he was the one taking the lead in speaking.” (Ac 14:12) The prefix me·taʹ implies “a change,” and so, added to her·me·neuʹo, the word me·ther·me·neuʹo·mai results, a word that also occurs several times in the Bible. It means “change or translate from one language to another,” and is always in the passive voice, as “when translated.”​—Mt 1:23.

Interpretation of Prophecy. Di·er·me·neuʹo is a strengthened and intensified form of her·me·neuʹo. It is usually used in reference to translating languages (Ac 9:36; 1Co 12:30), but it also signifies “explain fully; interpret fully.” Di·er·me·neuʹo was therefore the word Luke used in relating how Jesus on the road to Emmaus with two of his disciples commenced with the writings of Moses and the prophets and “interpreted to them things pertaining to himself in all the Scriptures.” The two disciples were later telling others of the experience, how Jesus was “fully opening up the Scriptures” to them.​—Lu 24:13-15, 25-32.

Dy·ser·meʹneu·tos has an opposite meaning. It was used by Paul and is found only at Hebrews 5:11, meaning “hard to interpret,” that is, “hard to be explained.”​—See Int.

Another Greek word rendered “interpretation” is e·piʹly·sis, from the verb literally meaning “loosen up or release” (hence, explain or solve). True prophecy does not find its source in the expressed opinions or interpretations of men but, rather, originates with God. Hence Peter writes: “No prophecy of Scripture springs from any private interpretation [e·pi·lyʹse·os] . . . but men spoke from God as they were borne along by holy spirit.” (2Pe 1:20, 21) Thus, the Bible prophecies were never the product of astute deductions and predictions by men based on their personal analysis of human events or trends.

The meaning of some prophecies was obvious, hence requiring no interpretation, as when the prophet was used to foretell that the Judeans would ‘go into captivity to the king of Babylon for seventy years’ or that Babylon would become ‘a desolate waste.’ The time of the fulfillment, of course, was not always known, though in some cases this, too, was explicitly stated. Many prophecies or particular features of the prophecies, however, were only partially understood at the time of their being given, the full understanding or interpretation awaiting God’s due time for their being made clear. This was true with some of the prophecies of Daniel and with regard to the Messiah and the sacred secret involving him.​—Da 12:4, 8-10; 1Pe 1:10-12.

All of Egypt’s magic-practicing priests and wise men were helpless when it came to interpreting Pharaoh’s God-sent dreams. “There was no interpreter of them for Pharaoh.” (Ge 41:1-8) It was then brought to Pharaoh’s attention that Joseph had successfully interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh’s chief cupbearer and chief baker. (Ge 40:5-22; 41:9-13) However, in that connection Joseph had taken no credit to himself but had called their attention to Jehovah as the Interpreter of dreams, saying, “Do not interpretations belong to God?” (Ge 40:8) So when called before Pharaoh to interpret the king’s dream, Joseph declared: “I need not be considered! God will announce welfare to Pharaoh.” (Ge 41:14-16) After hearing the interpretation, even Pharaoh acknowledged Joseph to be “one in whom the spirit of God” was found, for “God has caused you [Joseph] to know all this.”​—Ge 41:38, 39.

Similarly, Daniel was used by God to make known the interpretation of Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams. After first praying to God for understanding of the secret and getting the answer in a night vision, Daniel was brought before the king both to recall the forgotten dream and then to give the interpretation. (Da 2:14-26) By way of an introduction, Daniel reminded the king that all his wise men, conjurers, magic-practicing priests, and astrologers were unable to interpret the dream. “However,” Daniel continued, “there exists a God in the heavens who is a Revealer of secrets, . . . as for me, it is not through any wisdom that exists in me more than in any others alive that this secret is revealed to me, except to the intent that the interpretation may be made known to the king.”​—Da 2:27-30.

On a second occasion, when all the magic-practicing priests, conjurers, Chaldeans, and astrologers were unable to interpret the king’s dream concerning the great tree that was cut down, Daniel was again called in, and again the divine origin of the prophecy was emphasized. In virtual acknowledgment of this fact, the king said to Daniel: “I myself well know that the spirit of the holy gods is in you,” and “you are competent, because the spirit of holy gods is in you.”​—Da 4:4-18, 24.

Years later, on the very night in which Babylon fell to the Medes and Persians, this aging servant of Jehovah, Daniel, was once again called upon to interpret a divine message for a king. This time a mysterious hand had written MENE, MENE, TEKEL, PARSIN on the palace wall during Belshazzar’s feast. All the wise men of Babylon proved unable to interpret the cryptic writing. The queen mother then recalled that Daniel was still available, the one “in whom there is the spirit of holy gods,” as well as “illumination and insight and wisdom like the wisdom of gods.” In interpreting the writing, which was really a prophecy in itself, Daniel once again magnified Jehovah as the God of true prophecy.​—Da 5:1, 5-28.

INTERPRETER

See INTERPRETATION.

INTESTINES

The bowels or entrails. The Hebrew word qeʹrev is used to describe the “interior parts,” “inward parts,” or “intestines” of men and of animals. (Ex 12:9; 29:13; Ps 5:9) It denotes that which is “inside” and is often used as a preposition, with the meaning “within; in the midst of.”​—Ge 25:22; De 17:20.

