GAAL

(Gaʹal) [possibly, Abhorring; Abhorred].

The son of Ebed who, along with his brothers, came to Shechem and gained the confidence of the landowners there. (Jg 9:26) These landowners had previously strengthened the hand of Abimelech to kill the sons of Jerubbaal (Gideon) and then proceeded to make him king over them. (Jg 9:1-6) Apparently Abimelech constituted Zebul as resident prince of Shechem, while he himself personally lived in Arumah. In time, a bad spirit developed between Abimelech and the landowners of Shechem. So Gaal and his brothers now incited the city to revolt against Abimelech. When Zebul heard of this, he at once sent word to Abimelech, with a recommendation on how to cope with the situation that was developing. Gaal and those with him were defeated in the ensuing battle with King Abimelech and fled back to the city. Finally Zebul drove Gaal and his brothers out of Shechem.​—Jg 9:22-41.

GAASH

(Gaʹash) [possibly, Shaking; Shaken].

The name of a hill in the mountainous region of Ephraim, S of Timnath-heres (or Timnath-serah). (Jos 24:30; Jg 2:9) The torrent valleys of Gaash, mentioned in 2 Samuel 23:30 and 1 Chronicles 11:32, apparently refer to ravines in the vicinity of that hill.

GABBAI

(Gab·baʹi).

A Benjamite jurisdictional district head whose name appears in a listing of those residing in Jerusalem in Nehemiah’s day.​—Ne 11:3, 7, 8.

GABBATHA

See STONE PAVEMENT.

GABRIEL

(Gaʹbri·el) [Able-Bodied One of God].

The only holy angel other than Michael named in the Bible; the only materialized angel to give his name. Twice Gabriel appeared to Daniel: first, near the Ulai River “in the third year of the kingship of Belshazzar” to explain Daniel’s vision of the he-goat and the ram (Da 8:1, 15-26); and second, “in the first year of Darius” the Mede, to deliver the prophecy concerning the “seventy weeks.” (Da 9:1, 20-27) To Zechariah the priest, Gabriel brought the good news that he and his aging wife Elizabeth would have a son, John (the Baptizer). (Lu 1:11-20) To Mary, the virgin girl betrothed to Joseph, Gabriel declared: “Good day, highly favored one, Jehovah is with you.” He then told her that she would give birth to a son, Jesus​—he “will be called Son of the Most High; and Jehovah God will give him the throne of David his father, . . . and there will be no end of his kingdom.”​—Lu 1:26-38.

From the Bible record it is learned that Gabriel is a high-ranking angelic creature in close association with the heavenly court, one “who stands near before God”; that he was one “sent forth” by God to deliver special messages to servants of Jehovah here on earth (Lu 1:19, 26); that his personal envisioned or materialized form was, true to the meaning of his name, “like an able-bodied man.”​—Da 8:15.

GAD

[Good Fortune].

1. Son of Jacob by Leah’s maidservant Zilpah, who also bore Gad’s younger brother Asher. At his birth in Paddan-aram about 1770 B.C.E., Leah exclaimed: “With good fortune!”; hence the name Gad. (Ge 30:9-13; 35:26) Gad accompanied his brothers on two trips to Egypt to get grain from Joseph. (Ge 42:3; 43:15) He was about 42 years old when he and his family moved to Egypt along with his father Jacob in 1728 B.C.E. (Ge 46:6, 7, 16) Seventeen years later, when Jacob was about to die, he blessed his 12 sons, saying of Gad: “As for Gad, a marauder band will raid him, but he will raid the extreme rear.”​—Ge 49:1, 2, 19.

2. The tribe that sprang from the seven sons of Gad. The tribe’s warriors numbered 45,650 in the second year after the Exodus from Egypt. (Ge 46:16; Nu 1:1-3, 24, 25) Gad was in the three-tribe division with Reuben and Simeon. Their campsite was to the S of the tabernacle. (Nu 2:10-16) When on the march Judah’s division was first, followed by the Levites of the families of Gershon and Merari carrying the tabernacle, and after them came the division of which Gad was a part. Eliasaph son of Deuel was chieftain of their army. (Nu 10:14-20) At the end of the wilderness journey, the fighting men of Gad numbered but 40,500, a decrease of 5,150.​—Nu 26:15-18.

Territory. The men of the tribe of Gad followed the occupation of their fathers as raisers of livestock. (Ge 46:32) For this reason they requested as their allotment of territory the cattle country E of the Jordan. Moses responded by assigning this territory to Gad, Reuben, and half the tribe of Manasseh, who also possessed much livestock. However, Moses stipulated that this was on the condition that these tribes would assist the others in subduing the territory W of the Jordan. To this they readily agreed, and after constructing stone pens for their livestock and cities for their little ones, they supplied their quota of fighters to cross the Jordan for the conquest of the land. (Nu 32:1-36; Jos 4:12, 13) Gad’s territory had been occupied by the Amorites, whom the Israelites had defeated under Moses’ leadership.​—Nu 32:33; De 2:31-36; 3:8-20.

The country occupied by Gad was comprised of the lowlands along most of the Jordan River’s E bank, S almost to the Dead Sea, and N to near the Sea of Chinnereth. Gad’s territory also took in the higher tablelands, including the torrent valley of Jabbok. A large part of Gilead was therefore in Gad’s allotment. (De 3:12, 13) Gad was bordered on the N by Manasseh and on the S by Reuben.​—Jos 13:24-28.

After the conquest of the land, Joshua gave Gad a share in the spoil and sent them back. Gad then joined with Reuben and Manasseh in constructing a great altar by the Jordan. The other tribes were alarmed at this but were calmed when it was explained that the altar was built as a witness that they, like the tribes W of the Jordan, would engage exclusively in the worship of Jehovah. The altar was to provide assurance that there was no division between the tribes E and W of the Jordan.​—Jos 22:1-34.

All these things were in harmony with Jacob’s blessing of Gad: “As for Gad, a marauder band will raid him, but he will raid the extreme rear.” (Ge 49:19) The tribe was not afraid to have one side (the E) of their boundary open to marauder bands. They did not choose to live on the eastern highlands just to get out of fighting for the land of Canaan. Jacob’s parting words to Gad were as a command to strike back confidently at marauders attacking him and violating his borders. Moreover, the Gadites raided the raiders, making these turn about in flight, and then the Gadites would pursue their extreme rear.

Moses also spoke of Gad’s good qualities when he said: “Blessed is the one widening the borders of Gad. As a lion he must reside, and he must tear the arm, yes, the crown of the head. And he will pick out the first part for himself, for there the allotment of a statute-giver is reserved. And the heads of the people will gather themselves together. The righteousness of Jehovah will he certainly execute and his judicial decisions with Israel.”​—De 33:20, 21.

Ramoth of Gilead, in Gad’s territory, was one of the cities of refuge appointed by Moses. (De 4:41-43) Other Levite cities in their territory were Mahanaim, Heshbon, and Jazer. (Jos 21:38, 39) The city of Dibon, where the famous Moabite Stone was found in 1868 C.E., was one of several cities rebuilt by the Gadites when they took over the territory.​—Nu 32:1-5, 34, 35.

Gad Gave David Support. When David was under restrictions because of Saul, several army heads of the sons of Gad crossed the Jordan River at flood stage to come to his side at Ziklag in Judah. They are described as “valiant, mighty men, army men for the war, keeping the large shield and the lance ready, whose faces were the faces of lions, and they were like the gazelles upon the mountains for speed. . . . The least one was equal to a hundred, and the greatest to a thousand.” (1Ch 12:1, 8-15) In the fight with the Hagrites and their allies, it is said of them (along with Reuben and Manasseh): “It was to God that they called for aid in the war, and he let himself be entreated in their favor because they trusted in him.” As a result, an enormous number of captives and much livestock fell into their hands.​—1Ch 5:18-22.

Followed Jeroboam. With the division of the kingdom, the tribe of Gad supported the northern faction under Jeroboam. Years later, in Jehu’s day, when “Jehovah started to cut off Israel piece by piece,” Gad in its exposed position on the eastern frontier became part of the battleground between the northern kingdom of Israel and Syria. (2Ki 10:32, 33) Finally, Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria, overran Gad and carried off the inhabitants captive. This allowed the Ammonites to take possession of this territory.​—2Ki 15:29; 1Ch 5:26; Jer 49:1.

In Ezekiel’s prophetic vision of the division of the land, the portion assigned to Gad is in the extreme S. (Eze 48:27, 28) In the listing of the tribes of Israel in Revelation chapter 7, Gad is named third.

3. A prophet and visionary. He advised David, when he was dwelling in “the inaccessible place” in the cave of Adullam as a fugitive from Saul, to return to Judah. (1Sa 22:1-5) When David presumptuously took a census toward the latter part of his reign, Jehovah by means of Gad gave David three alternative punishments. Gad later advised David to build an altar for Jehovah on the threshing floor of Araunah (Ornan). (2Sa 24:10-19; 1Ch 21:9-19) Gad was partially responsible for the organization of the musicians for the sanctuary. (2Ch 29:25) Nathan and Gad are generally credited with completing First Samuel and writing all of Second Samuel.​—1Ch 29:29.

GADARENES

(Gad·a·renesʹ) [Of (Belonging to) Gadara].

The name applied to the inhabitants of an area where Christ Jesus expelled demons from two men. According to what is considered to be the best available manuscript evidence, Matthew originally used “country of the Gadarenes,” whereas Mark and Luke, in relating this event, employed “country of the Gerasenes.”​—Mt 8:28; Mr 5:1; Lu 8:26.

Both countries are shown to lie on “the other side,” that is, the E side, of the Sea of Galilee. The designation “country of the Gadarenes” possibly applied to the district radiating from the city of Gadara (modern Umm Qeis), situated about 10 km (6 mi) SE of the Sea of Galilee. Coins of Gadara often depict a ship, suggesting that its territory may have extended as far as the Sea of Galilee and therefore could have included at least a part of “the country of the Gerasenes,” to the E of that body of water. Others link “the country of the Gerasenes” with the region around Kursi, the town that Origen and Eusebius identified as Gergesa. It is on the E coast of the Sea of Galilee, about 20 km (12 mi) N of Gadara. It best fits the geographical details of the account. Others link it with the large district centered at the city of Gerasa (Jarash) about 55 km (34 mi) SSE of the Sea of Galilee and suggest that it extended to the E of that lake and embraced “the country of the Gadarenes.” In any case, Matthew’s account would in no way conflict with that of Mark and Luke.

Near an unnamed city in the country of the Gadarenes, Jesus Christ met two unusually fierce demon-possessed men. These had their dwelling among the tombs, that is, rock-cut tombs or natural caves used as such. Jesus, in expelling the demons, permitted them to take possession of a large herd of swine that subsequently rushed over a precipice and drowned in the Sea of Galilee. This so disturbed the local inhabitants that they entreated Jesus to depart from the area.​—Mt 8:28-34.

While Matthew mentions two men, Mark (5:2) and Luke (8:27) center attention on only one, doubtless because his case was more outstanding. Possibly he was more violent and had suffered much longer under demon control than the other man; yet afterward perhaps he alone wanted to accompany the Son of God. Jesus did not allow him to do so, directing him instead to make known what God had done in his behalf.

This differed from Jesus’ usual instructions not to have his miracles advertised. Instead of seeking showy publicity and having people reach conclusions on the basis of sensational reports, Jesus apparently wanted others to decide on solid evidence that he was indeed the Christ. This also fulfilled the prophetic words spoken through Isaiah: “He will not wrangle, nor cry aloud, nor will anyone hear his voice in the broad ways.” (Mt 12:15-21; Isa 42:1-4) However, the exception in the case of the former demoniac was appropriate. He could bear witness among people with whom the Son of God would have only limited contact, particularly in view of Jesus’ being requested to leave. The man’s presence would provide testimony about Jesus’ power to work good, counteracting any unfavorable report that might be circulated over the loss of the herd of swine.​—Mr 5:1-20; Lu 8:26-39; see SWINE.

GADDI

(Gadʹdi) [possibly from a root meaning “good fortune”].

Son of Susi of the tribe of Manasseh; one of the 12 chieftains Moses sent out from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land of Canaan.​—Nu 13:2, 3, 11.

GADDIEL

(Gadʹdi·el) [Good Fortune of [from] God].

Son of Sodi of the tribe of Zebulun; one of the 12 chieftains sent out by Moses from the wilderness of Paran to spy out the land of Canaan.​—Nu 13:2, 3, 10.

GADFLY

[Heb., ʽa·rovʹ].

There is some uncertainty as to the particular insect designated by the original Hebrew word appearing in the Scriptures with reference to the fourth plague upon Egypt, the first from which the Israelites in Goshen were spared. (Ex 8:21, 22, 24, 29, 31; Ps 78:45; 105:31) ʽA·rovʹ has been variously rendered “gadfly” (JB, NW, Ro), “beetle” (Yg), “flies” (AS, KJ, RS), “gnats” (AT), and “dog fly” (LXX).

The English designation “gadfly” includes the various kinds of horseflies and botflies. Female horseflies pierce the skin of animals as well as man and then suck their blood. In the larval stage botflies live as parasites in the bodies of animals and man; those that infest humans are found in the tropics. A plague of gadflies would, therefore, have brought great suffering to the Egyptians and their livestock and, in certain cases, even death.

GADI

(Gaʹdi) [from a root meaning “good fortune”].

Father of Israel’s King Menahem.​—2Ki 15:14, 17.

GADITES

See GAD No. 2.

GAHAM

(Gaʹham).

A son of Abraham’s brother Nahor by his concubine Reumah.​—Ge 22:23, 24.

GAHAR

(Gaʹhar).

A Nethinim family head, some of whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel from Babylonian exile in 537 B.C.E.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 47; Ne 7:49.

GAIUS

(Gaʹius) [from a root meaning “land”].

1. A Macedonian who accompanied the apostle Paul on his third missionary tour and who, along with Aristarchus, was forcibly taken into the theater at Ephesus during the riot instigated by the silversmith Demetrius.​—Ac 19:29.

2. A Christian from Derbe in Asia Minor who is listed along with six others as accompanying the apostle Paul on his last missionary tour. Gaius and these others evidently separated from Paul and then went on to Troas, on the W coast of Asia Minor, where they waited for him. (Ac 20:4, 5) This Gaius may be the same as No. 1, since Aristarchus is also mentioned in the account. If so, this would likely mean that Gaius was of Macedonian birth (or descent) but had been residing in Derbe.

3. A Christian of Corinth whom Paul personally baptized. When Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, apparently this Gaius was his host as well as that of the congregation. This would indicate that the meetings of the Corinthian congregation were held in Gaius’ home.​—1Co 1:14; Ro 16:23.

4. A Christian to whom the apostle John wrote his third inspired letter and whom he commended for walking in the truth and, with reference to his hospitality, for his faithful work and his love.​—3Jo 1, 3-6.

GALAL

(Gaʹlal) [Rolling; Rolled Away].

1. A Levite who returned from Babylonian exile.​—1Ch 9:14, 15.

2. A Levite referred to as “son of Jeduthun.”​—1Ch 9:14, 16; Ne 11:17.

GALATIA

(Ga·laʹti·a).

The Roman province that occupied the central portion of what is now known as Asia Minor. It was bounded by other Roman provinces​—in part by Cappadocia on the E, Bithynia and Pontus on the N, Asia on the W, and Pamphylia on the S. (1Pe 1:1) This central plateau region lay between the Taurus Mountains on the S and the mountains of Paphlagonia on the N. In its north-central portion was the city of Ancyra, now called Ankara, the capital of Turkey. And through this area flowed the middle segment of the Halys River (the modern Kizil Irmak) and the upper Sangarius River (Sakarya), both of which empty into the Black Sea. The history of this region (400 and more years, from the third century B.C.E. forward) shows there were many changes in the boundaries and political affiliations of this strategic area.

It appears that around 278-277 B.C.E. large numbers of Indo-European people known as Celts, or Galli, from Gaul, whom the Greeks called Ga·laʹtai (hence the name given this region), moved across the Bosporus and settled there. They brought with them their wives and children and apparently avoided intermarrying with the people already there, in this way perpetuating their racial characteristics for centuries. Their last king, Amyntas, died in 25 B.C.E., and it was during his reign as a puppet of the Roman Empire and thereafter that the area designated as Galatia was enlarged to include portions of Lycaonia, Pisidia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, and Phrygia. This then was the expanded Galatia that the apostle Paul and other evangelizing Christians of the first century C.E. visited and in which they found persons eager to be organized into Christian congregations.​—Ac 18:23; 1Co 16:1.

Both Paul and Peter addressed letters to Christian congregations located in the province of Galatia. (Ga 1:1, 2; 1Pe 1:1) Whether these were the same congregations established by Paul and Barnabas is not stated. On that swing through Galatia, Paul and Barnabas visited such Galatian cities as Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Ac 13:14, 51; 14:1, 5, 6), and when they returned to the brothers in Antioch of Syria they related how in these and other places God “had opened to the nations the door to faith.” (Ac 14:27) One experience they had in Lystra was most unusual. Paul had cured a crippled man who had never walked in his life, and suddenly the crowds began crying out in their native Lycaonian tongue: “The gods have become like humans and have come down to us!” Barnabas they called Zeus and Paul they thought to be Hermes. It was almost more than Paul and Barnabas could do to prevent the excited crowds from offering sacrifices to them as if they were gods.​—Ac 14:8-18.

The seeds of Christianity sown among the Galatians bore good fruitage. It was from among them that disciples like Timothy and Gaius came. (Ac 16:1; 20:4) Paul gave instructions to the Galatian congregations as to the manner of laying aside contributions for the Lord’s poor and needy ones.​—1Co 16:1, 2; Ga 2:10.

GALATIANS, LETTER TO THE

The inspired letter written in Greek, by Paul an apostle, “to the congregations of Galatia.”​—Ga 1:1, 2.

Writership. The opening sentence names Paul as the writer of this book. (Ga 1:1) Also, his name is used again in the text, and he refers to himself in the first person. (5:2) A portion of the letter, in the way of an autobiography, speaks of Paul’s conversion and some of his other experiences. The references to his affliction in the flesh (4:13, 15) are in harmony with expressions seemingly relating to this affliction in other Bible books. (2Co 12:7; Ac 23:1-5) Paul’s other letters were usually written by a secretary, but this one, he says, was written with his “own hand.” (Ga 6:11) In his other writings, almost without exception, he sends the greetings of himself and those with him, but in this letter he does not. Had the writer of the letter to the Galatians been an impostor, he would very likely have named a secretary and would have sent some greetings, as Paul usually did. Thus the writer’s form of address and his honest direct style vouch for the letter’s authenticity. It would not reasonably be fabricated this way.

The letter is not usually contested as being a letter of Paul’s except by those who attempt to discredit Paul’s writership of all the letters commonly attributed to him. Among evidences from outside the Bible supporting Paul’s writership, there is a quotation that Irenaeus (c. 180 C.E.) makes from Galatians and ascribes to Paul.

To Whom Addressed. The question of which congregations were included in the address “the congregations of Galatia” (Ga 1:2) has long been a controversy. In support of the contention that these were unnamed congregations in the northern part of the province of Galatia, it is argued that the people living in this area were ethnically Galatians, whereas those of the S were not. However, Paul in his writings usually gives official Roman names to the provinces, and the province of Galatia in his time included the southern Lycaonian cities of Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe as well as the Pisidian city of Antioch. In all these cities Paul had organized Christian congregations on his first evangelizing tour when he was accompanied by Barnabas. That the congregations in the cities of Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, and Pisidian Antioch were addressed agrees with the way the letter mentions Barnabas, as one apparently known by those to whom Paul was writing. (2:1, 9, 13) There is no indication elsewhere in the Scriptures that Barnabas was known to Christians in the northern part of Galatia or that Paul even made any trips through that territory.