Another term that refers to the internal organs is the Hebrew me·ʽehʹ. Always occurring in the plural (me·ʽimʹ), it is used for “intestines” in 2 Samuel 20:10 and 2 Chronicles 21:15, 18, 19. The word may denote the “inward parts” of a creature, as in the account of the large fish that swallowed Jonah. There it occurs twice and is shown in parallel with the “belly” of the large fish. (Jon 1:17; 2:1, 2) The reproductive system of humans may also be referred to by this Hebrew term. (Ge 15:4; Ru 1:11) Because of the evident link between the emotions and internal organs, the intestines, or bowels, were considered the seat of the deepest emotions.​—Compare Isa 63:15; Jer 4:19; 31:20.

Physical food is assimilated by the intestines. This fact was metaphorically used to represent mental or spiritual digestion when, in vision, Ezekiel was told to eat a scroll, filling his intestines (Heb., me·ʽimʹ) with it. Ezekiel was to gain spiritual strength by meditating upon and storing in his memory the words written in the scroll. He was thereby nourished spiritually and provided with a message to speak.​—Eze 3:1-6; compare Re 10:8-10.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the word splagʹkhna, which literally means “intestines,” is used once to refer to the literal intestines. (Ac 1:18) Elsewhere it is metaphorically used to denote “tender affections” and “tender compassions.”​—2Co 6:12; Php 1:8; 2:1; Col 3:12; 1Jo 3:17.

INTOXICATION

See DRUNKENNESS.

IOB

Third-named son of Issachar. (Ge 46:13) At Numbers 26:24 and 1 Chronicles 7:1, the name appears as Jashub.

IPHDEIAH

(Iph·deʹiah) [May Jah Redeem; Jah Has Redeemed].

Son of Shashak; a headman of the tribe of Benjamin.​—1Ch 8:1, 25, 28.

IPHTAH

(Iphʹtah) [shortened form of Iphtah-el].

A city of Judah in the Shephelah. (Jos 15:20, 33, 43) Tarqumiya, about 10 km (6 mi) WNW of Hebron, has been suggested as a possible location.

IPHTAH-EL

(Iphʹtah-el) [May God Open; God Has Opened].

A valley on the boundary between the tribes of Zebulun and Asher. (Jos 19:10, 14, 24, 27) Various places NW of Nazareth have been proposed, but the exact location is uncertain.

IR

[Full-Grown Ass].

‘Father’ of Shuppim and Huppim (1Ch 7:12); probably the same as the Benjamite Iri.​—1Ch 7:7.

IRA

(Iʹra) [Full-Grown Ass].

1. A Jairite listed among King David’s leading officers as “a priest of David.” (2Sa 20:26) Ira perhaps was a descendant of the Jair mentioned at Numbers 32:41, and therefore, in this case the designation “priest” may signify “chief minister,” “prince.” There is no Biblical evidence that the Jairites were Levites. However, if the reading of the Syriac Peshitta is correct, Ira may have been a priest from the Levite city of Jattir (Jathir).​—Compare 2Sa 8:18; 1Ch 6:57; 18:17.

2. Son of Ikkesh the Tekoite; one of the mighty men of King David’s military forces.​—2Sa 23:24, 26; 1Ch 11:26, 28.

3. An Ithrite; another of King David’s mighty men.​—2Sa 23:38; 1Ch 11:40.

IRAD

(Iʹrad).

Grandson of Cain; forefather of the bigamist Lamech, and of Jabal and Tubal-cain.​—Ge 4:17-23.

IRAM

(Iʹram) [possibly from a root meaning “full-grown ass”].

A sheik or chieftain of Esau (Edom).​—Ge 36:43; 1Ch 1:54.

IRI

(Iʹri) [possibly from a root meaning “full-grown ass”].

Son of Bela; a paternal head and valiant, mighty man of Benjamin. (1Ch 7:7) Iri is probably the same as the Ir of 1 Chronicles 7:12.

IRIJAH

(I·riʹjah) [Jah Sees].

“Son of Shelemiah the son of Hananiah”; the officer in charge of the Gate of Benjamin in Jerusalem who arrested Jeremiah on the false charge of intending to desert to the Babylonians.​—Jer 37:13, 14.

IR-NAHASH

(Ir-naʹhash) [City of Nahash].

Seemingly a place fathered, or founded, by the Judean Tehinnah. (1Ch 4:1, 12) The exact location of Ir-nahash is uncertain. Some scholars favor as a possible identification Deir Nahhas, about 20 km (12 mi) WNW of Hebron.

IRON

One of the oldest metals known to man. Today it is rated the most abundant, most useful, and cheapest of all metals. It is the fourth most plentiful element in the crust of the earth, while the earth’s core is said to be nearly 90 percent iron. The Bible record reveals that it was used in the making of tools, nails, gates, weapons, fetters, instruments for writing, and even false gods.

Pure iron in commerce is uncommon. Pig iron contains about 3 percent carbon plus small amounts of other elements. Wrought iron has much less carbon. (Job 40:18) The many varieties of steel are simply iron alloyed with carbon and other additives to give them special characteristics. “Steel” in the King James Version, however, is a mistranslation for “copper.” (2Sa 22:35; Job 20:24; Ps 18:34; Jer 15:12) Because of the crude furnaces and smelting methods, the iron in Bible times was never totally purified but was an alloy of carbon and other elements. Tubal-cain of the fourth millennium B.C.E. was the first person known to forge and work with iron.​—Ge 4:22.

Meteoric iron was one type used at an early time by man. In Egyptian tombs iron beads have been found that have proved to be meteoric in composition. But man was not limited to that source of supply. He mined iron oxides and sulfides and smelted the same, notwithstanding the high temperatures needed to melt iron. (Job 28:2; Eze 22:20; see REFINE, REFINER.) However, its use was quite limited compared with copper and bronze, which could be worked cold. Nevertheless, iron doubtless was especially valued because of its great strength and utility. Iron was included among the spoils of war highly esteemed by the Israelites. (Nu 31:22; Jos 6:19, 24; 22:8) But more than captured iron was to be their portion. Moses promised that upon reaching Palestine, they would find iron deposits, and so it proved to be. (De 8:9) Other sources of iron mentioned in the Bible included Tarshish, as well as “Vedan and Javan from Uzal.”​—Eze 27:12, 19.

In their conquest of the Promised Land, the Israelites were confronted with war chariots equipped with iron scythes. (Jos 17:16, 18; Jg 1:19) At one point during Saul’s reign, “there was not a smith [metalworker] to be found in all the land of Israel.” Because of a ban imposed by the Philistines, only the king and his son Jonathan had a sword; Israel was forced to take all metal tools down to the Philistines to have them sharpened.​—1Sa 13:19-22.

Later, however, King David gathered together huge quantities of iron for use in the temple construction. Under Solomon’s reign there was contributed “iron worth a hundred thousand talents,” or, according to many translations, “a hundred thousand talents of iron.” (1Ch 22:14, 16; 29:2, 7) If the reference is to the value of the iron and if the talents were silver, then the iron was worth $660,600,000. If the reference is to the weight of the iron, then it amounted to about 3,420 metric tons (3,770 tons).

Figurative Usage. The iron furnace is a symbol of hard and hot oppression (De 4:20; 1Ki 8:51; Jer 11:4); iron yokes, unbreakable bondage. (De 28:48; Jer 28:13, 14) In a figurative sense iron symbolizes hardness (Le 26:19; De 28:23), stubbornness (Isa 48:4; Jer 6:28), strength (Jer 1:18; Da 7:7; Re 9:9), kingly power, and judicial authority (Ps 2:9; Re 2:27; 12:5; 19:15).

IRPEEL

(Irʹpe·el) [May God Heal; God Has Healed].

A city of Benjamin. (Jos 18:21, 27) Some suggest as a possible identification Rafat, a village about 10 km (6 mi) NW of Jerusalem.

IR-SHEMESH

(Ir-sheʹmesh) [City of the Sun].

A town on the boundary of Dan, listed between Eshtaol and Shaalabbin in Joshua 19:41, 42. It is possibly the same as Beth-shemesh of Joshua 15:10. If so, then it was later occupied by the tribe of Judah and assigned from that tribe as one of the 48 Levite cities.​—Jos 21:16; 1Ch 6:59; Nu 35:6, 7; see BETH-SHEMESH No. 1.

IRU

(Iʹru) [possibly from a root meaning “full-grown ass”].

The first-named son of Caleb the spy; of Judah’s tribe. (1Ch 4:15) Some scholars think that the name was really Ir and that the “u” was only the Hebrew conjunction and.

ISAAC

(Iʹsaac) [Laughter].

The only son of Abraham by his wife Sarah. Hence, a vital link in the line of descent leading to Christ. (1Ch 1:28, 34; Mt 1:1, 2; Lu 3:34) Isaac was weaned at about 5, was as good as offered up as a sacrifice at perhaps 25, was married at 40, became father to twin sons at 60, and died at the age of 180.​—Ge 21:2-8; 22:2; 25:20, 26; 35:28.

The birth of Isaac was under the most unusual circumstances. Both his father and his mother were very old, his mother long before having stopped menstruating. (Ge 18:11) So when God told Abraham that Sarah would give birth to a son, he laughed over the prospect, saying: “Will a man a hundred years old have a child born, and will Sarah, yes, will a woman ninety years old give birth?” (Ge 17:17) Upon learning what was to take place, Sarah laughed too. (See LAUGHTER.) Then, “at the appointed time” the following year, the child was born, proving that nothing is “too extraordinary for Jehovah.” (Ge 18:9-15) Sarah then exclaimed: “God has prepared laughter for me,” adding, “everybody hearing of it will laugh at me.” And so, just as Jehovah had said, the boy was appropriately named Isaac, meaning “Laughter.”​—Ge 21:1-7; 17:19.

Being of Abraham’s household and heir to the promises, Isaac was properly circumcised on the eighth day.​—Ge 17:9-14, 19; 21:4; Ac 7:8; Ga 4:28.

How old was Isaac when he was weaned?

The day Isaac was weaned, Abraham prepared a big feast. Apparently on that occasion Sarah noticed Ishmael “poking fun” at his younger half brother Isaac. (Ge 21:8, 9) Some translations (JB, Mo, RS) say that Ishmael was only “playing” with Isaac, that is, in the sense of child’s play. However, the Hebrew word tsa·chaqʹ can also have an offensive connotation. Thus, when this same word occurs in other texts (Ge 19:14; 39:14, 17), these translations render it “jesting” or “joking” and “insult.”