Paul’s exclamation, “O senseless Galatians,” is no evidence that he had in mind only a certain ethnic people who sprang exclusively from Gallic stock in the northern part of Galatia. (Ga 3:1) Rather, Paul was rebuking certain ones in the congregations there for allowing themselves to be influenced by an element of Judaizers among them, Jews who were attempting to establish their own righteousness through the Mosaic arrangement in place of the ‘righteousness due to faith’ provided by the new covenant. (2:15–3:14; 4:9, 10) Racially, “the congregations of Galatia” (1:2) to whom Paul wrote were a mixture of Jews and non-Jews, the latter being both circumcised proselytes and non-circumcised Gentiles, and no doubt some were of Celtic descent. (Ac 13:14, 43; 16:1; Ga 5:2) All together, they were addressed as Galatian Christians because the area in which they lived was called Galatia. The whole tenor of the letter is that Paul was writing to those with whom he was well acquainted in the southern part of this Roman province, not to total strangers in the northern sector, which he apparently never visited.

Time of Writing. The period covered by the book is of an undetermined length, but the time of writing has been set between approximately 50 and 52 C.E. It is implied in Galatians 4:13, that Paul made at least two visits to the Galatians before he wrote the letter. Chapters 13 and 14 of the Acts of Apostles describe a visit of Paul and Barnabas to the southern Galatian cities that took place about 47 to 48 C.E. Then, after the conference regarding circumcision in Jerusalem, about 49 C.E., Paul, with Silas, went back to Derbe and Lystra in Galatia and to other cities where Paul and Barnabas had “published the word of Jehovah” (Ac 15:36–16:1) on the first tour. It was evidently after this, while Paul was at another point on his second missionary tour, or else back at his home base, Syrian Antioch, that he received word that prompted him to write to “the congregations of Galatia.”

If it was during his year-and-a-half stay in Corinth (Ac 18:1, 11) that Paul wrote this letter, then the time of writing was likely between the autumn of 50 and the spring of 52 C.E., the same general period during which he wrote his canonical letters to the Thessalonians.

If the writing was done during his brief stop in Ephesus or after he got back to Antioch in Syria and “passed some time there” (Ac 18:22, 23), it would have been about 52 C.E. Ephesus is an unlikely place for writing, though, both because of his short stay there and because if Paul had been so close when he heard of the deflection in Galatia, it is to be expected that he would have personally visited the brothers or explained in his letter why it was not possible for him to do so at the time.

What his letter says about the Galatians “being so quickly removed from the One who called [them]” (Ga 1:6) may indicate that the writing of the letter was done soon after Paul had paid a visit to the Galatians. But even if the writing had not taken place until 52 C.E. in Syrian Antioch, it would still have been relatively soon for such a deflection to occur.

Canonicity. Early evidence of the book’s canonicity is found in the Muratorian Fragment and in the writings of Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Origen. These men referred to it by name along with most or all of the other 26 books of the Christian Greek Scriptures. It is mentioned by name in the shortened canon of Marcion and even alluded to by Celsus, who was an enemy of Christianity. All the outstanding lists of the books in the canon of the inspired Scriptures, up to at least the time of the Third Council of Carthage, in 397 C.E., included the book of Galatians. We have it preserved today, along with eight of Paul’s other inspired letters, in the Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 2 (P⁠⁴⁶), a manuscript assigned to about 200 C.E. This gives proof that the early Christians accepted the book of Galatians as one of Paul’s letters. Other ancient manuscripts, such as the Sinaitic, Alexandrine, Vatican No. 1209, Codex Ephraemi rescriptus, and Codex Claromontanus, as well as the Syriac Peshitta, likewise include the book of Galatians. Also, it harmonizes completely with Paul’s other writings and with the rest of the Scriptures from which it frequently quotes.

Circumstances Relating to the Letter. The letter reflects many traits of the people of Galatia in Paul’s time. Gallic Celts from the N had overrun the region in the third century B.C.E., and therefore Celtic influence was strong in the land. The Celts, or Gauls, were considered a fierce, barbarous people, it having been said that they offered their prisoners of war as human sacrifices. They have also been described in Roman literature as a very emotional, superstitious people, given to much ritual, and this religious trait would likely influence them away from a form of worship so lacking in ritual as Christianity.

Even so, the congregations in Galatia may have included many who formerly had been like this as pagans, as well as many converts from Judaism who had not entirely rid themselves of scrupulously keeping the ceremonies and other obligations of the Mosaic Law. The fickle, inconstant nature attributed to the Galatians of Celtic descent could explain how at one time some in the Galatian congregations were zealous for God’s truth and a short time later became an easy prey for opponents of the truth who were sticklers for observance of the Law and who insisted that circumcision and other requirements of the Law were necessary for salvation.

The Judaizers, as such enemies of the truth might be called, apparently kept the circumcision issue alive even after the apostles and other elders in Jerusalem had dealt with the matter. Perhaps, too, some of the Galatian Christians were succumbing to the low moral standards of the populace, as may be inferred from the message of the letter from chapter 5, verse 13, to the end. At any rate, when word of their deflection reached the apostle, he was moved to write this letter of straightforward counsel and strong encouragement. It is evident that his immediate purpose in writing was to confirm his apostleship, counteract the false teachings of the Judaizers, and strengthen the brothers in the Galatian congregations.

The Judaizers were crafty and insincere. (Ac 15:1; Ga 2:4) Claiming to represent the congregation in Jerusalem, these false teachers opposed Paul and discredited his position as an apostle. They wanted the Christians to get circumcised, not seeking the Galatians’ best interests, but so that the Judaizers could bring about an appearance of things that would conciliate the Jews and keep them from opposing so violently. The Judaizers did not want to suffer persecution for Christ.​—Ga 6:12, 13.

To accomplish their objective, they claimed that Paul’s commission came to him secondhand, that it was only from some men prominent in the Christian congregation​—not from Christ Jesus himself. (Ga 1:11, 12, 15-20) They wanted the Galatians to follow them (4:17), and in order to nullify Paul’s influence, they had to paint him first as no apostle. Apparently they claimed that when Paul felt it expedient, he preached circumcision. (1:10; 5:11) They were trying to make a sort of fusion religion of Christianity and Judaism, not denying Christ outright but arguing that circumcision would profit the Galatians, that it would advance them in Christianity, and that, furthermore, by this they would be sons of Abraham, to whom the covenant of circumcision was originally given.​—3:7.

Paul thoroughly refuted the contentions of these false Christians and built up the Galatian brothers so that they could stand firm in Christ. It is encouraging to note that the Galatian congregations did remain true to Christ and stood as pillars of the truth. The apostle Paul visited them on his third missionary tour (Ac 18:23), and the apostle Peter addressed his first letter to the Galatians, among others.​—1Pe 1:1.

[Box on page 881]

HIGHLIGHTS OF GALATIANS

A letter emphasizing appreciation for the freedom that true Christians have through Jesus Christ

Written a year or perhaps several years after the Galatians had been informed about the decision of the governing body that circumcision is not required of Christians

Paul defends his apostleship

Paul’s apostleship was not of human origin but was by appointment from Jesus Christ and the Father; he did not consult with the apostles in Jerusalem before beginning to declare the good news; not until three years later did he briefly visit Cephas and James (1:1, 13-24)

The good news he proclaimed was received, not from men, but by revelation from Jesus Christ (1:10-12)

By reason of a revelation, Paul, with Barnabas and Titus, went to Jerusalem regarding the circumcision issue; he learned nothing new from James, Peter, and John, but they recognized that he had been empowered for an apostleship to the nations (2:1-10)

At Antioch, when Peter wrongly separated himself from non-Jewish believers in fear of certain visiting brothers from Jerusalem, Paul reproved him (2:11-14)

A person is declared righteous only through faith in Christ, not works of law

If a person could be declared righteous by works of law, Christ’s death would have been unnecessary (2:15-21)

Galatians received God’s spirit because of their responding in faith to the good news, not because of works of law (3:1-5)

True sons of Abraham are those who have faith like his (3:6-9, 26-29)

Because of being unable to keep the Law perfectly, those seeking to prove themselves righteous by works of the Law are under a curse (3:10-14)

The Law did not invalidate the promise associated with the Abrahamic covenant, but it served to make transgressions manifest and acted as a tutor leading to Christ (3:15-25)

Stand fast in Christian freedom

Jesus Christ, by his death, released those under law, making it possible for them to become sons of God (4:1-7)

Returning to an arrangement of observing days, months, seasons, and years would mean going back into slavery and coming into a position like that of Ishmael, the son of the servant girl Hagar; with his mother he was dismissed from Abraham’s household (4:8-31)

Having been liberated from sin and no longer being bound by the Law, they were to resist anyone who would induce them to accept a yoke of slavery (1:6-9; 5:1-12; 6:12-16)

Do not abuse your freedom but yield to the influence of God’s spirit, manifesting its fruitage in your life and shunning the works of the flesh (5:13-26)

Readjust in a spirit of mildness anyone taking a false step; but all are individually obligated to carry their own load of responsibility (6:1-5)

GALBANUM

(galʹba·num).

A yellowish or brownish gum resin procured from certain Asian plants of the carrot, or parsley, family. There is uncertainty as to the precise kind of plant providing the galbanum used by the Israelites.

The milky fluid that hardens into galbanum exudes from the plant stem naturally or its flow is induced by means of an incision. Galbanum was one of the ingredients of the incense specified for exclusive use at the sanctuary. (Ex 30:34-38) When burned alone it is said to give off an offensive odor, but when combined with other aromatic substances, galbanum increases their fragrance and makes the fragrance last longer.

GALEED

(Galʹe·ed) [Witness Heap].

The place in the mountainous region of Gilead E of the Jordan where the patriarchs Jacob and Laban concluded a covenant. (Ge 31:43-48) The later name of this region, “Gilead,” was probably drawn from “Galeed,” the name originally given to the spot where this event occurred about 1761 B.C.E.

In obedience to divine direction, and without giving notice, Jacob left Paddan-aram and the service of Laban, who was both his uncle and his father-in-law. (Ge 28:2) With all his belongings, and with his wives and children, Jacob crossed the Euphrates River and headed for the land of Canaan. After three days Laban, accompanied by his “brothers,” went in pursuit for the distance of a seven days’ journey, finally overtaking Jacob’s caravan in the mountains of Gilead N of the torrent valley of Jabbok.​—Ge 31:17-25.

Peaceably settling the points over which they had disputed, Jacob and Laban concluded a covenant with each other. In this connection, Jacob set up a stone pillar and directed his “brothers” to make a heap of stones, perhaps in the form of a table, upon which the covenant meal was eaten. Thereupon, Laban called the place after this heap, giving it the Aramaic (Syrian) name “Jegar-sahadutha,” but which Jacob called “Galeed,” the Hebrew equivalent. Laban said: “This heap [Heb., gal] is a witness [Heb., ʽedh] between me and you today.” (Ge 31:44-48) The heap of stones (and the stone pillar) served as a witness to all passersby. It was as verse 49 says, “The Watchtower [Heb., mits·pahʹ],” testifying that Jacob and Laban had agreed to preserve the peace between and within their respective families. (Ge 31:50-53) On later occasions stones were used in a similar fashion as silent witnesses.​—Jos 4:4-7; 24:25-27.

GALILEE

(Galʹi·lee) [Region; Circuit [from a root meaning “roll; roll away”]], Galilean (Gal·i·leʹan).

The first mention of Galilee in the Bible identifies it as a district in the mountainous region of Naphtali, where the city of refuge Kedesh was located. (Jos 20:7) If not earlier, at least by Isaiah’s time, Galilee included the territory of Zebulun. Perhaps many non-Israelites lived in Galilee; whence the expression “Galilee of the nations.” (Isa 9:1) Some scholars think that the 20 cities of Galilee that King Solomon offered to Hiram the king of Tyre were probably inhabited by pagans. (1Ki 9:10-13; see CABUL No. 2.) The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III conquered Galilee during the reign of the Israelite king Pekah (in the eighth century B.C.E.).​—2Ki 15:29.

Boundaries. (MAP, Vol. 2, p. 738) Over the years, the territorial boundaries of Galilee did not remain constant. Their greatest extent seems to have been about 100 by 50 km (60 by 30 mi) and embraced the ancient territories of the tribes of Asher, Issachar, Naphtali, and Zebulun. However, during the time of Jesus Christ’s earthly ministry, Galilee, while under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas (Lu 3:1), extended only about 40 km (25 mi) from E to W and about 60 km (37 mi) from N to S.

To the S lay Samaria, Galilee’s southern boundary extending from the foot of Mount Carmel along the Valley of Jezreel (Esdraelon) toward Scythopolis (Beth-shean) and then to the Jordan. According to Josephus, the Jordan River, with the Sea of Galilee and Lake Hula (now mostly drained), constituted the eastern boundary, but there may have been areas where that boundary was not so precise. The territory of Tyre, reaching below the ancient city of Kedesh (Kedasa, Cydasa), bounded Galilee on the N. (The Jewish War, III, 35-40 [iii, 1]; II, 459 [xviii, 1]; IV, 104, 105 [ii, 3]) To the W lay the territory of Ptolemais (Acco) and Mount Carmel.

This northerly Roman province of Palestine W of the Jordan was further divided into Upper and Lower Galilee. The boundary between the two Galilees extended from Tiberias on the W bank of the Sea of Galilee to a point in the vicinity of Ptolemais.​—The Jewish War, III, 35 (iii, 1).

Geographic Characteristics. In the first century C.E., before the war with Rome, Galilee was densely populated and enjoyed great prosperity. A thriving fishing industry existed at the Sea of Galilee. Other occupations included weaving, stonecutting, shipbuilding, and pottery manufacture. The Jewish historian Josephus claimed there were 204 cities and villages in Galilee, the smallest of these numbering over 15,000 inhabitants. If this testimony is not an exaggeration, as many believe it to be, this would mean that Galilee had a population of about three million.​—The Life, 235 (45); The Jewish War, III, 43 (iii, 2).

Galilee was blessed with abundant springs and fertile soil. So the chief occupation of the Galileans apparently was agriculture. Today many different kinds of vegetables, as well as wheat, barley, figs, millet, indigo, olives, rice, sugarcane, oranges, pears, and apricots, are cultivated. Anciently, Galilee was heavily wooded. Among the varieties of trees still found there are cedar, cypress, fir, oak, oleander, palm, pine, sycamore, and walnut.

Both the climate and the geographic features of Galilee are marked by great contrast. The highlands are cool, the seacoast enjoys a mild temperature, and the Jordan Valley is hot. The altitude of Lower Galilee plunges to about 210 m (689 ft) below sea level in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee and reaches its highest point at Mount Tabor, with an elevation of 562 m (1,844 ft). (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 334) However, the hills and mountains of Upper Galilee range from 460 m (1,500 ft) to 1,208 m (3,963 ft) in height.

People of Galilee. As a group, the Jews of Galilee differed from those of Judea. According to the testimony of rabbis of ancient times, the Galileans valued reputation, whereas the Judeans placed greater emphasis on money than on a good name. The Galileans generally were not such sticklers for tradition as were the Judeans. In the Talmud (Megillah 75a), the former are, in fact, charged with neglecting tradition. In this regard it may be noted that Pharisees and scribes from Jerusalem, not from Galilee, were the ones who took issue with the failure of Jesus’ disciples to observe the traditional washing of hands.​—Mr 7:1, 5.

Since the Sanhedrin and the temple were in Jerusalem, doubtless a greater concentration of teachers of the Law was to be found there; hence the Jewish proverb: “Go north [to Galilee] for riches, go south [to Judea] for wisdom.” But this does not mean that the Galileans were steeped in ignorance. Throughout the cities and villages of Galilee there were teachers of the Law as well as synagogues. The latter were, in effect, educational centers. (Lu 5:17) However, the chief priests and Pharisees at Jerusalem evidently considered themselves superior to the common Galileans and viewed them as ignorant of the Law. For example, when Nicodemus spoke up in defense of Jesus Christ, the Pharisees retorted: “You are not also out of Galilee, are you? Search and see that no prophet is to be raised up out of Galilee.” (Joh 7:45-52) Thus they ignored the fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy concerning Messiah’s preaching.​—Isa 9:1, 2; Mt 4:13-17.

Some ascribe the distinct Galilean accent to foreign influence. It is not at all unusual that the Galileans were easily recognized by their speech (Mt 26:73), especially since the region of Samaria separated Galilee from Judea. Even today, in many parts of the earth, people are readily identified by their regional accent. Also, among the tribes of Israel pronunciation differences existed centuries previously. A striking example of this is the inability of the Ephraimites in Jephthah’s day to pronounce the password “Shibboleth” correctly.​—Jg 12:5, 6.

Jesus’ ministry in Galilee. Galilee was the scene for many outstanding events in Jesus’ earthly life. The Galilean cities of Bethsaida, Cana, Capernaum, Chorazin, Nain, and Nazareth, as well as the regions of Magadan, are specifically mentioned in connection with his activity. (Mt 11:20-23; 15:39; Lu 4:16; 7:11; Joh 2:11; see BETHSAIDA.) Most of his earthly life Jesus spent at the Galilean city of Nazareth. (Mt 2:21-23; Lu 2:51, 52) At a marriage feast in Cana, he performed his first miracle by turning water into the best of wine. (Joh 2:1-11) After the arrest of John the Baptizer, Jesus withdrew from Judea to Galilee and began proclaiming: “Repent, you people, for the kingdom of the heavens has drawn near.” (Mt 4:12-17) As Jesus traveled throughout Galilee, he taught in the various synagogues. In the course of time he came to his hometown, Nazareth, where, on the Sabbath day, he read his commission from Isaiah chapter 61. Although those in the synagogue were at first favorably impressed, when Jesus compared them to the Israelites in the days of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, the synagogue audience became enraged, and they were ready to kill him.​—Lu 4:14-30.

Afterward Jesus went to Capernaum, “a city of Galilee,” and established this as his home. Evidently near Capernaum he called Andrew, Peter, James, and John to be fishers of men. (Lu 4:31; Mt 4:13-22) Accompanied by these four disciples, Jesus began a major preaching tour of Galilee. In the course of his activities of teaching and performing powerful works, Jesus called Matthew from the tax office at Capernaum to be his follower. (Mt 4:23-25; 9:1-9) Later, at a mountain near Capernaum, he chose the 12 apostles. All of them, with the possible exception of Judas Iscariot, were Galileans. Also near Capernaum, Jesus delivered the Sermon on the Mount. (Lu 6:12-49; 7:1) At the Galilean city of Nain, he resurrected the only son of a widow. (Lu 7:11-17) In a later preaching tour, Jesus revisited Nazareth but was again rejected. (Mt 13:54-58) At Capernaum, around Passover time of 32 C.E., during what was apparently his final intensive coverage of Galilean territory, many disciples, stumbled by Jesus’ words about ‘eating his flesh and drinking his blood,’ forsook the Son of God.​—Joh 6:22-71.

Although the synoptic Gospels tell mainly of Jesus’ ministry in Galilee, the Son of God did not ignore Judea, as some have wrongly concluded. It is noteworthy that the initial interest the Galileans showed in Jesus was aroused by what they saw him do in Jerusalem. (Joh 4:45) However, probably more space is devoted to Jesus’ activity in Galilee because the Galileans responded more readily than did the Judeans. This is confirmed by the fact that the first disciples to receive God’s holy spirit were Galileans, some 120 in number. (Ac 1:15; 2:1-7) The control and influence of the Jewish religious leaders must not have been as strong among the Galileans as among the Judeans. (Compare Lu 11:52; Joh 7:47-52; 12:42, 43.) Some suggest that the crowd that clamored for Jesus’ death was mainly composed of Judeans (Mt 27:20-23), whereas those who had previously hailed Jesus as king were perhaps primarily Galileans. (Mt 21:6-11) The presence of many Galileans and other non-Judeans during the Passover period may also have contributed to the fear of the leaders of Jerusalem to seize Jesus in broad daylight ‘lest an uproar occur.’​—Mt 26:3-5.