Certain Targums, as well as the Syriac Peshitta, at Genesis 21:9, give Ishmael’s remarks the sense of “deriding.” Concerning tsa·chaqʹ, Cook’s Commentary says: “It probably means in this passage, as it has generally been understood, ‘mocking laughter.’ As Abraham had laughed for joy concerning Isaac, and Sarah had laughed incredulously, so now Ishmael laughed in derision, and probably in a persecuting and tyrannical spirit.” Deciding the matter, the inspired apostle Paul clearly shows that Ishmael’s treatment of Isaac was affliction, persecution, not childlike play. (Ga 4:29) Certain commentators, in view of Sarah’s insistence, in the next verse (Ge 21:10), that “the son of this slave girl is not going to be an heir with my son, with Isaac,” suggest that Ishmael (14 years Isaac’s senior) perhaps quarreled and taunted Isaac with regard to heirship.

Jehovah had told Abraham that as alien residents his seed would be afflicted for 400 years, which affliction ended with Israel’s deliverance out of Egypt in 1513 B.C.E. (Ge 15:13; Ac 7:6) Four hundred years prior thereto would mark 1913 B.C.E. as the beginning of that affliction. Consequently, this also fixes 1913 as the year Isaac was weaned, since timewise the two events, his being weaned and his being mistreated by Ishmael, are closely associated in the account. This means that Isaac was about five years old when weaned, having been born in 1918 B.C.E. Incidentally, his birth marked the beginning of the 450 years mentioned in Acts 13:17-20, which time period ended about 1467 B.C.E. when Joshua’s campaign in Canaan concluded and the land was distributed to the various tribes.

Today, when so many women in the Western world refuse to nurse their babies, or nurse them for only six to nine months, a five-year period may seem inconceivably long. But Dr. D. B. Jelliffe reports that in many parts of the world children are not weaned until they are one and a half to two years old, and in Arabia it is customary for a mother to nurse her young anywhere from 13 to 32 months. Medically speaking, nursing, or lactation, may normally be continued until the next pregnancy is some few months advanced.​—Infant Nutrition in the Subtropics and Tropics, Geneva, 1968, p. 38.

In the Middle Ages in Europe the average age for weaning was two years, and in the time of the Maccabees (first and second century B.C.E.) women nursed their sons for three years. (2 Maccabees 7:27) Four thousand years ago when people lived an unrushed life, and there was not the present-day pressure or necessity to telescope so much into the shortened life span, it is easy to understand why Sarah could have nursed Isaac for five years. Besides, he was Sarah’s only child after many years of barrenness.

Willing to Be Sacrificed. After Isaac was weaned, nothing further is said of his childhood. The next notice we have of him is when God said to his father Abraham: “Take, please, your son, your only son whom you so love, Isaac, and make a trip to the land of Moriah and there offer him up as a burnt offering.” (Ge 22:1, 2) After a three-day journey they came to the place selected by God. Isaac carried the wood; his father, the fire and the slaughtering knife. “But where is the sheep for the burnt offering?” Isaac asked. “God will provide himself the sheep” was the answer.​—Ge 22:3-8, 14.

Reaching the site, they built an altar and laid the wood in place. Then Isaac was bound hand and foot and put atop the wood. As Abraham raised the knife, Jehovah’s angel stayed his hand. Abraham’s faith had not been misplaced; Jehovah provided a ram, there caught in the mountain thicket, that could be offered up for a burnt offering in the place of and as a substitute for Isaac. (Ge 22:9-14) Thus Abraham, reckoning “that God was able to raise him up even from the dead,” did “in an illustrative way” receive Isaac back from the dead.​—Heb 11:17-19.

This dramatic episode proved the faith and obedience not only of Abraham but also of his son Isaac. Jewish tradition, recorded by Josephus, says that Isaac was 25 years old at the time. At any rate, he was old enough and strong enough to carry a considerable quantity of wood up a mountain. So, he could have resisted his 125-year-old father when the time came to bind him if he had chosen to be rebellious against Jehovah’s commandments. (Jewish Antiquities, I, 227 [xiii, 2]) Instead, Isaac submissively let his father proceed to offer him as a sacrifice in harmony with God’s will. For this demonstration of Abraham’s faith, Jehovah then repeated and enlarged upon his covenant with Abraham, which covenant was transferred by God to Isaac after the death of Isaac’s father.​—Ge 22:15-18; 26:1-5; Ro 9:7; Jas 2:21.

More important, a great prophetic picture was there enacted, portraying how Christ Jesus, the Greater Isaac, would in due time willingly lay down his human life as the Lamb of God for mankind’s salvation.​—Joh 1:29, 36; 3:16.

Marriage and Family. After the death of Isaac’s mother his father concluded it was time the son got married. Abraham, however, was determined that Isaac would not marry a pagan Canaanite. So, under the patriarchal arrangement, Abraham sent his trusted household servant back to the relatives in Mesopotamia to pick a woman of Semitic origin who also worshiped Abraham’s God Jehovah.​—Ge 24:1-9.

The mission was bound to succeed, for from the very outset the whole matter of choice was placed in the hands of Jehovah. As it turned out, Isaac’s cousin Rebekah proved to be God’s choice, and she, in turn, willingly left her relatives and family to accompany the caravan back to the land of the Negeb where Isaac lived. The account tells of the meeting of the two for the first time and then says: “After that Isaac brought her into the tent of Sarah his mother. Thus he took Rebekah and she became his wife; and he fell in love with her, and Isaac found comfort after the loss of his mother.” (Ge 24:10-67) Isaac being 40, the marriage took place in 1878 B.C.E.​—Ge 25:20.