GALILEE, SEA OF

A freshwater inland lake in N Palestine that has also been called the Sea of Chinnereth (Nu 34:11), the Lake of Gennesaret (Lu 5:1), and the Sea of Tiberias (Joh 6:1). (The Greek word translated “sea” may also mean “lake.”)​—MAP, Vol. 2, p. 740; PICTURES, Vol. 1, p. 336, and Vol. 2, p. 740.

Size and Topography of Area. The Sea of Galilee lies an average of 210 m (700 ft) below the level of the Mediterranean Sea and is a part of the Rift Valley of the Jordan. Its greatest water depth is about 48 m (157 ft). From N to S, this body of water has an approximate length of 21 km (13 mi), with a maximum width of about 12 km (7.5 mi). Depending upon the season, the clear waters of the Sea of Galilee vary from green to blue in color, and the average water temperature ranges from 14° C. (57° F.) in February to 30° C. (86° F.) in August. This lake is fed primarily by the Jordan River.

The bed of the Sea of Galilee resembles a huge basin. Rising from its shores on the E side are steep limestone mountains overlaid with lava, reaching an elevation of about 610 m (2,000 ft). But on the W the mountains rise less abruptly. Hills and mountains practically surround the Sea of Galilee, except for the plains around the Jordan, that is, the points where the river enters the lake at the N end and where it renews its course at the SW. The area to the N is occupied by a mass of large basalt boulders. Not far S of the city of Tiberias on the W shore, there are hot sulfur springs that have long been famous for their medicinal properties. One of the seven springs there has a temperature of 58° C. (136° F.).

Climate. The warm climate around the Sea of Galilee is conducive to the growth of tropical plants, including the lotus thorn, palms, and indigo plants. Tortoises, turtles, crayfish, and sandhoppers are found along the shores of the lake. Bird life and fish are abundant. In the 19th century, naturalist H. B. Tristram observed: “The density of the shoals of fish in the Sea of Galilee can scarcely be conceived by those who have not witnessed them. Frequently these shoals cover an acre or more of the surface and the fish, as they slowly move along in masses, are so crowded, with their back fins just appearing on the level of the water, that the appearance at a little distance is that of a violent shower of rain pattering on the surface.”​—The Natural History of the Bible, 1889, p. 285.

Sudden storms, such as those experienced by Jesus Christ and his disciples, are not uncommon. (Mt 8:24; 14:24) Because of the low elevation of the Sea of Galilee, the air temperature is much warmer there than in the surrounding plateaus and mountains. This results in atmospheric disturbances. Also, strong winds rush down the Jordan Valley from snowcapped Mount Hermon, not far to the N.

In the first century C.E., the shores of this lake were well populated. But today, of the nine cities mentioned by Josephus as being on the Sea of Galilee, only Tiberias remains.

Jesus’ Ministry in Area. This body of water figured prominently in Jesus’ earthly ministry. A number of times the Son of God spoke from a boat to great crowds assembled on its wide, pebbly shore. (Mr 3:9; 4:1; Lu 5:1-3) On one of these occasions he caused some of his disciples to have a miraculous catch of fish and called Peter, Andrew, James, and John to be “fishers of men.” (Mt 4:18-22; Lu 5:4-11) In the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee, Jesus performed many powerful works. He healed the sick, expelled demons (Mr 3:7-12), calmed the wind and the sea (Mr 4:35-41), and walked on the water (Joh 6:16-21); once, he miraculously fed more than 5,000 people, and at another time he fed more than 4,000, each time with only a few loaves of bread and several fish. (Mt 14:14-21; 15:29, 34-38) Rightly Jesus condemned three cities in that area, Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum, for remaining unresponsive despite the many powerful works their inhabitants had witnessed.​—Mt 11:20-24.

After his resurrection from the dead, Jesus appeared to some of his disciples by the Sea of Galilee and caused them to have a second miraculous catch of fish. He then stressed the importance of feeding his sheep.​—Joh 21:1, 4-19.

GALL

A fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, a small pear-shaped sac that rests on the underside of the right portion of the liver. The gallbladder can hold at one time about one and a half ounces of gall, or bile. It is an extremely bitter yellow or greenish fluid used by the body in digestion. Gall came to be associated with that which is bitter or poisonous, and the word is so used in the Bible.​—Ac 8:23.

Describing his painful, bitter experience, Job figuratively speaks of his gallbladder as being poured out to the earth. (Job 16:1, 13) Later, Zophar, in figurative language, accusingly insinuates that Job has acted wickedly and that his “food” will be within him like “the gall [or poison] of cobras.” He warns that a weapon will pass “through his gall[bladder].” (Job 20:1, 14, 25) The Hebrew word translated “gall” is related to the word for “bitter.”​—De 32:32; Job 13:26.

The Greek word for gall is kho·leʹ.​—See POISONOUS PLANT.

GALLEY

A long, low, narrow ship powered by one or more tiers of oars and used mainly for naval warfare.

Isaiah represents the inhabitants of Jerusalem as saying: “There the Majestic One, Jehovah, will be for us a place of rivers, of wide canals. On it no galley fleet [literally, fleet of ships of oar] will go, and no majestic ship will pass over it. For Jehovah is our Judge, Jehovah is our Statute-giver, Jehovah is our King; he himself will save us.” (Isa 33:21, 22) Jerusalem had no great rivers or canals as defenses against attack. Yet, just as rivers and canals protected cities such as Babylon and No-amon (Na 3:8), Jehovah would protect Jerusalem. So powerful would these “rivers” of God’s salvation be that strong enemy forces, symbolized by a fleet of hostile galleys or a majestic ship, would be wrecked in the mighty “waters” if they came up against Jerusalem. Jehovah thereby assured Jerusalem, in a figurative way, of her security under the defense he himself, ruling as her King, would provide for her salvation.

GALLIM

(Galʹlim) [Heaps].

The home of Palti, to whom Saul gave his daughter Michal as his wife after David was outlawed. (1Sa 25:44) It is possibly the same as the Gallim whose inhabitants, centuries later, cried out in lamentation over the approaching Assyrian army under Sennacherib. (Isa 10:24, 30) Some scholars place Gallim at Khirbet Kakul (Horvat Kaʽkul), about 4.5 km (3 mi) NNE of the Temple Mount.

GALLIO

(Galʹli·o).

The proconsul of Achaia, before whose judgment seat the Jews accused Paul of leading men into another persuasion in worshiping God. Gallio dismissed the case on the basis that it did not involve a violation of Roman law. Thereupon, the crowd went to beating Sosthenes the presiding officer of the synagogue, but Gallio chose not to concern himself with this either.​—Ac 18:12-17.

According to secular sources, Gallio was born at Cordova, Spain, about the beginning of the first century C.E. He was the son of the rhetorician Seneca and the older brother of Seneca the philosopher. Gallio’s original name was Lucius Annaeus Novatus. But, upon being adopted by the rhetorician Lucius Junius Gallio, he assumed the name of his adopter.

An inscription from Delphi helps in dating Gallio’s term as proconsul of Achaia. (Ac 18:12) Only fragmentary, the inscription’s text has had to be reconstructed, but it definitely contains the name of “[Lucius Ju]nius Gallio, . . . proconsul.” Historians are generally agreed that the text is a letter from Emperor Claudius Caesar and that the number 26 found in it refers to Claudius’ having received the imperial acclamation for the 26th time. (It was Claudius who restored Achaia to the position of a separate province responsible to the senate and hence having a proconsul.) It is likely that this letter was written in the first half of 52 C.E., for other inscriptions indicate that Claudius was acclaimed emperor for the 27th time before August 1, 52 C.E. A Carian inscription and an inscription on the aqueduct called the Aqua Claudia at Rome place Claudius’ 26th and 27th imperial acclamations within the year of his 12th period of tribunician power. This 12th tribunician period corresponded to January 25, 52 C.E., through January 24, 53 C.E. Gallio’s proconsulship of Achaia (an office that usually ran for a year, starting with the beginning of summer) therefore appears to have run from the summer of 51 C.E. to the summer of 52 C.E., though some scholars favor 52-53 C.E.

GAMALIEL

(Ga·maʹli·el) [possibly, Reward (Due Treatment) of God].

1. The son of Pedahzur of the tribe of Manasseh, and the chieftain of his tribe. (Nu 1:10, 16) Gamaliel was one of the 12 chieftains designated by Jehovah to aid Moses and Aaron in numbering the sons of Israel, from 20 years old upward, for the army. (Nu 1:1-4, 10) He was over the army of his tribe, which was a part of the three-tribe division of the camp of Ephraim. (Nu 2:18, 20; 10:23) After the setting up of the tabernacle, the chieftains made their presentations, directed by Jehovah to be used for carrying on the service of the tent of meeting. Gamaliel also presented an offering on the eighth day for the inauguration of the altar.​—Nu 7:1-5, 10, 11, 54-59.

2. A member of the Sanhedrin, a Pharisee, and a Law teacher, at whose feet the apostle Paul had been instructed according to the strictness of the ancestral Law. (Ac 5:34; 22:3) Gamaliel is generally regarded as identical with Gamaliel the Elder. Gamaliel the Elder was greatly esteemed, being the first one to have the title of “Rabban” bestowed upon him. This honorary title was even higher than that of “Rabbi.” Concerning him the Mishnah (Sotah 9:15) says: “When Rabban Gamaliel the Elder died, the glory of the Law ceased and purity and abstinence died.” (Translated by H. Danby) Gamaliel evidently was broad-minded and not fanatical in his views, as is reflected by the counsel he gave on the occasion that Peter and the other apostles were brought before the Sanhedrin. By citing examples from the past, Gamaliel illustrated the wisdom of not interfering with the work of the apostles and then added: “If this scheme or this work is from men, it will be overthrown; but if it is from God, you will not be able to overthrow them . . . you may perhaps be found fighters actually against God.”​—Ac 5:34-39.

GAMES

Early in man’s history an interest in diversion and entertainment became manifest. Jubal, in the seventh generation from Adam, is said to be “the founder of all those who handle the harp and the pipe.” (Ge 4:21) In course of time, at least in the post-Flood period, games were also developed.

Egypt and Mesopotamia. In widely scattered locations of Egypt, Palestine, and Mesopotamia, archaeologists have unearthed various forms of gaming boards, dice, and game pieces, some of which date back to times before Abraham. A relief from an Egyptian temple gate portrays Ramses III playing a game similar to checkers with one of his concubines. Most games used dice or throw sticks to determine the moves.

Egyptian paintings, in addition to depicting dancing and instrument playing, show scenes of Egyptian girls playing with balls, juggling several at a time. Other youthful games, such as a kind of tug-of-war, involved team play. Marbles were also popular.

Israel. No direct reference is made in the Bible to games among the Hebrews, but there are scattered indications of certain forms of recreation in addition to music, singing, dancing, and conversation. Zechariah 8:5 tells of children playing in the public squares, and the singing and dancing of boys are mentioned at Job 21:11, 12. In Jesus’ time children played at imitating happy and sad occasions. (Mt 11:16, 17) Excavations in Palestine have produced children’s toys such as rattles, whistles, and miniature pots and chariots. Job 41:5 may indicate the keeping of tame birds. It appears likely that target shooting with arrows as well as with slings was practiced. (1Sa 20:20-22, 35-40; Jg 20:16) However, competitive games as such do not appear to have been in practice among the Jews until the Hellenic period.

Riddles and guessing games were popular in Israel, as is illustrated by the riddle Samson propounded to the Philistines.​—Jg 14:12-14.

Greece. At about the time that Isaiah began to prophesy in Judah, the Greeks began their famous Olympic athletic contests in honor of Zeus, in the year 776 B.C.E. While the games at Olympia remained the most famous, three other Greek towns became important centers of the contests. On the Isthmus near Corinth were held the Isthmian Games, consecrated as sacred to Poseidon. Delphi featured the Pythian Games, while the Nemean Games, also in honor of Zeus, were held near Nemea.

The Olympic Games were celebrated every four years and were of profound religious significance. Religious sacrifices and the worship of the Olympic fire were prominent features of the festival. The Isthmian Games near Corinth were held every two years.

The basic program in all the contests included foot racing, wrestling, boxing, discus and javelin throwing, chariot racing, and other events. Participants took a vow to keep the rigid ten-month training schedule, which occupied most of their time. The training schedule was strictly supervised by judges who lived with the participants. The trainees often performed under conditions more difficult than the actual contest, runners training with weights on their feet and boxers training while wearing heavy uniforms. Years were often spent in developing the needed qualities for becoming a victor at the games. The prize consisted of a simple garland, or crown of leaves, wild olive being used at the Olympian Games, pine leaves at the Isthmian Games, laurel at the Pythian Games, and wild celery at the Nemean contests. The prize was often displayed at the finish line alongside the umpire, inspiring participants in the footraces to exert themselves to the utmost as they kept their eye on the prize. Failure to keep the rules, however, resulted in disqualification. The games were the topic of conversation by all before, during, and after the event. Victorious athletes were eulogized, idolized, lavished with gifts, and feted. Corinth gave the winning athletes a life pension.

Rome. The Roman games differed greatly from the Greek games, having as their prime features gladiatorial fighting and other exhibitions of extreme brutality. The gladiatorial contests originally began in the third century B.C.E. as a religious service at funerals and may have had close relationship with ancient pagan rites whereby worshipers lacerated themselves, allowing blood to flow in honor of their gods or in honor of their dead. (1Ki 18:28; compare the prohibition of such practices to Israel at Le 19:28.) The Roman games were later dedicated to the god Saturn. Nothing exceeded them for sheer brutality and callousness. Emperor Trajan once staged games featuring 10,000 gladiators, most of whom fought to the death before the end of the spectacle. Even some senators, some “noble” women, and one emperor, Commodus, entered the gladiatorial arena. From Nero’s time onward large numbers of Christians were slaughtered in these events.

Pagan Games Introduced Into Palestine. During the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century B.C.E., Hellenizing Jews introduced Greek culture and athletic contests into Israel, and a gymnasium was set up in Jerusalem, according to the first chapter of the Apocryphal book of First Maccabees. It is stated at 2 Maccabees 4:12-15 that even the priests neglected their duties to engage in the games. Others, however, strongly objected to such adoption of pagan customs.

In the first century B.C.E., Herod the Great built a theater at Jerusalem, an amphitheater in the plain, also a theater and amphitheater at Caesarea, and he instituted the celebration of games every five years in honor of Caesar. In addition to wrestling, chariot racing, and other contests, he introduced features from the Roman games, arranging fights between wild animals or pitting men condemned to death against such beasts. According to Josephus, all of this resulted in an abortive conspiracy by offended Jews to assassinate Herod.​—Jewish Antiquities, XV, 267-291 (viii, 1-4); XV, 331-341 (ix, 6).

The Christian Viewpoint. Tertullian, who was a writer of the second and third centuries C.E., set forth the position of early Christians toward the entertainment common among the Romans by saying that Christians “have nothing to do, in speech, sight or hearing, with the madness of the circus, the shamelessness of the theatre, the savagery of the arena, the vanity of the gymnasium.” He added: “Why should we offend you, if we assume the existence of other pleasures? . . . we reject what pleases you; what pleases us gives you no delight.” (Apology, XXXVIII, 4, 5) With regard to bodily training or discipline as a whole, the apostle Paul sums up the Christian attitude in his counsel to Timothy at 1 Timothy 4:7-10.

Illustrative Use. Features of some of the games were aptly used by Paul and Peter to illustrate points of teaching. In contrast with the prize sought by contestants in Greek games, the crown for which an anointed Christian strives was shown to be, not a fading garland of leaves, but the reward of immortal life. (1Pe 1:3, 4; 5:4) He was to run with the determination of winning the prize and must keep his eyes fixed on it; looking back would be disastrous. (1Co 9:24; Php 3:13, 14) He should contend according to the rules of a moral life so as not to become disqualified. (2Ti 2:5) Self-control, self-discipline, and training are all essential. (1Co 9:25; 1Pe 5:10) The Christian’s efforts were to be well aimed, with victory in mind, just as the well-trained boxer’s blows count without wasted energy; though the objects of the Christian’s blows were, not some other human, but things, including those within himself, that could lead him to failure. (1Co 9:26, 27; 1Ti 6:12) All hindering weights and the entangling sin of lack of faith were to be put off, even as the contestants in the races stripped themselves of cumbersome clothing. The Christian runner was to be prepared for a race requiring endurance, not a short burst of speed.​—Heb 12:1, 2.

It is to be noted that at Hebrews 12:1 Paul speaks of a great “cloud of witnesses [Gr., mar·tyʹron] surrounding us.” That he is not referring to a mere crowd of observers is made clear by the contents of the preceding chapter to which Paul refers by saying, “So, then, . . . ” Hence, Paul is encouraging Christians to move onward in the race by pointing, not to mere onlookers, but to the fine example of others who were also runners, and particularly urging Christians to look intently at the one who had already come off the victor and who was now their Judge, Christ Jesus.

The illustration at 1 Corinthians 4:9 may be drawn from the Roman contests, with Paul and his fellow apostles here likened to those in the last event on the bill at the arena​—for the most gory event was usually saved till last, and those reserved for it were certain of death. Hebrews 10:32, 33 may similarly have the Roman games as its background. (See THEATER.) Actually, Paul himself may have been exposed to the perils of the Roman games in view of his reference at 1 Corinthians 15:32 to ‘fighting wild beasts at Ephesus.’ Some view it as unlikely that a Roman citizen would be put before wild beasts in the arena, and they suggest that this expression is used figuratively to refer to beastlike opposers in Ephesus. However, Paul’s statement at 2 Corinthians 1:8-10 concerning the very grave danger experienced in the district of Asia, where Ephesus was located, and of God’s rescuing him from “such a great thing as death” would certainly fit an experience with literal wild beasts in the arena much more aptly than it would the human opposition Paul encountered at Ephesus. (Ac 19:23-41) It may thus have been one of the several “near-deaths” Paul underwent in his ministry.​—2Co 11:23; see AMUSEMENTS.

GAMUL

(Gaʹmul) [possibly, One Weaned (or, One Receiving Due Treatment)].

An Aaronic priest in David’s time who was chosen by lot to act as chief of the 22nd priestly division in connection with the service at the sanctuary.​—1Ch 24:1-3, 5, 17.

GANGRENE

The death of the tissues in a part of the body, such as a toe or a foot, as a result of obstructed blood circulation. In dry gangrene, where the arteries are blocked or occluded (as, for example, in arteriosclerosis), the affected part turns black and dry and loses all feeling. Wet gangrene usually affects very small blood vessels​—the capillaries and small veins. In gas gangrene, bacteria present in the dead or dying tissue may form bubbles under the skin, leading to a rapid sloughing off of tissues. Because bacteria are usually associated with gangrene, the resulting infection often promotes rapid spread of cell death. If the bacteria spread to the bloodstream, the condition becomes even more critical, resulting in death unless appropriate treatment is administered promptly.

The apostle Paul uses the word figuratively of the teaching of false doctrine and of “empty speeches that violate what is holy.” He stresses the danger that such speech brings to the entire congregation, saying: “For they will advance to more and more ungodliness, and their word will spread like gangrene.” He then cites examples: “Hymenaeus and Philetus are of that number. These very men have deviated from the truth, saying that the resurrection has already occurred; and they are subverting the faith of some.” (2Ti 2:16-18) In view of Paul’s earlier symbolism, picturing the congregation as a body with many members​—feet, hands, and so forth (1Co 12)—​his figurative use of gangrene, with its danger to the human body, gives strong emphasis to the importance of eliminating false doctrine and ungodly speech from the Christian congregation.

GARDEN

The Hebrew term gan and the Greek term keʹpos refer to a cultivated area of land, often irrigated. Gardens of Bible times were usually areas enclosed by a hedge of thorns or by a wall of stone or mud, perhaps with thorns along the top.​—Ca 4:12.

Generally speaking, the gardens spoken of in the Bible are quite different from the ordinary gardens of the West. Many of them were more in the nature of a park with various kinds of trees, including fruit and nut trees (Ec 2:5; Am 9:14; Ca 6:11), as well as spice plants and flowers. (Ca 6:2) They were well watered by streams or by means of irrigation, and they often had winding paths. Smaller gardens may have been cultivated by individual families. King Ahab wanted Naboth’s vineyard, he claimed, for a vegetable garden.​—1Ki 21:2.

The above-mentioned parklike gardens would usually be outside the city, except in the case of gardens of kings or very rich men. The King’s Garden, near the place where Zedekiah and his men tried to escape from Jerusalem during the Chaldean siege, was probably situated just outside the SE wall of that city. (2Ki 25:4; Ne 3:15) Josephus speaks also of a place called Etan, which he locates 13 to 16 km (8 to 10 mi) from Jerusalem and which he describes as “delightful for, and abounding in, parks and flowing streams”, where, so he claims, Solomon was accustomed to ride in his chariot. (Jewish Antiquities, VIII, 186 [vii, 3]) The garden in which King Ahasuerus held a great seven-day banquet in Shushan, during the third year of his reign, must have been a large and beautiful one.​—Es 1:1-5.

In Babylon. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon constituted one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. King Nebuchadnezzar built them to please his wife, a Median princess, who had come from a hilly country and, upset at the flatness of Babylonia, sighed for her native mountains. It is said that Nebuchadnezzar built arches progressively higher, like steps, and overlaid this mountain of masonry with sufficient soil to nourish the largest trees. At the top he built a reservoir, supplied from the Euphrates by a screw-type water lift.

In Egypt. While in Egypt, the Israelites had cultivated what seem to have been smaller vegetable gardens. Deuteronomy 11:10 says they irrigated these with the foot, possibly either by foot-powered waterwheels or by conducting irrigation water by means of channels, opening and resealing the mud walls of the channels with the foot to water the various parts of the garden.

Gethsemane. The garden of Gethsemane on the Mount of Olives, just across the Kidron Valley from Jerusalem, was a favorite spot with Jesus Christ, where he could find solitude with his disciples. It was to this garden that Jesus retired with his disciples after eating his last Passover and instituting the Lord’s Evening Meal. There he withdrew a short distance from his disciples and prayed fervently, being ministered to by an angel. The traitor Judas, knowing of Jesus’ custom, led a mob to Gethsemane, where he betrayed Jesus with a kiss.​—Mt 26:36, 46-49; Lu 22:39-48; Joh 18:1, 2.

Burial Places. At times gardens were used as burial places. Manasseh and his son Amon were buried in the garden of Uzza. (2Ki 21:18, 25, 26) It was in a garden, in a new memorial tomb, that Jesus was buried. (Joh 19:41, 42) The Israelites fell into the bad practice of sacrificing to pagan gods in the gardens, seating themselves among the burial places and eating loathsome things in their observance of false religion, for which Jehovah declared that he would render judgment.​—Isa 65:2-5; 66:16, 17.

Garden of Eden. The most celebrated garden of history is the garden of Eden. It seems to have been an enclosed area, bounded, no doubt, by natural barriers. The garden, located “in Eden, toward the east,” had an entrance on its eastern side. It was here that cherubs were stationed with the flaming blade of a sword, after Adam’s sin, to block man’s access to the tree of life in the middle of the garden. (Ge 2:8; 3:24) The garden was well watered by a river flowing from it and parting to become the headwaters of four large rivers. This parklike “paradise of pleasure” (Ge 2:8, Dy) contained every tree desirable to one’s sight and good for food, as well as other vegetation, and was the habitat of animals and birds. Adam was to cultivate it and to keep it and eventually to expand it earth wide as he carried out God’s command to “subdue” the earth. It was a sanctuary, a place where God representatively walked and communicated with Adam and Eve; it was a perfect home for them.​—Ge 2:9, 10, 15-18, 21, 22; 1:28; 3:8-19; see PARADISE.

Although the Bible does not state how long the cherubs remained to guard the way of the tree of life, it may have been that such an arrangement existed until the Flood, 1,656 years after the creation of Adam. Untended by Adam, who with Eve had been driven out for their disobedience in eating from the forbidden tree of the knowledge of good and bad, the garden likely suffered deterioration. At any rate, it would at the latest have been obliterated by means of the Flood.​—See EDEN No. 1.

The beauty of the garden of Eden was recalled centuries after the Flood when Lot viewed the whole District of the Jordan, observing “that all of it was a well-watered region . . . like the garden of Jehovah.” (Ge 13:10) Jehovah kept his eyes on the Promised Land, preserving it as an inheritance for Israel. Moses contrasts it with Egypt, where the Israelites had to do irrigating as in a vegetable garden, describing the Promised Land as a land watered by “the rain of the heavens.”​—De 11:10-12.

Figurative Uses. In a warning to Judah through Joel, Jehovah tells of “a people numerous and mighty” who will devastate the land, converting it from a state “like the garden of Eden” into a wilderness. (Joe 2:2, 3) By contrast, those who do Jehovah’s will and enjoy his good pleasure are likened to a well-watered garden. (Isa 58:8-11) Such was to be the situation of Jehovah’s covenant people restored from Babylonian exile.​—Isa 51:3, 11; Jer 31:10-12.

At Ezekiel 28:12-14 “the king of Tyre” is spoken of as having been in the garden of Eden and on “the holy mountain of God.” By the slopes of Mount Lebanon with its famous cedars, the king, decked in gorgeous robes and royal splendor, had been as in a garden of Eden and on a mountain of God.

The shepherd lover in The Song of Solomon likens his Shulammite girl companion to a garden with all its pleasantness, beauty, delight, and fine fruitage.​—Ca 4:12-16.

GAREB

(Gaʹreb) [Scabby].

1. One of David’s mighty men, an Ithrite of the tribe of Judah.​—2Sa 23:8, 38; 1Ch 2:4, 5, 18, 19, 50, 53; 11:26, 40.

2. A hill mentioned in a restoration prophecy written by Jeremiah (31:39), evidently indicating the western limits of the rebuilt city of Jerusalem. Its precise location is unknown.

GARLAND

An ornamental wreath worn on the head. The Hebrew term tsephi·rahʹ (garland) was used symbolically in a prophecy of Jehovah’s judgment on Samaria, the capital city of Ephraim, that is, the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. Samaria was at that time full of political “drunkards,” drunk over the northern kingdom’s independence from Judah and over its political alliances with Syria and other enemies of Jehovah’s kingdom in Judah. (See Isa 7:3-9.) Just as drunkards would wear garlands of flowers on their heads during their wine bouts, so Samaria wore the garland of this political power. It was a decoration of beauty but was a fading blossom that would disappear. Then Jehovah would become for the remaining ones of his people as a crown of decoration and as a garland (or “diadem” according to several translations) of beauty.​—Isa 28:1-5.

The same Hebrew word appears at Ezekiel 7:7, 10. Translators, however, are uncertain as to the sense or application of the word in this case. A similar Aramaic word means “morning,” and Lamsa’s translation of the Syriac Peshitta here reads “dawn,” rather than garland, or diadem. Some translators (AS, AT, RS) link the word with a cognate Arabic noun and render it as “doom.” Still others, on the belief that the root meaning of the Hebrew word is “to go round,” translate it as “turn,” in the sense of a turn of events.​—JB; JP; “circle,” Ro.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the plural form of the Greek word stemʹma, “garland,” appears at Acts 14:13. As there related, the priest of Zeus at Lystra brought bulls and garlands to the city gates to offer sacrifices, because the people supposed that Paul and Barnabas were gods. The garlands may have been intended to be put on the heads of Paul and Barnabas, as was sometimes done to idols, or on the participants and the sacrificial animals. Such garlands were generally made up of foliage supposed to be pleasing to the god worshiped.​—Ac 14:8-18; see CROWN.

GARLIC

[Heb., shu·mimʹ (plural)].

A bulbous perennial plant (Allium sativum), the strong-scented, pungent-tasting bulb of which is composed of up to 20 smaller bulbs, or cloves. The flower stalk of garlic, bearing tiny bulblets and sterile flowers, at times may attain a height of 0.3 m (1 ft) or more.

The indications are that garlic was extensively cultivated in ancient Egypt. In the wilderness the mixed crowd and the Israelites longed for the garlic they used to eat there. (Nu 11:4, 5) The Greek historian Herodotus (II, 125) tells of an inscription that listed garlic as one of the foods provided for the laborers on a certain pyramid. Garlic is still widely used by the inhabitants of Mediterranean areas. In the Mishnah (Nedarim 3:10), the Jews referred to themselves as garlic-eaters. Garlic has been used medicinally as a digestive stimulant, as an antibiotic, and as an antispasmodic.

GARMENT

See DRESS; OFFICIAL GARMENT; RIPPING OF GARMENTS.

GARMITE

(Garʹmite) [Of (Belonging to) Gerem (Bone)].

This designation is linked with Keilah, a name appearing in a listing of Judah’s descendants.​—1Ch 4:19.

GARNER

See STOREHOUSE.

GARRISON

The Hebrew term netsivʹ may denote a rather permanent contingent of soldiers stationed at a military installation. The related Hebrew word mats·tsavʹ (outpost) carries a similar idea.​—1Sa 13:23; 14:1, 4, 6, 11, 12, 15; 2Sa 23:14.

The Philistines had garrisons in Israelite territory during the reigns of Saul and David. (1Sa 10:5; 13:3, 4; 1Ch 11:16) After David defeated Syria and Edom, he maintained garrisons in their territory to prevent rebellion. (2Sa 8:6, 14; 1Ch 18:13) For the peace and security of the land, Jehoshaphat installed garrisons in Judah and in the cities of Ephraim that Asa had captured. (2Ch 17:1, 2) The presence of such a military body did much to maintain order and protect royal interests in territories where the native inhabitants were likely to rebel.

A Roman garrison was maintained at Jerusalem during the first century C.E. Their quarters were in the high Tower of Antonia adjoining the temple grounds. When a crowd of Jews dragged Paul outside the temple and sought to kill him, soldiers of the garrison were able to come down quickly enough to rescue him. (Ac 21:31, 32) During Jewish festival seasons, extra troops were brought in to strengthen this garrison.​—See ANTONIA, TOWER OF.

GATAM

(Gaʹtam).

The fourth-named son of Esau’s firstborn Eliphaz. Gatam became one of the sheiks of the sons of Esau.​—Ge 36:10, 11, 15, 16; 1Ch 1:36.

GATE, GATEWAY

The Bible speaks of several different kinds of gates: (1) gates of the camp (Ex 32:26, 27), (2) gates of the city (Jer 37:13), (3) gate of the courtyard of the tabernacle (Ex 38:18), (4) “gates of the Castle that belongs to the house” (Ne 2:8), (5) temple gates (Ac 3:10), and (6) gate of a house (Ac 12:13, 14).

Construction. Cities usually had as few gates as possible; some cities had only one gate, since these were the vulnerable points of their fortifications. Where there were inner and outer walls, there were, of course, gates in each wall. Early gateways were L shaped to hinder the enemy’s entry. Later, after the chariot was introduced (c. 18th century B.C.E.), city gates had a straight, direct entrance. In some uncovered ruins the city gate is composed of an entrance flanked by square towers leading into a vestibule about some 15 to 20 m (49 to 66 ft) long. The passage through the vestibule was flanked by as many as six pilasters, which narrowed the passageway at three places. In some cases there may have been two or three sets of doors for these deep gates. Small rooms inside the vestibule walls were used as guard chambers. In Ezekiel’s visionary temple, the gates were provided with guard chambers. (Eze 40:6, 7, 10, 20, 21, 28, 29, 32-36) Some gates had a roof over the vestibule, and some were multistoried, as is evidenced by the stairways found inside.​—Compare 2Sa 18:24, 33.

Ancient fortress cities have been uncovered revealing small posterns, or side gates. These were sometimes at the bottom of the rampart and provided easy access for the inhabitants of the city during peacetime. In time of siege they apparently were used as sortie gates through which the defenders could sally forth to attack besiegers and at the same time receive covering fire from their comrades on the walls.

The doors of the gates of a city were usually of wood sheathed with metal plating; otherwise they could be set on fire by the enemy. Some may have been made of iron, as was the case in the days of the apostles. (Ac 12:10) Babylon’s gateways are said to have had doors of copper and bars of iron. (Isa 45:2; compare Ps 107:2, 16.) Some gates were apparently locked with wooden bars. (Na 3:13) In Solomon’s day, in the region of Argob, in Bashan, there were “sixty large cities with wall and copper bar.” (1Ki 4:13) Some towns in Syria have been found with massive stone doors of single slabs about 3 m (10 ft) high, turning on pivots above and below. Samson’s feat of picking up the doors of the gate of Gaza along with its two side posts and bar and carrying them to the top of “the mountain that is in front of Hebron” was, in view of these factors, no mean accomplishment. It was done, of course, through the energizing power of Jehovah’s spirit.​—Jg 16:3.

Function. The “gates” of a city could refer to the city itself, since much of the official business took place at the gates and transactions were recorded there (De 16:11, 14, ftn; Ru 4:10; Ps 87:2; 122:2); and in the capital, business was often carried out at the gateway of the palace grounds. (Es 3:2, 3; 5:9, 13; 6:10, 12) Where the gates, the entrances, of the city were desolate, the glory was also gone. (Isa 3:26; 14:31; Jer 14:2; La 1:4) The gates were the points where the besiegers made the strongest effort to break through. Once controlling them, they would have access to the city. And so, to ‘get possession of the gates’ of the city meant to take the city. (Ge 22:17; 24:60) When the wall of Jerusalem was broken through, the princes of the Babylonian king directed the further subjection of the city from a position at one of the city gates.​—Jer 39:2, 3.

Gates were the centers of public assembly and public life. Broad places, such as the public square before the Water Gate in Jerusalem, were usually provided near the gates. (Ne 8:1) The gates were the city’s news centers not only because of the arrival of travelers and merchants but also because nearly all the workmen, especially those working in the fields, went in and out of the gate every day. So the gate was the place for meeting others. (Ru 4:1; 2Sa 15:2) The markets were located there, some of the gates of Jerusalem being named evidently for the commodities sold there (for example, the Fish Gate).​—Ne 3:3.

At the city gates the older men of the city sat in judgment. (De 16:18; 21:18-20; 22:15; 25:7) Even kings at times held audiences or sat in judgment there. (2Sa 19:8; 1Ki 22:10; Jer 38:7) Because the judges, the prominent men of the city, the merchants, the businessmen, and a goodly number of people were usually at the gate, prophets often went there to make proclamations. Their messages delivered there would spread much faster. (1Ki 22:10; Jer 17:19) Other important announcements and official proclamations were also made there. (2Ch 32:6-8) It was in the public square before the Water Gate that Ezra read the Law. (Ne 8:1-3) Wisdom is pictured as crying out at the entrances of the gates for all in the city to become aware of its counsel. (Pr 1:20, 21; 8:1-3) Inasmuch as the gate was a news center, the good or bad works of the city’s inhabitants would become known there.​—Pr 31:31.

It seems to have been a heathen practice to make sacrifices at the gates of a city. (Ac 14:13) This bad practice developed in Judah but was corrected by King Josiah.​—2Ki 23:8.

Those found worthy of death by the judges were taken outside the city gates to be executed. (1Ki 21:10-13; Ac 7:58) The carcasses of the sacrificial animals that were offered for sin atonement on the Day of Atonement were taken outside the city and burned. (Le 16:27, 28) Therefore Jesus Christ, the sin offering for the atonement of mankind, was put to death outside the gate of Jerusalem.​—Heb 13:11, 12.

Because of the important usages of the city’s gateway, it was a high honor to sit down with the older men of the land in the gates. (Job 29:7; Pr 31:23) Such a position was no place for a foolish one. (Pr 24:7) When David was persecuted, he considered it a serious thing for those sitting in the gates to become concerned about him, especially in an unfavorable way. (Ps 69:12) To ‘crush the afflicted one in the gate’ had reference to judicial corruption, since legal cases were handled there. (Job 5:4; Pr 22:22; Am 5:12) To ‘hate a reprover in the gate’ meant to hate the judge who corrected or condemned one. (Am 5:10) Those who ‘laid bait for the one reproving in the gate’ were ones who by bribes or other pressures tried to cause the judges to pervert judgment or who sought to ensnare a prophet who might stand in the gate to reprove them.​—Isa 29:19-21.

Wilderness Camp Gates. The ‘gates’ of the camp of Israel were the ways of entrance. No doubt they were well guarded. The tabernacle was in the camp’s center, with the Levites camping in close proximity to it; and the 12 tribes, three on a side, were at a greater distance. This arrangement afforded ample protection for the camp.​—Ex 32:26, 27; Nu 3; see GATEKEEPER.

Gates of Jerusalem. In dealing with the gates of Jerusalem, it is well to remember that, from the time of its capture by David, the city developed and expanded, so that several walls or added portions of walls were built. We shall concern ourselves here mainly with the gates mentioned in the book of Nehemiah, which gives us the most complete description or listing. The gates named in Nehemiah’s record are gates that had been in the wall that was built prior to the eighth century B.C.E. and in the wall surrounding “the second quarter.” (2Ki 22:14; 2Ch 34:22; Zep 1:10) “The second quarter” was a northern part of the city bounded on the W and part of the N by Hezekiah’s wall (2Ch 32:5) and joined by Manasseh’s wall, which continued on the NE and E. (2Ch 33:14) This was N of the earlier city and wall, but apparently it did not extend as far W as the earlier wall.

Nehemiah’s wall. In his account of the reconstruction of the wall of the city (Ne 3), Nehemiah begins at the Sheep Gate and proceeds in a counterclockwise direction. We shall follow this procedure in our listing below, inserting the gates not mentioned in the reconstruction account but named in the description of the inauguration procession (Ne 12), along with gates spoken of in other scriptures, some of which are merely other names for those in Nehemiah’s record.

Sheep Gate. The Sheep Gate was rebuilt by Eliashib the high priest and associate priests. (Ne 3:1, 32; 12:39) This fact would indicate that it was near the temple area. Its location was probably in the wall of the second quarter, the part built by Manasseh (see “Fish Gate” below), at or near the NE corner of the city. This gate may have been so named because through it were brought sheep and goats for sacrifice or perhaps for a market that was located nearby. “The sheepgate” mentioned at John 5:2 is likely this Sheep Gate or a later gate corresponding to it, for it was located in the same vicinity, near the pool of Bethzatha.

Fish Gate. Hezekiah apparently built a part of the wall around the second quarter as far as the Fish Gate. (2Ch 32:5; 33:14) In Nehemiah’s reconstruction and procession accounts, the Fish Gate is placed W of the Sheep Gate, perhaps near the N end of the Tyropoeon Valley. (Ne 3:3; 12:39) It is mentioned in conjunction with the second quarter at Zephaniah 1:10. The name may be due to the gate’s nearness to the fish market where the Tyrians sold fish.​—Ne 13:16.