From the history of Isaac we learn that Rebekah continued barren for 20 years. This afforded Isaac the opportunity to show whether he, like his father, had faith in Jehovah’s promise to bless all the families of the earth through a seed yet unborn, and this he did by continually entreating Jehovah for a son. (Ge 25:19-21) As in his own case, it was again demonstrated that the seed of promise would come, not through the natural course of events, but only through Jehovah’s intervening power. (Jos 24:3, 4) Finally, in 1858 B.C.E., when Isaac was 60 years old, he was given the double blessing of twins, Esau and Jacob.​—Ge 25:22-26.

Because of a famine, Isaac moved his family to Gerar in Philistine territory, being told by God not to go down to Egypt. It was on this occasion that Jehovah confirmed his purpose to carry out the Abrahamic promise through Isaac, repeating its terms: “I will multiply your seed like the stars of the heavens and I will give to your seed all these lands; and by means of your seed all nations of the earth will certainly bless themselves.”​—Ge 26:1-6; Ps 105:8, 9.

In this not too friendly Philistine country, Isaac, like his father Abraham, used strategy by claiming his wife was his sister. After a time, Jehovah’s blessing on Isaac became a source of envy to the Philistines, making it necessary for him to move, first to the torrent valley of Gerar, and then to Beer-sheba, on the edge of the arid Negeb region. While here, the formerly hostile Philistines came seeking “an oath of obligation,” or a treaty of peace, with Isaac, for as they acknowledged, “You now are the blessed of Jehovah.” At this place his men struck water and Isaac called it Shibah. “That is why the name of the city is Beer-sheba [meaning “Well of the Oath; or, Well of Seven”], down to this day.”​—Ge 26:7-33; see BEER-SHEBA.

Isaac had always been fond of Esau, because he was the outdoor type, a hunter and a man of the field, and this meant game in Isaac’s mouth. (Ge 25:28) So, with failing eyesight and a feeling he did not have long to live, Isaac prepared to give Esau the firstborn’s blessing. (Ge 27:1-4) Whether he was unaware that Esau had sold his birthright to his brother Jacob and whether he failed to remember the divine decree, given before the two boys’ birth, that “the older will serve the younger,” is not known. (Ge 25:23, 29-34) Whatever the case, Jehovah remembered, and so did Rebekah, who quickly arranged things so that Jacob received the blessing. When Isaac learned of the ruse that had been used to accomplish this, he refused to change what was unmistakably Jehovah’s will in the matter. Isaac also prophesied that Esau and his descendants would reside far away from the fertile fields, would live by the sword, and would finally break the yoke of servitude to Jacob from off their necks.​—Ge 27:5-40; Ro 9:10-13; see ESAU.

Subsequently, Isaac sent Jacob to Paddan-aram to make sure he did not marry a Canaanitess, as his brother Esau had done to the vexation of his parents. When Jacob returned many years later, Isaac was residing at Kiriath-arba, that is, Hebron, in the hill country. It was here in 1738 B.C.E., the year before his grandson Joseph was made prime minister of Egypt, that Isaac died at the age of 180, “old and satisfied with days.” Isaac was buried in the cave of Machpelah where his parents and his wife were buried, and where later his son Jacob would be buried.​—Ge 26:34, 35; 27:46; 28:1-5; 35:27-29; 49:29-32.

Significance of Other References to Isaac. Throughout the Bible, Isaac is mentioned dozens of times in the familiar expression “Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.” Sometimes the point being made is in reference to Jehovah as the God these patriarchs worshiped and served. (Ex 3:6, 16; 4:5; Mt 22:32; Ac 3:13) At other times the reference is to the covenant Jehovah made with them. (Ex 2:24; De 29:13; 2Ki 13:23) Jesus also used this expression in an illustrative way. (Mt 8:11) In one instance Isaac, the patriarchal forefather, is mentioned in a Hebraic parallelism along with his descendants, the nation of Israel.​—Am 7:9, 16.

Isaac as the seed of Abraham was pictorial of Christ, through whom everlasting blessings come. As it is written: “Now the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed. It says, not: ‘And to seeds,’ as in the case of many such, but as in the case of one: ‘And to your seed,’ who is Christ.” And by extension, Isaac was also pictorial of those who “belong to Christ,” who “are really Abraham’s seed, heirs with reference to a promise.” (Ga 3:16, 29) Furthermore, the two boys, Isaac and Ishmael, together with their mothers, “stand as a symbolic drama.” Whereas natural Israel (like Ishmael) “was actually born in the manner of flesh,” these making up spiritual Israel “are children belonging to the promise the same as Isaac was.”​—Ga 4:21-31.

Isaac is also numbered among the “so great a cloud of witnesses surrounding us,” for he too was among those “awaiting the city having real foundations, the builder and maker of which city is God.”​—Heb 12:1; 11:9, 10, 13-16, 20.

ISAIAH

(I·saʹiah) [Salvation of Jehovah].

A prophet, the son of Amoz (not the prophet Amos). He served Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah. (Isa 1:1) Kings Pekah and Hoshea were ruling in the northern kingdom of Israel, which ended in 740 B.C.E., during the time of Isaiah’s prophetic service. Contemporary prophets were Micah, Hosea, and Oded. Isaiah evidently began his prophesying later than Hosea did and before Micah began.​—2Ch 28:9; Ho 1:1; Mic 1:1.

During Isaiah’s prophetic service to Judah, especially in the days of King Ahaz, the kingdom was in a deplorable moral state. It was full of revolt on the part of both princes and people, and in Jehovah’s eyes the nation was sick in the heart and in the head. The rulers were called “dictators of Sodom” and the people likened to “people of Gomorrah.” (Isa 1:2-10) Isaiah was told in advance that their ears would be unresponsive. Jehovah said that this situation would continue until the nation would come to ruin and that only “a tenth,” “a holy seed,” would be left like the stump of a massive tree. Isaiah’s prophetic work must have comforted and strengthened the faith of that small number, even though the rest of the nation refused to take heed.​—Isa 6:1-13.

Though concentrating on Judah, Isaiah also uttered prophecies concerning Israel and the nations round about, as they had a bearing on Judah’s situation and history. He enjoyed a long term in the prophetic office, starting in about 778 B.C.E., when King Uzziah died, or possibly earlier, and continuing until sometime after the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign (732 B.C.E.).​—Isa 36:1, 2; 37:37, 38.

Isaiah’s Family. Isaiah was married. His wife is called “the prophetess” (Isa 8:3), which seems to mean more than merely the wife of a prophet. Evidently, like Deborah of the time of the Judges and like Huldah during Josiah’s reign, she had a prophetic assignment from Jehovah.​—Jg 4:4; 2Ki 22:14.

The Bible names two sons of Isaiah, given to him as “signs and as miracles in Israel.” (Isa 8:18) Shear-jashub was old enough in the days of Ahaz to accompany his father when Isaiah delivered a message to that king. The name Shear-jashub means “A Mere Remnant (Those Remaining Over) Will Return.” This name was prophetic in that, just as certainly as a son born to Isaiah was given that name, so the kingdom of Judah would in time be overthrown and only a mere remnant would return after a period of exile. (Isa 7:3; 10:20-23) This return of a small remnant took place in 537 B.C.E. when King Cyrus of Persia issued a decree liberating them from Babylon after an exile of 70 years.​—2Ch 36:22, 23; Ezr 1:1; 2:1, 2.

Another son of Isaiah was named prior to conception, and the name was written on a tablet and attested to by reliable witnesses. Apparently the matter was kept secret until after the birth of the son, when the witnesses could come forward and testify to the prophet’s foretelling of the birth, thereby proving the matter to have prophetic significance. The name given to the boy by God’s command was Maher-shalal-hash-baz, meaning “Hurry, O Spoil! He Has Made Haste to the Plunder; or, Hurrying to the Spoil, He Has Made Haste to the Plunder.” It was said that before this son would know how to call out, “My father!” and “My mother!” the threat to Judah existing from the conspiracy of Syria and the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel would be removed.​—Isa 8:1-4.

The prophecy indicated that relief would come to Judah soon; relief did come when Assyria interfered with the campaign against Judah by King Rezin of Syria and King Pekah of Israel. The Assyrians captured Damascus and, later, in 740 B.C.E., despoiled and destroyed the kingdom of Israel, fully carrying out the prophetic meaning of the boy’s name. (2Ki 16:5-9; 17:1-6) However, instead of trusting in Jehovah, King Ahaz tried to stave off the threat made by Syria and Israel, resorting to bribery of the king of Assyria to gain his protection. Because of this, Jehovah allowed Assyria to become a great threat to Judah and actually to flood into the land right up to Jerusalem itself, as Isaiah had warned.​—Isa 7:17-20.

Isaiah spoke many times of “signs” that Jehovah would give, among them being his two sons and, in one instance, Isaiah himself. Jehovah commanded him to walk about naked and barefoot for three years as a sign and a portent against Egypt and against Ethiopia, signifying that they would be led captive by the king of Assyria.​—Isa 20:1-6; compare Isa 7:11, 14; 19:20; 37:30; 38:7, 22; 55:13; 66:19.

Prophecies of Exile and Restoration. Isaiah was also privileged to foretell that Assyria would not be the nation to dethrone the kings of Judah and destroy Jerusalem, but that this would be done by Babylon. (Isa 39:6, 7) At the time when Assyria flooded Judah “up to the neck,” Isaiah delivered the comforting message to King Hezekiah that the Assyrian forces would not be able to enter the city. (Isa 8:7, 8) Jehovah backed up His word by sending an angel to destroy 185,000 of the Assyrian army’s mighty men and leaders, thus delivering Jerusalem.​—2Ch 32:21.

The thing that undoubtedly gave Isaiah the greatest joy was the privilege accorded him by Jehovah to speak and to write many prophecies of restoration of his beloved Jerusalem. Although Jehovah would allow the people to go into exile to Babylon because of rebellion and revolt against him, God would in time judge Babylon because she acted out of malice and intended to hold God’s people in captivity forever. A number of Isaiah’s prophecies are devoted to God’s judgment on Babylon and the desolate ruin she would become, never to be rebuilt.​—Isa 45:1, 2; chaps 13, 14, 46-48.