Gate of the Old City. The Gate of the Old City was located on the NW side of the city between the Fish Gate and the Gate of Ephraim. (Ne 3:6; 12:39) In Hebrew, the gate is called simply “Gate of the Old,” the word “city” being supplied by some translators. It is suggested that the name was derived from its having been the main N entrance to the old city. It may have been at the junction of the Broad Wall (that formed a N boundary of the old city) and the S end of the W wall of the second quarter. Some think that this gate is identical with “the First Gate” mentioned by Zechariah. He seemingly refers to the E-W limits of the city in saying “from [1] the Gate of Benjamin all the way to the place of [2] the First Gate, all the way to [3] the Corner Gate,” and to the N-S limits in saying “from the Tower of Hananel all the way to the press vats of the king.” (Zec 14:10) Others would connect the Gate of the Old City with “the Middle Gate” mentioned at Jeremiah 39:3. Some term this Gate of the Old City the “Mishneh Gate” and locate it in the W wall of the second quarter.

Gate of Ephraim. The Gate of Ephraim was located in the Broad Wall 400 cubits (178 m; 583 ft) E of the Corner Gate. (2Ki 14:13; 2Ch 25:23) It was an exit N in the direction of the territory of Ephraim. It, too, has been identified by some researchers with the Middle Gate (Jer 39:3), by others with the First Gate. (Zec 14:10) It is thought to be (or correspond to) the Gennath or Garden Gate spoken of by the Jewish historian Josephus. (The Jewish War, V, 146 [iv, 2]) Near the Gate of Ephraim there was a public square in which the people made booths to celebrate the Festival of Booths in Nehemiah’s time. (Ne 8:16) This gate is not named in Nehemiah’s reconstruction text, evidently because it did not need extensive repairs.

Corner Gate. This gate was evidently located in the NW angle of the city wall, W of the Gate of Ephraim. (2Ki 14:13; 2Ch 25:23) It was on the E side of the Valley of Hinnom, apparently in the W wall of the old city at the point where it joined the Broad Wall. Uzziah built a tower by this gate; whether or not it was the Tower of the Bake Ovens is not stated. (2Ch 26:9) Both Jeremiah and Zechariah appear to refer to the Corner Gate as being on the western edge of the city.​—Jer 31:38; Zec 14:10.

There is no other gate described as existing in the W wall from the Corner Gate to the Valley Gate in the SW wall, this no doubt being because of the steep slope of the Valley of Hinnom, making any other gate impractical. The Corner Gate does not appear in Nehemiah’s accounts; again the reason may be that it did not need extensive repairs. The account does speak of repairing the Tower of the Bake Ovens, which seems to have been a part of, or near, the Corner Gate.​—Ne 3:11.

Valley Gate. In the SW part of the city wall, the Valley Gate led to the Valley of Hinnom. The “gate of the Essenes” mentioned by Josephus may have been located here or nearby. (The Jewish War, V, 145 [iv, 2]) Uzziah, in his city-fortification program, built a tower by this gate. (2Ch 26:9) It was from the Valley Gate that Nehemiah went out for his inspection of the damaged wall, riding eastward through the Valley of Hinnom and then up the Kidron Valley, finally reentering the city by the same gate. (Ne 2:13-15) Although not named as such, the Valley Gate appears to be the point at which the inauguration procession started, one group marching counterclockwise around the walls past the Gate of the Ash-heaps and the other clockwise past the Corner Gate and the Tower of the Bake Ovens.​—Ne 12:31-40.

Gate of the Ash-heaps. This gate is also known as the Gate of the Potsherds and is called the Dung Gate in many Bibles, based on the Greek Septuagint and Latin Vulgate. (Ne 2:13; 12:31; Jer 19:2) Nehemiah’s description seems to place it 1,000 cubits (445 m; 1,458 ft) E of the Valley Gate. (Ne 3:13, 14) It was at the SE corner of the city wall and led to the Valley of Hinnom near where it joined the Tyropoeon Valley. It was from this gate that Topheth in the Valley of Hinnom was reached by those idolatrously burning their children in the fire to Baal. (Jer 19:1-6) It was also the gate through which Jeremiah led some of the older men and priests of Israel and proclaimed calamity to Jerusalem, breaking an earthenware flask to illustrate God’s breaking of the people for their serving of other gods.​—Jer 19:1-3, 10, 11.

The name “Gate of the Potsherds” may have been given because fragments of pottery were thrown near there as refuse, or because fragments of pottery were ground there, the dust from which was used to make cement for plastering cisterns (as has been done in more recent times near a pool at the SW corner of the city). Also, there may have been a potter’s industry near this gate, for there was clay nearby in the Valley of Hinnom as well as a water supply at the mouth of the Tyropoeon Valley and at the spring called En-rogel. (Compare Jer 18:2; 19:1, 2.) “The potter’s field” (Mt 27:7, 8) has, since the fourth century C.E., been traditionally considered to be located on the S side of the Valley of Hinnom.

Fountain Gate. This gate was so called because of its giving access to a spring or fountain nearby, perhaps En-rogel, which was below the junction of the Kidron Valley and the Valley of Hinnom. Probably the gate was at the S tip of the E hill of the city (that is, at the southern end of “the City of David”). (Ne 2:14; 3:15; 12:37) The Fountain Gate would afford convenient exit and access to En-rogel for those living in the City of David, while the Gate of the Ash-heaps, not far to the SW, would also lead out toward En-rogel and would likely be a better exit for the residents of the Tyropoeon Valley and the SW hill of the city.

Water Gate. The name of this gate may have been derived from its proximity or at least its access to the spring of Gihon about midway up the E side of the city. This gate was near Ophel, not far from the temple area. (Ne 3:26) The Water Gate was where one of the groups of the inauguration procession left the wall, proceeding from there to the temple, where they assembled with the other group, apparently not traversing that part of the city wall to the E of the temple. (Ne 12:37-40) There was a public square before this gate where all the people gathered to hear Ezra read the Law and where they afterward built booths to celebrate the Festival of Booths.​—Ne 8:1-3, 16.

Horse Gate. Repair work above the Horse Gate was done by the priests, which implies that its location was near the temple. (Ne 3:28) Some have held that the Horse Gate was one providing communication between two parts of the temple-palace quarter. They reach this conclusion from the account of Athaliah’s execution, which reports that, on being led out of the temple by the soldiers, “she came to the entry of the horse gate of the king’s house.” (2Ch 23:15; 2Ki 11:16) However, this was likely an entry just to the precincts of the royal palace and not the Horse Gate through which the horses passed in and out of the city itself. Nehemiah definitely includes the Horse Gate in his reconstruction description, indicating that it was a gate in the city wall. It was probably located SE of the temple area. (Ne 3:28; Jer 31:40) The Horse Gate is omitted in the inauguration procession account, evidently because the two parts of the procession left off at the Water Gate and the Gate of the Guard, respectively, and did not walk over the section of the wall E of the temple, where the Horse Gate and the Inspection Gate were located.​—Ne 12:37-40.

Inspection Gate. Some call the Inspection (Heb., ham·miph·qadhʹ) Gate the Muster Gate. (Ne 3:31, RS; Ro) At Ezekiel 43:21 miph·qadhʹ (the same Hebrew word without the article ha) is translated “appointed place.” Some have thought it was the same as the Gate of the Guard. Its mention by Nehemiah in his reconstruction account would seem to support the idea that it was a gate in the E wall of the city in front of the temple area and N of the Horse Gate. (Ne 3:27-31) Nehemiah’s statement that there was a corner in the wall beyond the Inspection Gate would place this gate in the E wall, S of where the wall turned (likely in a northwestward direction).

The account tells us that the repair work was done “in front of the Inspection Gate.” Some have understood this to refer to a repair work on the city wall in front of a temple gate by this name. This does not seem to be the correct view, for the same expression is used respecting the Water Gate, which is acknowledged to have been a gate in the city wall. (Ne 3:26, 31) The Inspection Gate is not named in the procession account evidently because the marchers did not traverse the wall E of the temple.

Gate of the Guard. From this gate (called “prison gate,” KJ) part of the inauguration procession left the wall and proceeded to the temple.​—Ne 12:39, 40.

Middle Gate. When the wall of Jerusalem was breached by the Babylonians, their military officers sat in the Middle Gate. (Jer 39:3) Most likely this was identical with the Gate of the Old City, since this gate, at the convergence of the Broad Wall, the N wall of the old city, and the W wall of the second quarter, was a central or commanding position. However, opinions differ, and some favor the Gate of Ephraim or the Fish Gate.

Gate of Benjamin. Some identify the Gate of Benjamin with the Sheep Gate. This location would fit the circumstances of Jeremiah’s attempted exit to the territory of Benjamin, evidently toward Anathoth, which lay NE of Jerusalem. (Jer 37:11-13) Zedekiah was sitting in the Gate of Benjamin when approached by Ebed-melech with a plea in Jeremiah’s behalf. (Jer 38:7, 8) It is reasonable that the king would be near the point of greatest concern during the Babylonian siege. The Sheep Gate on the N of the city would be the most seriously threatened by the attacking Babylonians. However, some believe that the Gate of Benjamin was the Inspection Gate.

Other gates mentioned. When King Zedekiah fled from the Babylonians, he went out “by the way of the gate between the double wall that is by the king’s garden.” (Jer 52:7, 8; 39:4) There is much uncertainty as to the identity of “the double wall.” However, from present knowledge, either the Gate of the Ash-heaps or the Fountain Gate might fit the circumstances described in the Scriptures, both of these being near the king’s garden.​—2Ki 25:4, 5.

At 2 Kings 23:8 reference is made to “the high places of the gates that were at the entrance of the gate of Joshua, the chief of the city, which was at the left as a person came into the gate of the city.” Here “gate of Joshua” is not the name of a city gate but evidently is a gate within the city walls leading to the governor’s residence, which was at the left as a person entered the city gate.

Temple Gates. East Gate. Nehemiah’s reconstruction account tells us that the keeper of the East Gate shared in the repair work. (Ne 3:29) Thus the East Gate is not designated as a gate in Jerusalem’s wall, as some have thought. The East Gate may have been approximately in line with the Inspection Gate in the city wall. This gate is evidently the one mentioned in 1 Chronicles 9:18 as “the king’s gate to the east,” being the gate where the king went into or came out from the temple.

Gate of the Foundation. A temple gate, the location of which is uncertain.​—2Ki 11:6; 2Ch 23:5.

“Upper gate of the house of Jehovah.” This may have been a gate leading to the inner court, possibly “the new gate of Jehovah,” where Jeremiah was tried; also where Jeremiah’s secretary Baruch read the scroll before the people. (Jer 26:10; 36:10) Jeremiah may have called it “the new gate” because it had not been so anciently built as the others; possibly it was “the upper gate of the house of Jehovah” built by King Jotham.​—2Ki 15:32, 35; 2Ch 27:3.

“Upper Gate of Benjamin, which was in the house of Jehovah.” Probably a gate leading to the inner court, on the N side of the temple.​—Jer 20:2; compare Eze 8:3; 9:2.

Beautiful Gate. A doorway of the temple rebuilt by Herod the Great, the site of Peter’s healing of the man who was lame from his mother’s womb. (Ac 3:1-10) There is a tradition that identifies this gate with the existing Golden Gate in the city wall, but it may be that the Beautiful Gate was an inner gate of the temple area, corresponding possibly to the ancient “East Gate.” Some say that it may have been one of the gates E of the temple building itself, opening upon the Court of Women, a gate described by Josephus as being 50 cubits (22 m; 73 ft) in height and having doors of Corinthian brass.

Other gates mentioned are “the gate behind the runners” and “the gate of the runners.” These are temple gates, the location of which is uncertain.​—2Ki 11:6, 19.

The Jewish Mishnah (Middot 1:3), speaking of the temple rebuilt by King Herod the Great, mentions only five gates to the Temple Mount, that is, in the wall surrounding the entire square of the temple area. These were: the two Huldah Gates on the S, the Kiponus Gate on the W, the Tadi (Todi) Gate on the N, and the Eastern Gate, on which was portrayed the Palace of Shushan. Josephus, on the other hand, refers to four gates on the W. (Jewish Antiquities, XV, 410 [xi, 5]) These four gates have now been identified by archaeological investigation. From S to N, they are: the gate that leads over Robinson’s Arch to steps going down into the Tyropoeon Valley; the Barclay Gate at street level; the gate leading over Wilson’s Arch, supporting a bridge over the Tyropoeon Valley; and the Warren Gate, also at street level. The Kiponus Gate may be identified with either the Barclay Gate or the gate over Wilson’s Arch.

The Mishnah additionally states that there were seven gates to the court immediately surrounding the temple.​—Middot 1:4; see TEMPLE.

Figurative Uses. “The gates of righteousness” and “the gate of Jehovah,” into which the righteous enter, are spoken of at Psalm 118:19, 20.​—Compare Mt 7:13, 14.

When a person died he was referred to as having entered “the gates of death.” (Ps 9:13; 107:18) He went into the common grave for mankind and so entered the gates of Sheol-Hades. (Isa 38:10; Mt 16:18) Since Jesus Christ has the keys of death and of Hades (Re 1:18), his congregation has had the assurance that death and Hades would not hold them forever in bondage. The apostle Paul showed that all of these die, going into death and Hades, as did Christ whom God loosed from the pangs of death and did not leave in Hades. (Ac 2:24, 31) Because of the resurrection, death and Hades do not have final victory over Christ’s congregation.​—1Co 15:29, 36-38, 54-57.

Because God’s people when restored to Zion would reestablish pure worship there, her gates would be called Praise. Zion’s gates would be open constantly to bring in the resources of the nations, without fear of being taken under control by the enemy.​—Isa 60:11, 18.

Ezekiel was given a vision of a city to be called “Jehovah Himself Is There,” having 12 gates named according to the 12 tribes of Israel. (Eze 48:30-35) He also reports a detailed vision of a temple with its various gates.​—Eze 40-44.

The holy city “New Jerusalem” is pictured as having 12 gates of pearl, with an angel stationed at each gate, evidently as a guard. These gates are constantly open, for no night exists to occasion closing them. The glory and honor of the nations are brought in through the city gates. Even though open, no entrance can be effected by those practicing wicked, unclean, or disgusting things. Only those maintaining cleanness as overcomers or conquerors, those who become kings and priests with Christ, gain entry past the angelic attendants. (Re 21:2, 12, 21-27; 22:14, 15; 2:7; 20:4, 6) The peoples of the nations of earth who walk in the city’s light are blessed.

GATEKEEPER

In ancient times gatekeepers, also called doorkeepers, served at various places, such as city gates, temple gates, even at the gateways or doorways of homes. Gatekeepers of city gates were appointed to see that the gates were closed at night, and they acted as watchmen at the gate. Other watchmen might be posted as lookouts on top of the gate or in a tower where they could get a broad view and could announce those approaching the city. They cooperated with the gatekeeper. (2Sa 18:24, 26) It was a very responsible position, inasmuch as the safety of the city depended on the gatekeeper to a considerable degree and he was an instrument of communication between those outside the city and those inside. (2Ki 7:10, 11) The doorkeepers of King Ahasuerus, two of whom plotted to assassinate him, were also called court officials.​—Es 2:21-23; 6:2.

In the Temple. Shortly before his death, King David thoroughly organized the Levites and temple workers, including the gatekeepers, of whom there were 4,000. In their divisions they would come in for seven days at a time. They were responsible to guard Jehovah’s house and see that the doors were opened and closed at the proper times. (1Ch 9:23-27; 23:1-6) Besides guard duty, some took care of the contributions brought in by the people for use at the temple. (2Ki 12:9; 22:4) At a later time, when Jehoiada the high priest anointed Jehoash as king, special guards were assigned to the gates of the temple to protect young Jehoash from the usurper, Queen Athaliah. (2Ki 11:4-8) When King Josiah destroyed idolatrous worship, the doorkeepers assisted in removing from the temple the utensils that had been used in the worship of Baal. These were then burned up outside the city.​—2Ki 23:4.

When Jesus Christ was on earth, priests and Levites were assigned as doorkeepers and watchmen in the temple rebuilt by Herod. These were required to be on the alert, for the overseer or officer of the Temple Mount would make his rounds, appearing at unannounced times, and it was necessary for the watchman to remain awake at his post constantly in order not to be caught off guard. There was another officer who was in charge of the casting of lots for the temple services. When he came and knocked on the door, it was necessary for the guard to be awake to open it for him. He, too, might catch the guard asleep. On this matter of wakefulness, the Mishnah (Middot 1:2) says: “The officer of the Temple Mount used to go round to every watch with lighted torches before him, and if any watch did not stand up and say, to him, ‘O officer of the Temple Mount, peace be to thee!’ and it was manifest that he was asleep, he would beat him with his staff, and he had the right to burn his raiment.”​—Translated by H. Danby; see also Re 16:15.

These gatekeepers and guards were posted at their stations in order to safeguard the temple from robbery and to keep out all unclean persons and all intruders who had no proper business there.

In Homes. In the days of the apostles, some homes employed doorkeepers. At the house of Mary the mother of John Mark, a servant girl named Rhoda answered Peter’s knock when he returned from prison after being released by an angel. (Ac 12:12-14) The girl who was employed as a doorkeeper at the home of the high priest asked Peter whether he was one of Christ’s disciples.​—Joh 18:17.

Shepherds. Shepherds in Bible times used to keep their flocks of sheep in a sheepfold, or sheepcote, during the night. These sheepfolds consisted of a low stone wall with a gateway. The flocks of one man or sometimes of several would be kept in the fold during the night with a doorkeeper to keep watch and to protect them. Jesus apparently drew on this custom for illustration when he mentioned a doorkeeper in speaking of himself not only as the shepherd of God’s sheep but also as the door through which the sheep could enter.​—Joh 10:1-9.

Christians. Jesus emphasized the need for Christians to keep alert and on the watch concerning his coming as Jehovah’s executioner. He likened the Christian to the doorkeeper who was commanded by his master to keep on the watch and look for him on his return from traveling abroad.​—Mr 13:33-37; see GATE, GATEWAY; GUARD.

GATH

[Winepress].

A city of the Philistine axis lords. (1Sa 6:17, 18) Situated as it was, to the E of the Plain of Philistia, Gath figured prominently in the Israelite-Philistine seesaw domination of the area. Gath was the birthplace of Goliath and other giant warriors, and it was occupied by the Anakim at the time that Israel crossed the Jordan into the Promised Land. (Jos 11:22; 1Sa 17:4; 2Sa 21:15-22; 1Ch 20:4-8) The residents of Gath were called Gittites.​—Jos 13:3.

Joshua’s conquest of the Promised Land did not include the territory occupied by the Philistines. This was to be accomplished later. Nevertheless, when Jehovah instructed Joshua to assign the territory to the tribes, Judah’s assignment included the territory in which Gath was located.​—Jos 13:2, 3; 15:1, 5, 12.

At unstated times both the Ephraimites and the Benjamites skirmished with the Gittites, as incidentally noted in the genealogies.​—1Ch 7:20, 21; 8:13.

In Samuel’s day the captured ark of the covenant was brought to Gath, with disastrous consequences to the city’s inhabitants. (1Sa 5:8, 9) Shortly thereafter, Israel subdued the Philistines, and certain cities that the Philistines had taken from Israel “kept coming back to Israel from Ekron to Gath.” (1Sa 7:14) Later, when David slew the Gittite giant Goliath, Israel pursued the Philistines as far as Ekron and Gath.​—1Sa 17:23, 48-53.

After this, when David was forced to flee from Saul, he took refuge in Gath. When the servants of Achish the king of Gath began to say: “Is not this David the king of the land?” David became afraid and feigned insanity in order to escape. (1Sa 21:10-15) David composed two psalms recalling this experience in Gath. (Ps 34:Sup; 56:Sup) On David’s next visit to Gath, however, he came, not as a lone fugitive, but as the leader of 600 warriors and their families. No doubt anxious to secure David’s support against Saul, Achish granted him and his men safe residence in the town of Ziklag until Saul was killed 16 months later, after which David moved to Hebron. (1Sa 27:2–28:2; 29:1-11; 2Sa 1:1; 2:1-3) In his dirge over Saul and Jonathan, David noted that the news of Saul’s death would cause rejoicing and exultation in the Philistine cities of Gath and Ashkelon.​—2Sa 1:20.

During David’s reign, Gath and its dependent towns came into Israelite hands. (1Ch 18:1) Some men from Gath became loyal supporters of David, and when David fled from Absalom, there were 600 Gittites among those who went with him. (2Sa 15:18) But during Solomon’s rule Achish was still referred to as king of Gath. (1Ki 2:39-41) Evidently Achish was a vassal prince and not a king in the usual sense. (See AXIS LORDS.) Solomon’s successor Rehoboam rebuilt and fortified Gath.​—2Ch 11:5-8.

King Hazael of Syria captured Gath from King Jehoash of Judah sometime after Jehoash’s 23rd year (876 B.C.E.). (2Ki 12:6, 17) The Philistines must have regained control of the city later, for Uzziah recaptured it in his campaign against them. (2Ch 26:3, 6) The prophets Amos and, afterward, Micah refer to Gath as a foreign city. (Am 6:2; Mic 1:10) Following the Assyrian king Sargon’s boast of conquering it not long after 740 B.C.E., there are no further historical references to Gath, and later Biblical mention of Philistine cities does not include it.​—Zep 2:4; Jer 25:17, 20; Zec 9:5, 6.

The exact location of Gath is unknown. Although several sites have been proposed, archaeological excavations at most of these sites did not fit the historical description of the city of Gath. Some scholars now favor Tell es-Safi (Tel Zafit), 18.5 km (11.5 mi) ESE of Ashdod. Yohanan Aharoni states: “Since there remains no suitable tell in this more southerly region, we should reconsider an earlier proposal to equate Gath with Tell es-Safi. This is a large and outstanding site with a contemporary lower city spread out at its feet in which an abundance of Philistine pottery was discovered. Its position at the point where the Wadi es-Sant (the Valley of Elah) enters the western Shephelah corresponds nicely with the account of David’s victory over Goliath the Gittite. Their fight took place farther east between Sochoh and Azekah (1 Sam. 17.1), and afterwards the Israelites pursued the Philistines ‘as far as Gath . . . and the gates of Ekron, so that the wounded Philistines fell on the way from Shaaraim as far as Gath and Ekron’ (vs. 52).”​—The Land of the Bible, translated and edited by A. Rainey, 1979, p. 271.

GATH-HEPHER

(Gath-heʹpher) [Winepress of Hepher (Digging)].

A border city of Zebulun (Jos 19:10, 13) and home of the prophet Jonah. (2Ki 14:25) It is usually identified with Khirbet ez-Zurraʽ (Tel Gat Hefer), about 4 km (2.5 mi) NNE of Nazareth and just W of Meshhed (Mash-had), the traditional site of Jonah’s tomb. Surface explorations at Khirbet ez-Zurraʽ appear to corroborate the Biblical statements that the site was occupied at both time periods in the aforementioned accounts.

GATH-RIMMON

(Gath-rimʹmon) [Winepress by the Pomegranate Tree].

1. A city of Dan (Jos 19:40, 41, 45) assigned to the Kohathite Levites. (Jos 21:20, 23, 24) First Chronicles 6:66-70 appears to make Gath-rimmon an Ephraimite city. However, on the basis of the parallel account at Joshua 21:23, 24, Hebrew scholars believe that, because of scribal error, a portion of the text has accidentally dropped out and been lost. So, they suggest inserting the following (corresponding to Jos 21:23) before 1 Chronicles 6:69: “And from the tribe of Dan, Elteke and its pasture ground, Gibbethon and its pasture ground . . . ” This could have been the original reading. However, not to be overlooked is the possibility that Gath-rimmon was a Danite enclave city located within Ephraim’s territory.

Gath-rimmon is usually identified with Tell Jerisheh (Tel Gerisa), about 8 km (5 mi) NE of modern Tel Aviv-Yafo.

2. A city of Manasseh, given to the Kohathite Levites. (Jos 21:20, 25) Since the similar account at 1 Chronicles 6:70 has “Bileam,” many scholars believe this latter name originally appeared in place of Gath-rimmon at Joshua 21:25.​—See IBLEAM.

GAZA

(Gaʹza).

1. An ancient city listed in the earliest Canaanite boundary description. (Ge 10:19) Aside from some 20 Scriptural references to Gaza, ancient Egyptian records and inscriptions of Ramses II, Thutmose III, and Seti I mention the city. Gaza was apparently the most southwesterly city assigned to the tribe of Judah. (Jos 15:20, 47; Jg 6:3, 4) Its inhabitants were called Gazites.​—Jos 13:3; Jg 16:2.

Some would identify Gaza with Tell el-ʽAjul (Tel Bet ʽEglayim), but this has not been confirmed by archaeological diggings there. Generally, the ancient city is linked with modern Gaza (Ghazzeh; ʽAzza), located about 80 km (50 mi) WSW of Jerusalem. Although separated from the Mediterranean Sea by about 5 km (3 mi) of rolling sand dunes, Gaza lies in a well-watered region known for its olive groves, fruit and sycamore trees, grapevines, and grain. Agriculture likely contributed to the prosperity of ancient Gaza. But its importance stemmed primarily from its location on the main road linking Egypt with Palestine. This made Gaza a “gateway” both for caravans and military traffic.

Occupied by Philistines. Sometime before Israel’s Exodus from Egypt in 1513 B.C.E., the Hamitic Caphtorim (Ge 10:6, 13, 14) dispossessed “the Avvim, who were dwelling in settlements as far as Gaza.” (De 2:23) When the Israelites entered the Promised Land, Gaza itself was a Philistine city and its inhabitants included some of the Anakim. Although Israel’s war operations under Joshua extended as far as Gaza, the city apparently was not taken. It remained a Philistine city, and some of the Anakim continued to live there. (Jos 10:41; 11:22; 13:2, 3) Assigned to Judah, Gaza was afterward conquered by this tribe, but the Judeans did not retain control over the city. (Jos 15:20, 47; Jg 1:18) In Samson’s day Gaza was again a fortified city of the Philistines, with a “house” used for Dagon worship that could accommodate about 3,000 persons, if not more, on its roof.

While Samson was at Gaza on one occasion, he “rose at midnight and grabbed hold of the doors of the city gate and the two side posts and pulled them out along with the bar and put them upon his shoulders and went carrying them up to the top of the mountain that is in front of [that faces] Hebron.” (Jg 16:1-3) Hebron was a distance of some 60 km (37 mi) from Gaza. The exact location of the mountain facing Hebron is uncertain. For Samson to carry the gates and sideposts any distance, and up a mountain at that, was clearly a manifestation of miraculous power made possible only by Jehovah’s spirit.

Later, Samson caused the collapse of the aforementioned house used for Dagon worship, this resulting in his own death and that of the Philistines who had assembled there.​—Jg 16:21-30.

Gaza apparently continued to be a Philistine city throughout the period of the Judges (1Sa 6:17) and during the rule of Israel’s kings. King Solomon held dominion as far as Gaza in the SW, but evidently the Philistines were still there.​—1Ki 4:21, 24.

Under Assyrian and Babylonian Rule. Toward the close of the ninth century B.C.E., through his prophet Amos, Jehovah stated that he would send “a fire” onto the walls of Gaza, this in retribution for its taking exiles to hand over to the Edomites. (Am 1:6, 7) Although the “exiles” are not specifically identified as Hebrews, likely the allusion is to captives taken by the Philistines in raids on Judah.​—Compare 2Ch 21:16, 17; Joe 3:4-6.

Not long thereafter, about the middle of the eighth century B.C.E., Gaza began to experience the “fire” of war. According to Assyrian annals, Tiglath-pileser III conquered Gaza, but its king, Hanno, fled to Egypt. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 283) Apparently Hanno was soon able to return to Gaza, for Sargon II claims to have defeated both him and the Egyptian army under Sibʼe allied with him. Sargon II claims to have personally captured Hanno and taken him away in fetters.​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 285.

From this time onward, Gaza appears to have been generally loyal to Assyria. Hence, it may be that King Hezekiah’s striking down the Philistines as far as Gaza was a phase of his revolt against Assyria. (2Ki 18:1, 7, 8) After this revolt, King Sennacherib launched his campaign against Judah and, according to his annals, gave captured Judean towns to Mitinti the king of Ashdod, Padi the king of Ekron (who had been imprisoned at Jerusalem), and Sillibel the king of Gaza.​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, pp. 287, 288.

In the time of Jeremiah, Egypt’s army struck down Gaza. (Jer 47:1) Before this event, Jehovah’s utterance against the Philistines indicated that calamity from the N awaited them: “Baldness must come to Gaza.” (Jer 47:2-5; see also Jer 25:17, 20.) As suggested by other passages in Jeremiah (1:14; 46:20), the “waters” from “the north” mentioned at Jeremiah 47:2 evidently denote the Babylonian armies. King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon did, in fact, gain control over this area (2Ki 24:1, 7), and the king of Gaza is mentioned in Babylonian inscriptions. (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 308) Consequently, the words “before Pharaoh proceeded to strike down Gaza” (Jer 47:1) appear simply to identify the time when the utterance of Jehovah regarding the Philistines came to Jeremiah. They would not necessarily be directly related to the coming expression of judgment “from the north” thereafter discussed.

Destroyed. The prophet Zephaniah, a contemporary of Jeremiah, sounded a like judgment from Jehovah for Gaza: “An abandoned city is what she will become.” (Zep 2:4) And Zechariah’s prophecy, recorded after Babylon’s fall, pointed to future calamities: “[Gaza] will also feel very severe pains.” (Zec 9:5) History confirms the fulfillment of the foretold calamities. In the latter half of the fourth century B.C.E., Alexander the Great, after a five-month siege (two months, according to Jewish Antiquities, XI, 325 [viii, 4]), took Gaza. Many of its inhabitants were slain and the survivors were sold into slavery. Over 200 years later, the Jew Alexander Jannaeus, after a year’s siege, completely devastated the city.​—Jewish Antiquities, XIII, 364 (xiii, 3).

Although the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius, ordered the rebuilding of Gaza, this was likely done on a new site. (Jewish Antiquities, XIV, 87, 88 [v, 3]) Some scholars think that at Acts 8:26 the Greek word eʹre·mos (desolate [place]) refers to the old, abandoned Gaza (AT, for example, reads: “The town is now deserted”). Others understand eʹre·mos to refer to the road leading to the city, hence the rendering “this is a desert road.”​—NW; compare JB, NE, RS.

2. A city with dependent towns located in Ephraim’s territory. (1Ch 7:28) Its exact location is unknown. Gaza may be a site in the vicinity of ancient Ai, if not perhaps identical with that city itself. The reading “Ayyah” found in numerous Bible translations has the support of many Hebrew manuscripts. However, there is also evidence for “Gaza” in other Hebrew manuscripts, as well as in the Targums.

GAZELLE

[Heb., tseviʹ; tsevi·yahʹ (female gazelle); tsa·vaʼʹ; tseva·ʼahʹ (female gazelle); Gr., dor·kasʹ].

Any of a variety of swift and graceful small antelope. The Gazella dorcas, encountered in Arabia, Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, likely was familiar to the ancient Hebrews. This animal is about 1 m (3.5 ft) long and stands approximately 0.6 m (2 ft) high at the shoulder. Both male and female have lyre-shaped, ringed horns that may measure as much as 0.3 m (1 ft) in length. The general coloration of this gazelle is pale fawn, with dark and light stripes on the face and with white underparts and hindquarters. The hair is short and smooth. Another variety of gazelle with which the Israelites may have been acquainted is the somewhat larger, darker, fawn-colored Gazella arabica.​—PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 955.

The speed of the gazelle, which ranks among the fastest of mammals, is alluded to in Scripture. (Ca 2:17; 8:14) The swiftness of Joab’s brother Asahel and of certain Gadites was likened to that of the gazelle. (2Sa 2:18; 1Ch 12:8) Babylon’s fall was foretold to cause her foreign supporters and hangers-on to flee like a gazelle to their respective lands. (Isa 13:14) This creature is also cited as an example of acting quickly so as to avoid being ensnared.​—Pr 6:5.

Probably with reference to its beauty and gracefulness, the gazelle figures in certain vivid descriptions contained in The Song of Solomon (2:9; 4:5; 7:3). The gazelle is also mentioned in the oath under which the Shulammite placed the daughters of Jerusalem, in effect obligating them by all that is beautiful and graceful.​—Ca 2:7; 3:5.

By the terms of the Law given through Moses, the gazelle could be used for food. (De 12:15, 22; 14:4, 5; 15:22) It constituted one of the regularly provided meats for Solomon’s sumptuous table.​—1Ki 4:22, 23.

GAZEZ

(Gaʹzez) [Shearer].

First Chronicles 2:46 says Caleb’s concubine Ephah gave birth to Haran, Moza, and Gazez, and then it states that Haran “became father to Gazez.” Hence, there may have been two men named Gazez: (1) a son of Caleb, and (2) a grandson of Caleb. But if the expression, “As for Haran, he became father to Gazez,” is simply a clarification identifying the Gazez mentioned initially as, not Caleb’s son, but his grandson, this would mean there was only one Gazez, namely, the son of Haran and grandson of Caleb.

GAZITES

(Gaʹzites) [Of (Belonging to) Gaza].

Inhabitants of Gaza, the word applying in both of its occurrences to Philistines.​—Jos 13:2, 3; Jg 16:1, 2; see GAZA No. 1.

GAZZAM

(Gazʹzam) [possibly, Caterpillar [that is, a cutter]].

Forefather of some Nethinim who returned from Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 43, 48; Ne 7:46, 51.

GEBA

(Geʹba) [Hill].

A city of Benjamin given to the Kohathites; one of the 13 priestly cities. (Jos 18:21, 24; 21:17, 19; 1Ch 6:54, 60) Geba apparently was situated by the northern boundary of the kingdom of Judah, whence the expression “from Geba as far as Beer-sheba.” (2Ki 23:8) The ancient city is usually identified with the village of Jabaʽ, almost 9 km (5.5 mi) NNE of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. A steep valley separates this site from the suggested location of ancient Michmash. In the valley there are two hills with steep rocky sides. These perhaps correspond to the ‘toothlike crags’ Bozez and Seneh, one “facing Michmash,” the other “facing Geba.”​—1Sa 14:4, 5.

Geba was one of the cities that figured in King Saul’s campaign against the Philistines. Evidently at the direction of his father Saul, Jonathan struck down the Philistine “garrison” at Geba. (1Sa 13:3, 4) In retaliation, the Philistines assembled a mighty force at Michmash, whereupon many Israelites fearfully went into hiding, some even fleeing across the Jordan. (1Sa 13:5-7) Later, Jonathan made his way from Geba to the Philistine outpost, undoubtedly stationed at the edge of “the ravine pass of Michmash.” On his hands and feet, Jonathan ascended the steep passage to the outpost and, with the cooperation of his armor-bearer, struck down about 20 Philistines.​—1Sa 14:6-14; compare 1Sa 13:16, 23.

Years later, Asa fortified Geba with stones and timbers of Ramah. (1Ki 15:22; 2Ch 16:6) At a time not specified in the Bible, certain inhabitants of Geba were taken into exile at Manahath. (1Ch 8:6) On its way toward Jerusalem, the Assyrian army under Sennacherib apparently passed through Geba. (Isa 10:24, 28-32) Among the Jews coming back from Babylonian exile were ‘sons of Geba’; the city itself was also reoccupied after the return. (Ezr 2:1, 26; Ne 7:6, 30; 11:31; 12:29) Alluding to the exaltation of rebuilt Jerusalem, the prophet Zechariah spoke of the hilly and mountainous land that lies between Geba and Rimmon as becoming low like the Arabah.​—Zec 14:10; see GIBEAH No. 2.

GEBAL

(Geʹbal) [possibly, Territory; Border], Gebalites (Geʹbal·ites).

1. Gebal, a Phoenician city on the Mediterranean seacoast, is identified with modern Jebeil, about 28 km (17 mi) NNE of Beirut. Historians consider Gebal, the Byblos of the Greeks, to be one of the oldest cities of the Middle East.​—See Jos 13:5, ftn.

Jehovah included “the land of the Gebalites” among those regions yet to be taken by Israel in Joshua’s day. (Jos 13:1-5) Critics have picked on this as an inconsistency, since the city of Gebal was far N of Israel (c. 100 km [60 mi] N of Dan) and apparently never came under Israelite domination. Certain scholars have suggested that the Hebrew text may be damaged at this verse and consider that the account anciently read “the land adjoining Lebanon,” or ‘as far as the border of the Gebalites.’ However, it should also be observed that Jehovah’s promises in Joshua 13:2-7 were conditional. Thus Israel may never have gained Gebal because of its own disobedience.​—Compare Jos 23:12, 13.

Gebalites helped Solomon in the 11th century B.C.E. with the preparation of the materials for the temple construction. (1Ki 5:18) Jehovah lists the “old men of Gebal” among those who assisted in maintaining ancient Tyre’s commercial might and glory.​—Eze 27:9.

2. A different Gebal is listed with Ammon and Amalek in Psalm 83:7, and thus apparently lay S or E of the Dead Sea. Although its exact location is unknown, some scholars place it in the vicinity of Petra, about 100 km (60 mi) NNE of the Gulf of ʽAqaba.

GEBER

(Geʹber) [Able-Bodied Man].

One of Solomon’s 12 deputies who had the responsibility of providing food for the king and his household one month out of the year. Geber is identified as the son of Uri, and it is probable that his son also served as a deputy.​—1Ki 4:7, 13, 19.

GEBIM

(Geʹbim) [Ditches].

A site the inhabitants of which sought shelter from the advancing Assyrian army when it moved against Zion, evidently in the days of Hezekiah. (Isa 10:24, 31; compare chaps 36, 37.) Its exact location is not known.

GECKO

[Heb., ʼana·qahʹ; sema·mithʹ].

A small, usually thick-bodied lizard with tiny scales covering its body. The eyes are relatively large, catlike, and the gecko’s toes are comparatively broad. Found in warm climates, the geckos live in the woods, among rocks, in trees, and sometimes in human dwellings. Six kinds of these nocturnal lizards are found in Palestine.

The “gecko fanfoot” (Hemidactylus turcicus) of Leviticus 11:29, 30 is listed as “unclean” for the Israelites. At Proverbs 30:28, “the gecko lizard” (Heb., sema·mithʹ) is spoken of as taking “hold with its own hands” and making its way into the king’s palace. Regarding the gecko’s toes, The International Wildlife Encyclopedia says: “They have numerous microscopic hooks that catch in the slightest irregularities, even those in the surface of glass, and so a gecko can cling to all but the most highly polished surfaces. The hooks are directed backwards and downwards and to disengage them the toe must be lifted upwards from the tip. As a result, a gecko running up a tree or a wall or along a ceiling must curl and uncurl its toes at each step with a speed faster than the eye can follow. Some of the hooks are so small the high power of a microscope is needed to see them, yet a single toe armed with numbers of these incredibly small hooks can support several times the weight of a gecko’s body.”​—Edited by M. and R. Burton, 1969, Vol. 7, pp. 856, 857.