The restoration prophecies that are found throughout the book of Isaiah glorify Jehovah’s undeserved kindness and mercy toward his people and toward all mankind. They foretell the time when Jerusalem would be elevated to a new position with Jehovah, a glory that would be seen by all nations, and when she would be a blessing to all nations. Jerusalem was indeed restored and rebuilt and was blessed by the presence of the Messiah, who “shed light upon life and incorruption through the good news.” (2Ti 1:10) Jerusalem’s restoration also had a greater and grander fulfillment to come.​—Ro 15:4; 1Co 10:11; Ga 4:25, 26.

Effects of Isaiah’s Work. Isaiah wrote not only the Bible book bearing his name but also evidently at least one historical book, the affairs of King Uzziah, which no doubt formed part of the official records of the nation. (2Ch 26:22) In faithfully carrying out the prophetic work assigned to him by Jehovah, he had a strong influence on the nation’s history, particularly as a result of his counseling and guiding righteous King Hezekiah. Many of Isaiah’s prophecies also have a larger fulfillment in the Messiah and his Kingdom. Isaiah’s book is quoted or referred to many times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. In many instances the Christian writers make application of Isaiah’s prophecies to Jesus Christ or point to a fulfillment of his prophecies in their day.

ISAIAH, BOOK OF

The book of Isaiah outstandingly magnifies Jehovah as “the Holy One of Israel,” applying this expression to him a total of 25 times. Also, it points with unmistakable clarity to the Messiah, or Anointed One, of Jehovah through whom deliverance would come to the people of God.

The very first verse of the book of Isaiah identifies its contents as “the vision of Isaiah the son of Amoz that he visioned concerning Judah and Jerusalem.” So, although the book contains prophetic utterances concerning many nations, they are not to be viewed as a collection of disconnected pronouncements concerning these nations. Rather, these are a series of prophecies that had a direct effect on Judah and Jerusalem.

Historical Background. Isaiah 1:1 informs us that Isaiah visioned these things in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. This was a period of severe international tension and one in which false religious attitudes had a profound effect on the people of Judah. Near the beginning of Isaiah’s career King Uzziah died a leper because of his presumptuousness in taking over priestly duties. (2Ch 26:16, 19-21) It is reported that during the reign of Uzziah’s son Jotham, while the king did what was right, “the people were yet acting ruinously.”​—2Ch 27:2; 2Ki 15:34.

Next came King Ahaz, who for 16 years set a bad example for the nation, carrying on Baal worship with its rites of human sacrifice. There was “great unfaithfulness toward Jehovah.” (2Ch 28:1-4, 19) It was at this time that the allied kings of Syria and Israel besieged Jerusalem so that Ahaz, ignoring the counsel of Isaiah the prophet, sent to Tiglath-pileser III, the king of Assyria, for military assistance. (2Ki 16:5-8; Isa 7:1-12) By this Ahaz ‘made flesh his arm, his heart turning away from Jehovah.’ (Jer 17:5) Assyria agreed to an alliance, but, of course, was interested mainly in expanding its own power. The Assyrian army captured Damascus of Syria and apparently took into exile those inhabitants of religiously apostate Israel that lived E of the Jordan.​—1Ch 5:26.

Later, when Samaria failed to pay tribute, it too was besieged and its inhabitants were deported. (2Ki 16:9; 17:4-6; 18:9-12) This ended the ten-tribe kingdom and left Judah surrounded on all sides by Gentile nations. Later Assyrian rulers kept up military operations in the W, assaulting cities of Judah and of surrounding nations. Sennacherib even demanded the capitulation of Jerusalem itself. But under the kingship of Hezekiah the situation there had changed. Hezekiah trusted in Jehovah, and Jehovah proved to be with him.​—2Ki 18:5-7; Isa chaps 36, 37.

Isaiah undertook his service as a prophet during the reign of Uzziah, who began to rule in 829 B.C.E., and he continued as such into the time of Hezekiah’s reign, which concluded by about 717 B.C.E. Isaiah, chapter 6, verse 1, refers to “the year that King Uzziah died” (c. 778 B.C.E.) as the time when Isaiah received the commission from Jehovah that is recorded in that chapter; though it may be that he had recorded the preceding information before that. Then in chapter 36, verse 1, reference is made to “the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah” (732 B.C.E.), when Sennacherib sent an army against Jerusalem and was turned back. In addition to giving the account of the threatened siege and the delivery of Jerusalem, Isaiah tells of Sennacherib’s return to Nineveh and his assassination. (Isa 37:36-38) If this bit of historical information was written by Isaiah and was not an insertion by a later hand, it may show that Isaiah prophesied for some time after Hezekiah’s 14th year. The Assyrian and Babylonian chronological records (though their reliability is questionable) seem to indicate that Sennacherib ruled some 20 years after his campaign against Jerusalem. Jewish tradition, which can also be unreliable, says that Isaiah was sawn asunder at King Manasseh’s order. (Whether Paul has reference to this at Hebrews 11:37, as some believe, has not been proved.)​—Isa 1:1.

There are also a few other references that help to date the contents of specific portions of the book of Isaiah. For example, chapter 7, verse 1, says that Pekah the king of Israel came against Jerusalem to war in the days of King Ahaz. Although Ahaz ruled from 761 to 746 B.C.E., Pekah’s kingship ended by about 758 B.C.E.; so the incident must have occurred before that year. Further, Isaiah 14:28 dates a pronouncement concerning Philistia “in the year that King Ahaz died,” which would be 746 B.C.E. These references assist in fixing the events in the book of Isaiah in the stream of time.