GEDALIAH

(Ged·a·liʹah) [Jehovah Is Great].

1. A Levite singer who, in David’s time, was designated by lot to be in charge of the second of the 24 service groups of 12 musicians each.​—1Ch 25:3, 9, 31.

2. Grandfather of the prophet Zephaniah and possibly a descendant of King Hezekiah.​—Zep 1:1.

3. Son of Pashhur; one of the princes in Jerusalem who accused Jeremiah before King Zedekiah of weakening the fighting men and all the people and urged that Jeremiah be put to death for this. Upon being given a free hand by the king, these princes threw Jeremiah into a miry cistern.​—Jer 38:1-6.

4. “The son of Ahikam the son of Shaphan.” After the destruction of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E., King Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah as governor over the Jews who had been left remaining in the land of Judah. Gedaliah established his residence at Mizpah, and here the prophet Jeremiah took up dwelling. Then the Judean military chiefs who had escaped capture, upon hearing that Gedaliah had been appointed as governor, came with their men to him at Mizpah. Gedaliah assured them, under oath, that it would go well with them as long as they continued serving the king of Babylon, and he encouraged them to gather wine, oil, and summer fruits. Even the Jews who were dispersed in Moab, Ammon, Edom, and other places continued coming to Gedaliah.

All of this was evidently not to the liking of Baalis the king of Ammon, who was successful in enlisting the cooperation of Ishmael in an assassination plot against Governor Gedaliah. Learning of this, Johanan and the other chiefs of the military forces advised the governor accordingly, but he did not believe them. Johanan even approached Gedaliah in private and offered to thwart the scheme by killing Ishmael. But Gedaliah would not hear of it, thinking that falsehood was being spoken about Ishmael. So when Ishmael, along with ten other men, came to Mizpah, Gedaliah took no precautions. He proceeded to eat with them; and while they were eating, Ishmael and the men with him rose up and killed Gedaliah as well as all the Jews and Chaldeans who were with Gedaliah.​—2Ki 25:22-25; Jer 39:14; 40:5–41:3.

5. One of the priests in Ezra’s time among those who had taken foreign wives and who promised to send them away.​—Ezr 10:18, 19.

GEDER

(Geʹder) [Stone Wall].

A town in Canaan; its king was one of 31 conquered by Joshua. (Jos 12:13) Joshua 12:7, 8 shows it as being on the W side of the Jordan, and its being mentioned next to Debir may place it in the Shephelah region. It may be the same as the Beth-gader at 1 Chronicles 2:51. But its exact location is uncertain. In David’s time, a man called Baal-hanan the Gederite was in charge of David’s olive groves and sycamore trees in the Shephelah, and it is thought that he may have come from either Geder or Gederah.​—1Ch 27:28.

GEDERAH

(Ge·deʹrah) [Stone Pen].

1. A city in the Shephelah assigned to Judah. (Jos 15:20, 33, 36) Gederah is usually identified with Jedireh (Gedera), about 22 km (14 mi) WNW of the suggested site of Eshtaol. Some of the inhabitants of this city were known for their pottery.​—1Ch 4:23.

2. Apparently the name of a site in Benjamin’s territory, the home of “Jozabad the Gederathite.” (1Ch 12:1, 2, 4) Some geographers tentatively identify it with Judeira, about 1.5 km (1 mi) NE of Gibeon.

GEDERATHITE

(Ge·deʹrath·ite) [Of (Belonging to) Gederah].

A designation applied to Jozabad, an ambidextrous Benjamite warrior associated with David, and apparently identifying him as being from Gederah of Benjamin.​—1Ch 12:1-4; see GEDERAH No. 2.

GEDERITE

(Ge·deʹrite) [Of (Belonging to) Geder].

A term applied to Baal-hanan (1Ch 27:28) and believed to derive from the name of his native city, either Geder (Jos 12:13) or Gederah.​—Jos 15:36.

GEDEROTH

(Ge·deʹroth) [Stone Pens].

A city in the Shephelah assigned to Judah (Jos 15:20, 33, 41) and one of the places taken by the Philistines during the reign of King Ahaz (761-746 B.C.E.). (2Ch 28:18, 19) Some geographers locate Gederoth at Qatra, an abandoned village on a mound within modern Gedera, about 13 km (8 mi) ENE of Ashdod, though others say this is too far W to be in the Shephelah.

GEDEROTHAIM

(Ged·e·ro·thaʹim).

A name that means “Two Stone Pens.” It appears among cities of Judah in the Shephelah, but its location is today unknown. (Jos 15:20, 33, 36) Instead of Gederothaim, the Greek Septuagint reads “and her sheepfolds,” that is, ‘the sheepfolds’ of the previously listed site, Gederah. This reading would drop the total number of cities in the list from 15 to the stated 14. (Jos 15:33-36) Since such an expression would be unusual in such lists, some suggest that the text could be rendered “Gederah or Gederothaim” rather than “Gederah and Gederothaim.”

GEDOR

(Geʹdor) [Stone Wall].

1. The son of Jeiel of the town of Gibeon. A member of the tribe of Benjamin, he was a great-uncle of King Saul.​—1Ch 8:29-31; 9:35-39.

2. A son of Penuel of the tribe of Judah. It may be the name of a town.​—1Ch 4:4.

3. A son of Jered also of the tribe of Judah.​—1Ch 4:18.

4. A town in the mountainous region of Judah. (Jos 15:48, 58) It is identified with Khirbet Jedur about 12 km (7.5 mi) N of Hebron. It may also be referred to at 1 Chronicles 4:18. The mention, in the same verse, of Soco and Zanoah, both of which appear elsewhere as names of towns, is thought by some to indicate that Gedor is likely also a town of which Jered was the founder, or “father.”

5. A town that is mentioned in connection with activities of the Simeonites. (1Ch 4:24, 39) The Greek Septuagint here reads “Gerar.”​—See GERAR.

6. A place in Benjamin. (1Ch 12:1, 2, 7) A suggested location is Khirbet el-Gudeira, about 16 km (10 mi) NW of Jerusalem.

GE-HARASHIM

(Ge-harʹa·shim) [Valley of Craftsmen].

A valley named for the community of craftsmen living there. (1Ch 4:14) The community was ‘fathered,’ or founded, by Joab, though evidently not the Joab of David’s time. It was settled by Benjamites after the Babylonian exile. (Ne 11:31, 35) Some geographers tentatively locate it at Wadi esh-Shellal, a broad valley located a few miles SE of Tel Aviv-Yafo; others prefer the identification with Sarafand el-Kharab to the SW of the former.

GEHAZI

(Ge·haʹzi).

An attendant of Elisha the prophet.

When Elisha wondered what could be done for a hospitable Shunammite woman, it was Gehazi who called to his master’s attention that she was childless and that her husband was old. Accordingly, Elisha told her that she would be rewarded with a son. Years later the miraculously given boy became ill and died. The Shunammite thereupon came riding to see Elisha at Mount Carmel and took hold of his feet. On seeing this, Gehazi tried to push her away but was admonished to let her alone. After she finished speaking, Elisha at once sent Gehazi ahead to the boy, while Elisha and the woman followed. On their way there Gehazi met them, bringing back the report that, although he had placed Elisha’s staff on the boy’s face, “the boy did not wake up.” However, shortly after arriving, Elisha resurrected the Shunammite’s son.​—2Ki 4:12-37.

Later, because a seven-year famine was due to come, Elisha recommended that the Shunammite and her household take up alien residence wherever possible. After the famine, she returned from Philistia to Israel and approached the king with a plea to have her house and field restored to her. It so happened that at this time Gehazi was relating to the king how Elisha had resurrected this woman’s son. On hearing the Shunammite’s own account of this, the king instructed that everything be returned to her, including all that her field had produced during her absence.​—2Ki 8:1-6.

Greed for selfish gain proved to be the downfall of Gehazi. This was in connection with the healing of Naaman the Syrian. Though Elisha had refused to accept a gift from Naaman for the healing of his leprosy (2Ki 5:14-16), Gehazi coveted a gift and reasoned that it was only proper to receive this. Therefore, he ran after Naaman and, in the name of Elisha, asked for a talent of silver (worth $6,606) and two changes of garments, on the pretense that this was for two young men of the sons of the prophets who had just arrived from the mountainous region of Ephraim. Naaman gladly gave him not just one but two talents of silver, as well as the two changes of garments, and had two of his attendants carry the gift for Gehazi. At Ophel, Gehazi took the gift from the hands of the attendants, dismissed them, deposited the gift in his house, and then presented himself empty-handed before Elisha, even denying that he had gone anywhere when asked: “Where did you come from, Gehazi?” As a result, Gehazi was stricken with leprosy. So his greed, coupled with his deceptiveness, cost Gehazi his privilege of continuing to serve as Elisha’s attendant, besides bringing leprosy on himself and his offspring.​—2Ki 5:20-27.

GEHENNA

(Ge·henʹna) [Gr. form of the Heb. Geh Hin·nomʹ, “Valley of Hinnom”].

This name appears 12 times in the Christian Greek Scriptures, and whereas many translators take the liberty to render it by the word “hell,” a number of modern translations transliterate the word from the Greek geʹen·na.​—Mt 5:22, Ro, Mo, ED, NW, BC (Spanish), NC (Spanish), also the footnotes of Da and RS.

The deep, narrow Valley of Hinnom, later known by this Greek name, lay to the S and SW of ancient Jerusalem and is the modern-day Wadi er-Rababi (Ge Ben Hinnom). (Jos 15:8; 18:16; Jer 19:2, 6; see HINNOM, VALLEY OF.) Judean Kings Ahaz and Manasseh engaged in idolatrous worship there, which included the making of human sacrifices by fire to Baal. (2Ch 28:1, 3; 33:1, 6; Jer 7:31, 32; 32:35) Later, to prevent such activities there in the future, faithful King Josiah had the place of idolatrous worship polluted, particularly the section called Topheth.​—2Ki 23:10.

No Symbol of Everlasting Torment. Jesus Christ associated fire with Gehenna (Mt 5:22; 18:9; Mr 9:47, 48), as did the disciple James, the only Biblical writer besides Matthew, Mark, and Luke to use the word. (Jas 3:6) Some commentators endeavor to link such fiery characteristic of Gehenna with the burning of human sacrifices that was carried on prior to Josiah’s reign and, on this basis, hold that Gehenna was used by Jesus as a symbol of everlasting torment. However, since Jehovah God expressed repugnance for such practice, saying that it was “a thing that I had not commanded and that had not come up into my heart” (Jer 7:31; 32:35), it seems most unlikely that God’s Son, in discussing divine judgment, would make such idolatrous practice the basis for the symbolic meaning of Gehenna. It may be noted that God prophetically decreed that the Valley of Hinnom would serve as a place for mass disposal of dead bodies rather than for the torture of live victims. (Jer 7:32, 33; 19:2, 6, 7, 10, 11) Thus, at Jeremiah 31:40 the reference to “the low plain of the carcasses and of the fatty ashes” is generally accepted as designating the Valley of Hinnom, and a gate known as “the Gate of the Ash-heaps” evidently opened out onto the eastern extremity of the valley at its juncture with the ravine of the Kidron.​—Ne 3:13, 14.

Therefore, the Biblical evidence concerning Gehenna generally parallels the traditional view presented by rabbinic and other sources. That view is that the Valley of Hinnom was used as a place for the disposal of waste matter from the city of Jerusalem. (At Mt 5:30 Ph renders geʹen·na as “rubbish heap.”) Concerning “Gehinnom,” the Jewish commentator David Kimhi (1160?-1235?), in his comment on Psalm 27:13, gives the following historical information: “And it is a place in the land adjoining Jerusalem, and it is a loathsome place, and they throw there unclean things and carcasses. Also there was a continual fire there to burn the unclean things and the bones of the carcasses. Hence, the judgment of the wicked ones is called parabolically Gehinnom.”

Symbolic of Complete Destruction. It is evident that Jesus used Gehenna as representative of utter destruction resulting from adverse judgment by God, hence with no resurrection to life as a soul being possible. (Mt 10:28; Lu 12:4, 5) The scribes and Pharisees as a wicked class were denounced as ‘subjects for Gehenna.’ (Mt 23:13-15, 33) To avoid such destruction, Jesus’ followers were to get rid of anything causing spiritual stumbling, the ‘cutting off of a hand or foot’ and the ‘tearing out of an eye’ figuratively representing their deadening of these body members with reference to sin.​—Mt 18:9; Mr 9:43-47; Col 3:5; compare Mt 5:27-30.

Jesus also apparently alluded to Isaiah 66:24 in describing Gehenna as a place “where their maggot does not die and the fire is not put out.” (Mr 9:47, 48) That the symbolic picture here is not one of torture but, rather, of complete destruction is evident from the fact that the Isaiah text dealt, not with persons who were alive, but with “the carcasses of the men that were transgressing” against God. If, as the available evidence indicates, the Valley of Hinnom was a place for the disposal of garbage and carcasses, fire, perhaps increased in intensity by the addition of sulfur (compare Isa 30:33), would be the only suitable means to eliminate such refuse. Where the fire did not reach, worms, or maggots, would breed, consuming anything not destroyed by the fire. On this basis, Jesus’ words would mean that the destructive effect of God’s adverse judgment would not cease until complete destruction was attained.

Figurative Use. The disciple James’ use of the word “Gehenna” shows that an unruly tongue is itself a world of unrighteousness and that one’s whole round of living can be affected by fiery words that defile the speaker’s body. The tongue of such a one, “full of death-dealing poison” and so giving evidence of a bad heart condition, can cause the user to be sentenced by God to go to the symbolic Gehenna.​—Jas 3:6, 8; compare Mt 12:37; Ps 5:9; 140:3; Ro 3:13.

The Biblical use of Gehenna as a symbol corresponds to that of “the lake of fire” in the book of Revelation.​—Re 20:14, 15; see LAKE OF FIRE.

GELILOTH

(Gel·iʹloth) [Regions; Circuits; from a root meaning “roll; roll away”].

A site listed in connection with the boundary of Benjamin. (Jos 18:17) Geliloth’s location, described as “in front of the ascent of Adummim,” matches that of Gilgal (Jos 15:7), for which reason some scholars consider it a variant name for the Gilgal near Jericho. Others suggest that Geliloth is a site or small region in the vicinity of Talʽat ed-Damm (Maʽale Adummim) in the Wadi el Qilt SW of Jericho.​—See ADUMMIM; GILGAL No. 1.

GEMALLI

(Ge·malʹli) [possibly, Weaned (or, Receiving Due Treatment); or, Camel Owner].

A Danite whose son Ammiel represented his tribe as one of the spies sent into Canaan.​—Nu 13:12, 16.

GEMARIAH

(Gem·a·riʹah) [Jehovah Has Perfected (Completed)].

1. “The son of Shaphan the copyist”; one of the princes during the reign of Jehoiakim (628-618 B.C.E.). Gemariah had his own dining room in the upper courtyard of the temple, and it was here that Baruch read aloud the words of the book dictated to him by the prophet Jeremiah. Micaiah the son of Gemariah heard the initial reading of the book and then reported the word of Jehovah to the princes who, in turn, sent for Baruch to have the book read to them. Upon hearing the words of the book, they advised that Baruch and Jeremiah conceal themselves. Later, when the roll was read to King Jehoiakim, Gemariah was one of the princes who pleaded with the king not to burn the roll.​—Jer 36:10-25.

A lump of clay at one time fastened to a document and stamped with a seal was recently found in Jerusalem. The inscription on it read: “Belonging to Gemariah [Heb., Gemar·yaʹhu], son of Shaphan.” This bulla is said to be from about the seventh century B.C.E., and its owner is assumed to be the Gemariah mentioned in Jeremiah chapter 36.

2. “The son of Hilkiah, whom Zedekiah the king of Judah sent to Babylon to Nebuchadnezzar.” On this occasion Jeremiah sent a letter by the hand of Gemariah and of Elasah to the exiled Jews who had been taken to Babylon with Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) in 617 B.C.E.​—Jer 29:1-3.

GENEALOGY

An account of human family pedigrees of ancestors or relatives. Jehovah God is the great Genealogist or Keeper of records of creation, beginnings, birth, and descent. He is “the Father, to whom every family in heaven and on earth owes its name.” (Eph 3:14, 15) His Word the Bible contains an accurate record of genealogies that play an important part in his purpose.

Man has an inborn desire to know his ancestry and to keep his family name alive. Many ancient nations kept extensive genealogical records, particularly of the lines of their priests and kings. The Egyptians kept such registers, as did the Arabs. Cuneiform tablets have been found of the genealogies of kings of Babylon and Assyria. More recent examples are the genealogical lists of the Greeks, the Celts, the Saxons, and the Romans.

The Hebrew verb for registering legitimate descent is ya·chasʹ, rendered ‘be enrolled genealogically’ (1Ch 5:17); the related noun is yaʹchas, translated “genealogical enrollment.” (Ne 7:5) The Greek term ge·ne·a·lo·giʹa occurs in 1 Timothy 1:4 and Titus 3:9 with reference to personal pedigrees, or “genealogies.”

The apostle Matthew opens his Gospel account with the introduction: “The book of the history [ge·neʹse·os, form of geʹne·sis] of Jesus Christ, son of David, son of Abraham.” (Mt 1:1) The Greek word geʹne·sis means, literally, “line of descent; origin.” This Greek term is used by the Septuagint to translate the Hebrew toh·le·dhohthʹ, which has the same basic meaning, and evidently denotes “history” in its numerous occurrences in the book of Genesis.​—Compare Ge 2:4, ftn.

Matthew, of course, gives more than a genealogy of Christ. He goes on to relate the history of Jesus’ human birth, ministry, death, and resurrection. This practice was not uncommon then, for the earliest Greek histories had a genealogical framework. In those ancient times a history revolved around those persons contained in or introduced by its genealogy. Thus the genealogy was an important part of the history, in many cases forming the introduction to it.​—See 1Ch 1-9.

At the judgment in Eden, God gave the promise of the “woman’s” Seed that was to crush the Serpent’s head. (Ge 3:15) This may have given rise to the idea of the Seed’s having a human line of descent, although not until Abraham was told that his Seed would be the means for blessing all nations was it specifically stated that the line of the Seed would travel an earthly course. (Ge 22:17, 18) This made the family genealogy of Abraham’s line of surpassing importance. The Bible is the sole record not only of Abraham’s origins but also of those of all the nations descending from Noah’s sons Shem, Ham, and Japheth.​—Ge 10:32.

As E. J. Hamlin comments in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, the Genesis table of nations is “unique in ancient literature. . . . Such preoccupation with history cannot be found in any other sacred literature of the world.”​—Edited by G. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 3, p. 515.

Purpose of Genealogical Records. Over and above the natural inclination of man to keep a record of birth and relationships, genealogy was important to chronology, particularly in the earliest part of mankind’s history. But more than that, because of God’s promises, prophecies, and dealings, a record of certain lines of descent became essential.

Following the Flood, Noah’s blessing pointed out that Shem’s descendants would be divinely favored. (Ge 9:26, 27) Later, God revealed to Abraham that what would be called his “seed” would be through Isaac. (Ge 17:19; Ro 9:7) It became obvious, therefore, that the identification of this Seed would require a very careful record of genealogy. Thus, in course of time, the line of Judah, the tribe that was promised leadership (Ge 49:10), and particularly the family of David, the kingly line, would be painstakingly registered. (2Sa 7:12-16) This record would provide the genealogy of the Messiah, the Seed, the line of extraordinary importance.​—Joh 7:42.