Unity of Writership. Certain Bible critics in modern times have contended that the book of Isaiah was not all written by Isaiah. Some claim that chapters 40 through 66 were written by an unidentified person who lived about the time of the end of the Jews’ Babylonian exile. Other critics pare off additional portions of the book, theorizing that someone other than Isaiah must have written them. But the Bible itself does not agree with these contentions.

Inspired writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures credited both the material now designated chapters 1 to 39 and chapters 40 to 66 to “Isaiah the prophet.” They never intimated that there were two persons who bore this name or that the name of the writer of part of the book was unknown. (For examples compare Mt 3:3 and 4:14-16 with Isa 40:3 and 9:1, 2; also Joh 12:38-41 with Isa 53:1 and 6:1, 10.) In addition to this, there are numerous other places where the Christian Greek Scripture writers specifically credit material quoted from the latter part of the book of Isaiah, not to an unidentified writer, but to “Isaiah the prophet.” (Compare Mt 12:17-21 with Isa 42:1-4; Ro 10:16 with Isa 53:1.) Jesus Christ himself, when he read from “the scroll of the prophet Isaiah” at the synagogue in Nazareth, was reading from Isaiah 61:1, 2.​—Lu 4:17-19.

Furthermore, the Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah (IQIs^a, believed to have been copied toward the end of the second century B.C.E.) contains evidence that the copyist who penned it knew nothing of any supposed division in the prophecy at the close of chapter 39. He began the 40th chapter on the last line of the column of writing that contains chapter 39.

The entire book of Isaiah has been passed down through the centuries as a single work, not as two or more. The continuity from chapter 39 to chapter 40 is evident in what is recorded at Isaiah 39:6, 7, which is an obvious transition to what follows.

Those who would credit the book to more than one writer do not feel that it was possible for Isaiah to have foretold nearly two centuries in advance that a ruler named Cyrus would liberate the exiled Jews; consequently they speculate that this was written at a later time, at least after Cyrus began his conquests. (Isa 44:28; 45:1) But they fail to grasp the import of this entire portion of the book, because the material specifically deals with foreknowledge, with the ability of God to tell in advance what would happen to his people. Nearly 200 years in advance this prophecy recorded the name of one not yet born who would conquer Babylon and liberate the Jews. Its fulfillment would definitely prove that it was of divine origin. It was not Isaiah’s estimate of the future, but, as he himself wrote, “this is what Jehovah has said.” (Isa 45:1) Ascribing the writing of this portion of Isaiah to a writer in Cyrus’ time would still not solve the problem for the critics. Why not? Because this portion of the book also foretold in detail events in the earthly life and ministry of the Messiah, Jesus Christ​—things even farther in the future. The fulfillment of these prophecies seals the prophecy of Isaiah as divinely inspired and not a collection of the works of impostors.

Those who deny that Isaiah wrote chapters 40 through 66 usually, for like reasons, deny that he wrote chapter 13, concerning the fall of Babylon. Yet chapter 13 is introduced with the words: “The pronouncement against Babylon that Isaiah the son of Amoz saw in vision.” Obviously, this is the same “Isaiah the son of Amoz” whose name appears in the opening verse of chapter 1.

Interrelationships. Isaiah’s writings are extensively interwoven with many other parts of the Bible. A century or more after Isaiah’s time, Jeremiah wrote the record found in the books of Kings, and it is interesting to observe that what is recorded at 2 Kings 18:13 to 20:19 is essentially the same as that found in Isaiah chapters 36 to 39. Not only do other prophets cover matters similar to those considered by Isaiah but there are numerous specific references made to the writings of Isaiah themselves by other Bible writers.

Among the most outstanding and most frequently quoted prophecies from the book of Isaiah are those foretelling details concerning the Messiah. As shown in the accompanying chart, many of these are specifically quoted and applied by the inspired writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures. It is of interest to observe that Jesus Christ and his apostles quoted most frequently from Isaiah to make clear the identification of the Messiah.

This is by no means the full extent to which other inspired Bible writers quoted from the prophecy of Isaiah, but it highlights some of the prophecies for which Isaiah is most widely noted. These prophecies, along with all the rest of the book, magnify Jehovah, the Holy One of Israel, as the One who provides this salvation for his people through his anointed Son.

ISCAH

(Isʹcah).

Daughter of Abraham’s brother Haran, and sister of Lot. She was born before her uncle Abraham and the household left Ur of the Chaldeans.​—Ge 11:27-31.

ISCARIOT

(Is·carʹi·ot) [from Heb., possibly, Man From Kerioth].

The designation for the traitor apostle Judas (and his father Simon) that sets him apart from the other apostle also named Judas. (Mt 10:4; Lu 6:16; Joh 6:71) If “Iscariot” means, as is most commonly thought, “Man From Kerioth,” then it likely identifies Simon and his son as being from the Judean town of Kerioth-hezron.​—Jos 15:25; see JUDAS No. 4.

ISHBAH

(Ishʹbah) [May He Still (Calm)].

A descendant of Judah; father of Eshtemoa.​—1Ch 4:1, 17.