The next most carefully guarded genealogy was that of the tribe of Levi, with special emphasis on the priestly family of Aaron.​—Ex 28:1-3; Nu 3:5-10.

Additionally, under the Law, genealogical records were essential in order to establish tribal relationships for the division of the land and for determining family relationship for individual land inheritances. They served the necessary purpose of identifying the nearest of kin as the go·ʼelʹ, the one qualified to act in brother-in-law marriage (De 25:5, 6), in repurchasing his relative (Le 25:47-49), and as avenger of blood upon a manslayer (Nu 35:19). Also, the Law covenant prohibited marriage within certain degrees of consanguinity or affinity, which necessitated a knowledge of genealogical relationships.​—Le 18:6-18.

The strictness with which the Israelites held to these genealogies is illustrated in the situation that arose after the return from Babylon, when some, supposedly of priestly descent, were unable to find their register. Zerubbabel directed that they not eat of the most holy things provided for the priesthood until they could establish their genealogy publicly. (Ne 7:63-65) The registry of the people included the Nethinim, for they, although not Israelites, were officially a group devoted to temple service.​—Ne 7:46-56.

As to chronology, in most instances genealogical lists are by no means intended to supply full data. Nevertheless, they are often an aid to chronology in that they provide a check on certain points of chronology or fill in important details. Neither can the genealogical lists usually be taken as supplying the index of population growth, for in many cases certain intermediate links are left out where they are not necessary to the particular genealogy cited. And since genealogies do not usually contain the names of women, the names of the wives and concubines that a man may have had are not listed; likewise not all of his sons from these wives may be named; even some of the sons of the primary wife may occasionally be left out.

From Adam to the Flood. The Bible gives evidence of the existence of lists of family relationships from man’s beginning. At the birth of Adam’s son Seth, Eve said: “God has appointed another seed in place of Abel, because Cain killed him.” (Ge 4:25) Representatives of the line begun by Seth survived the Flood.​—Ge 5:3-29, 32; 8:18; 1Pe 3:19, 20.

From the Flood to Abraham. The line of Noah’s son Shem, who received Noah’s blessing, brought forth Abram (Abraham), “Jehovah’s friend.” (Jas 2:23) This genealogy, along with the above-mentioned pre-Flood one, constitutes the sole means for establishing the chronology of man’s history down to Abraham. In the pre-Flood list the record runs through the line of Seth, and in the post-Flood list, through Shem. It consistently states the time from a man’s birth to the birth of his son. (Ge 11:10-24, 32; 12:4) There are no other extensive genealogical lists covering this historical period​—an indication that these lists serve the double purpose of genealogy and chronology. In a few other instances the placing of specific events in the stream of time is accomplished by the use of genealogical information.​—See CHRONOLOGY (From 2370 B.C.E. to covenant with Abraham).

From Abraham to Christ. By God’s own intervention, Abraham and Sarah had a son, Isaac, through whom the “seed” of promise was to come. (Ge 21:1-7; Heb 11:11, 12) From Isaac’s son Jacob (Israel) came the original 12 tribes. (Ge 35:22-26; Nu 1:20-50) Judah was to be the kingly tribe, this being narrowed down later to the family of David. Levi’s descendants became the priestly tribe, the priesthood itself being restricted to Aaron’s line. In order to establish his legal right to the throne, Jesus Christ the King had to be identifiable as of David’s family and of the line of Judah. But because his priesthood was, by oath of God, according to the manner of Melchizedek, it did not require the Levitical descent.​—Ps 110:1, 4; Heb 7:11-14.

Other Prominent Genealogical Lists. In addition to the line of descent from Adam to Jesus Christ and extensive genealogies of Jacob’s 12 sons, there are genealogical registers of the beginnings of the peoples related to Israel. These include the brothers of Abraham (Ge 11:27-29; 22:20-24); the sons of Ishmael (Ge 25:13-18); Moab and Ammon, who were the sons of Abraham’s nephew Lot (Ge 19:33-38); the sons of Abraham by Keturah, from whom came Midian and other tribes (Ge 25:1-4); and the posterity of Esau (Edom) (Ge 36:1-19, 40-43).

These nations are important because of their kinship to God’s chosen people Israel. Both Isaac and Jacob obtained wives from the family of Abraham’s brother. (Ge 22:20-23; 24:4, 67; 28:1-4; 29:21-28) God assigned territories bordering Israel to the nations of Moab, Ammon, and Edom, and Israel was told not to encroach upon the land inheritance of these peoples or interfere with them.​—De 2:4, 5, 9, 19.

Official Archives. It appears that in Israel, besides the registers kept by families themselves, national records were kept of genealogies. At Genesis, chapter 46, we find the listing of those born to Jacob’s household down to the time of Jacob’s entry into Egypt and evidently on to the time of his death. A genealogy, primarily of the descendants of Levi and seemingly copied from an earlier register, appears at Exodus 6:14-25. The nation’s first census was taken in the wilderness of Sinai in 1512 B.C.E., the second year of their coming out of Egypt, at which time they had their descent acknowledged “as regards their families in the house of their fathers.” (Nu 1:1, 18; see also Nu 3.) The only other divinely authorized national census of Israel on record prior to the exile is the one taken about 39 years later, on the Plains of Moab.​—Nu 26.

Apart from the genealogies recorded in Moses’ writings, there are such lists by other official chroniclers, including Samuel, who was the writer of Judges, Ruth, and part of First Samuel; Ezra, who wrote First and Second Chronicles and the book of Ezra; and Nehemiah, the writer of the book bearing his name. There is also evidence within these writings of other keepers of genealogy: Iddo (2Ch 12:15) and Zerubbabel, who evidently directed that genealogical enrollment be made among the repatriated Israelites. (Ezr 2) During the reign of righteous King Jotham, there was a genealogical listing of the tribes of Israel living in the land of Gilead.​—1Ch 5:1-17.

These genealogies were carefully preserved down to the start of the Common Era. This is proved by the fact that each family of Israel was able to go back to the city of its father’s house to be registered in response to Caesar Augustus’ decree shortly before Jesus’ birth. (Lu 2:1-5) Also, John the Baptizer’s father Zechariah is noted as of the priestly division of Abijah and John’s mother Elizabeth as from the daughters of Aaron. (Lu 1:5) Anna the prophetess is spoken of as “of Asher’s tribe.” (Lu 2:36) And, of course, the extensive listings of Jesus’ forefathers at Matthew, chapter 1, and Luke, chapter 3, make it clear that such records were kept in the public archives, available for examination.

The historian Josephus gives testimony to the existence of Jewish official genealogical registers when he says: “My family is no ignoble one, tracing its descent far back to priestly ancestors. . . . Not only, however, were my ancestors priests, but they belonged to the first of the twenty-four courses​—a peculiar distinction—​and to the most eminent of its constituent clans.” Then, after pointing out that his mother was descended from Asamonaeus, he concludes: “With such a pedigree, which I cite as I find it recorded in the public registers, I can take leave of the would-be detractors of my family.”​—The Life, 1, 2, 6 (1).

The official genealogies of the Jews were destroyed, not by King Herod the Great, as Africanus maintained in the early third century, but evidently by the Romans at the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. (Against Apion, by F. Josephus, I, 30-38 [7]; The Jewish War, II, 426-428 [xvii, 6]; VI, 354 [vi, 3]) Since that time the Jews have been unable to establish their descent in even the two most important lines, David and Levi.

Identification of Relationships. In determining relationships, often the context or a comparison of parallel lists or of texts from different parts of the Bible is necessary. For example, “son” may actually mean a grandson or merely a descendant. (Mt 1:1) Again, a list of names may appear to be a register of brothers, the sons of one man. On closer observation and by comparison with other texts, however, it may prove to be the register of a genealogical line, naming some sons and also some grandsons or later descendants. Genesis 46:21 evidently lists both sons and grandsons of Benjamin as “sons,” as can be seen by a comparison with Numbers 26:38-40.

The above situation is found even in the genealogies of some major families. For example, 1 Chronicles 6:22-24 lists ten “sons of Kohath.” But in the 18th verse, and at Exodus 6:18, we find only four sons attributed to Kohath. And examination of the context shows that the listing of “sons of Kohath” at 1 Chronicles 6:22-24 is in reality part of a genealogy of families of the line of Kohath who had representative members present for appointment by David to certain temple duties.

Conversely, “father” may mean “grandfather” or even royal predecessor. (Da 5:11, 18) In many places, such as at Deuteronomy 26:5; 1 Kings 15:11, 24; and 2 Kings 15:38, the Hebrew word ʼav (father) is also used in the sense of “ancestor,” or “forefather.” Similarly, the Hebrew words ʼem (mother) and bath (daughter) are used occasionally for “grandmother” and “granddaughter” respectively.​—1Ki 15:10, 13.

Cities and plural names. In some lists a man may be said to be “the father” of a certain city, as at 1 Chronicles 2:50-54, where, for example, Salma is called “the father of Bethlehem” and Shobal “the father of Kiriath-jearim.” Evidently the cities of Bethlehem and Kiriath-jearim were either founded by these men or populated by their descendants. The same list reads further: “The sons of Salma were Bethlehem and the Netophathites, Atroth-beth-joab and half of the Manahathites, the Zorites.” (1Ch 2:54) Here Netophathites, Manahathites, and Zorites were evidently families.

At Genesis 10:13, 14, the names of Mizraim’s descendants have what appear to be plural forms. It has been suggested that they represent the names of families or tribes rather than individuals. However, it should be borne in mind that other names in dual form, such as Ephraim, Appaim, Diblaim, and also the above-named Mizraim, son of Ham, each refer to one individual.​—Ge 41:52; 1Ch 2:30, 31; Ho 1:3.

Abbreviated lists. Often the Bible writers greatly abbreviated a genealogical list, evidently naming only family heads of the more prominent houses, important personages, or persons most important to the particular history being considered. At times, descent from a certain remote ancestor was apparently all that the chronicler was concerned with showing; therefore he could leave out many intermediate names.

One example of such an abridgment is found in Ezra’s own genealogy. (Ezr 7:1-5) He records his descent from Aaron the high priest, but in a parallel listing at 1 Chronicles 6:3-14, several names appear in verses 7 to 10 that are dropped at Ezra 7:3. Likely Ezra did this to avoid unnecessary repetition and to shorten the long list of names. Still, the list was perfectly adequate to prove his priestly descent. Ezra says that he is “the son” of Seraiah, meaning that he was his descendant, for he must have been Seraiah’s great-grandson, or possibly his great-great-grandson. Seraiah was high priest and was killed by Nebuchadnezzar at the time of the exile to Babylon (607 B.C.E.), his son Jehozadak being taken into exile. (2Ki 25:18-21; 1Ch 6:14, 15) Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest, who returned 70 years later with Zerubbabel, was Seraiah’s grandson. (Ezr 5:2; Hag 1:1) Ezra traveled to Jerusalem 69 years after that, which circumstance would make it impossible for Ezra to be Seraiah’s actual son and Jehozadak’s brother.

Another thing that we learn from comparing genealogies here is that Ezra, though descended from Aaron through Seraiah, was evidently not from that line of Seraiah in which the office of high priest was hereditary, namely, from Jehozadak. The high-priestly line from Seraiah ran through Joshua (Jeshua), Joiakim, and Eliashib, the latter being high priest during the governorship of Nehemiah. Ezra, then, achieved his objective with his abridged genealogy, supplying just sufficient names to prove his position in the lineage of Aaron.​—Ne 3:1; 12:10.

Some Reasons for Variations in Lists. A son who died childless was often not named; in some cases the man may have had a daughter but no son, and the inheritance may have been transmitted through a daughter who, in marriage, went under another family head in the same tribe. (Nu 36:7, 8) At times the genealogy may merge a less prominent family under another family head so that such minor family is not listed. Therefore childlessness, transmission of inheritance through women, perhaps adoption, or failure to establish a separate ancestral house caused names to be dropped out of some of the genealogical lists, while new houses formed might add new names to the lists. It is obvious, therefore, that the names in a later genealogy might differ at many points from those in an earlier listing.

A number of family heads may appear in what seems to be a list of brothers but which may actually include nephews, as in Jacob’s “adoption” of Joseph’s sons, Jacob saying: “Ephraim and Manasseh will become mine like Reuben and Simeon.” (Ge 48:5) Later, therefore, Ephraim and Manasseh are counted alongside their uncles as tribal heads.​—Nu 2:18-21; Jos 17:17.

Nehemiah, chapter 10, presents a number of names attesting by seal “a trustworthy arrangement” to perform God’s commandments. (Ne 9:38) In these lists, the names given are not necessarily those of the individuals entering into the agreements, but they may refer to the houses involved, the ancestral head being named. (Compare Ezr 10:16.) This may be indicated by the fact that many of the names listed are the same as those listed as returning with Zerubbabel from Babylon some 80 years earlier. So, while those present may in some cases have had the same name as the ancestral head, they may have been merely representatives of the ancestral houses listed by those names.

Repetition of names. Quite often in a genealogical list there is a recurrence of the same name. The use of the same name for a later descendant was no doubt a method that made it easier for that person to identify his line of descent, although, of course, sometimes there were persons of the same name in separate family lines. Some of the many instances of such recurrences of names in the same ancestral line are: Zadok (1Ch 6:8, 12), Azariah (1Ch 6:9, 13, 14), and Elkanah.​—1Ch 6:34-36.

In a number of cases, the names appearing in parallel lists differ. This may be because certain persons had more than one name, as, for example, Jacob, who was also called “Israel.” (Ge 32:28) Then, too, there might be a slight alteration in spelling of a name, at times even giving the name a different meaning. Some examples are: Abram (meaning “Father Is High (Exalted)”) and Abraham (meaning “Father of a Crowd (Multitude)”), Sarai (possibly, “Contentious”) and Sarah (“Princess”). The prophet Samuel’s ancestor Elihu appears to be also called Eliab and Eliel.​—1Sa 1:1; 1Ch 6:27, 34.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, surnames were occasionally used, as with Simon Peter, who was called Cephas, from the Aramaic equivalent of the Greek name for Peter (Lu 6:14; Joh 1:42); also there was John Mark. (Ac 12:12) A name might be given to a person because of some characteristic trait. Simon “the Cananaean” (also called “the zealous one”) distinguishes this apostle from Simon Peter. (Mt 10:4; Lu 6:15) In some instances a differentiation is made by expressions such as “James the son of Alphaeus,” distinguishing him from James the son of Zebedee and brother of John the apostle. (Mt 10:2, 3) The city, district, or country from which one came might be added, such as Joseph of Arimathea and Judas the Galilean. (Mr 15:43; Ac 5:37) Judas Iscariot is thought possibly to mean Judas “Man From Kerioth.” (Mt 10:4) The same methods were employed in the Hebrew Scriptures. (Ge 25:20; 1Sa 17:4, 58) The name of one’s brother might be given to clarify identity. (Joh 1:40) Women with the same name were similarly distinguished by also naming the father, mother, brother, sister, husband, or son.​—Ge 11:29; 28:9; 36:39; Joh 19:25; Ac 1:14; 12:12.

In both the Hebrew Scriptures and Christian Greek Scriptures, a family name or a title may be used, the identification of the person being determined by his individual name or else by the time and historical events with which the person was connected. For example, Abimelech was evidently either a personal name or a title of three Philistine kings, comparable to “Pharaoh” among the Egyptians. (Ge 20:2; 26:26; 40:2; Ex 1:22; 3:10) The Abimelech or the Pharaoh under discussion would therefore be identified by the time and circumstances. Herod was a family name; Caesar was a family name that became a title. In referring to one of the Herods, the speaker (if there was a danger of ambiguity) could designate the one meant by using his personal name only, such as Agrippa, or by combining the personal name or additional title with Herod, such as, Herod Antipas, Herod Agrippa​—and the Caesars similarly, as Caesar Augustus, Tiberius Caesar.​—Lu 2:1; 3:1; Ac 25:13.

Names of Women. Women were named in the genealogical registers occasionally when there was a historical reason to do so. At Genesis 11:29, 30, Sarai (Sarah) is mentioned, evidently for the reason that the promised Seed was to come through her, not through another wife of Abraham. Milcah may have been named in the same passage because she was the grandmother of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, thereby showing Rebekah’s lineage as being from Abraham’s relatives, since Isaac was not to have a wife from the other nations. (Ge 22:20-23; 24:2-4) At Genesis 25:1, the name of Abraham’s later wife Keturah is given. This shows that Abraham married again after Sarah died and that his reproductive powers were still alive more than 40 years after their miraculous renewal by Jehovah. (Ro 4:19; Ge 24:67; 25:20) Also, it reveals the relationship of Midian and other Arabian tribes to Israel.

Leah, Rachel, and Jacob’s concubines, together with the sons they bore, are named. (Ge 35:21-26) This helps us to understand God’s later dealings with these sons. For similar reasons we find the names of other women in the genealogical registers. When an inheritance was transmitted through them, their names might be included. (Nu 26:33) Of course, Tamar, Rahab, and Ruth are outstanding. In each case, there is something remarkable about the manner in which these women came to be in the line of ancestry of the Messiah, Jesus Christ. (Ge 38; Ru 1:3-5; 4:13-15; Mt 1:1-5) Among other instances of the mention of women in the genealogical lists are 1 Chronicles 2:35, 48, 49; 3:1-3, 5.

Genealogy and Generations. In some genealogies we find the names of a man and his descendants listed down to great-great-grandsons. These could be counted, from one viewpoint, as four or five generations. However, the man first named might live to see all these generations of descendants. So from his viewpoint a “generation” could mean the time from his birth until his death, or until the most remote descendant whom the man lived to see. If this kind of “generation” is referred to, it would, of course, involve a much longer period of time than in the case of the previous viewpoint mentioned.

To illustrate: Adam lived 930 years, having sons and daughters. During that time he saw at least eight generations of his descendants. Yet his own life span overlapped or linked with that of Lamech, Noah’s father. Thus, from this viewpoint, the Flood occurred in the third generation of human history.​—Ge 5:3-32.

We find in the Bible a few cases of the latter method of reckoning. Jehovah promised Abraham that his seed would become an alien resident in a land not theirs and that they would return to Canaan “in the fourth generation.” (Ge 15:13, 16) The census at Numbers, chapters 1-3, indicates that there must have been many father-to-son generations during the 215-year stay in Egypt, the total number of men 20 years old and upward shortly after the Exodus being 603,550 (aside from the tribe of Levi). But the ‘four generations’ of Genesis 15:16, counting from the time of the entry into Egypt until the Exodus, might be reckoned as follows: (1) Levi, (2) Kohath, (3) Amram, (4) Moses. (Ex 6:16, 18, 20) These persons averaged well over a hundred years in individual life span. Each one of these four “generations” thus saw numerous descendants, possibly down to great-great-grandchildren or farther, allowing 20 or sometimes even 30 years from father to the birth of his first son. This would explain how ‘four generations’ could see such a large population come into being by the time of the Exodus.​—See EXODUS.

Another problem for Bible scholars concerns the same census. At Numbers 3:27, 28, it is stated that four families sprang from Kohath, totaling, at the time of the Exodus, the high number of 8,600 males (8,300, some MSS of LXX) from a month old upward. Thus it would appear that Moses had, at this time, thousands of brothers, male cousins, and nephews. Some have concluded from this that Moses was not the son of Amram the son of Kohath but of another Amram, with several generations between, so as to allow sufficient time for the development of such a large male population in just four Kohathite families by the time of the Israelites’ Exodus from Egypt.

But the problem may be resolved in two ways. First, not all of a man’s sons were always named, as illustrated earlier. Therefore, it is possible that Kohath’s four named sons had more sons than those specifically listed. Second, even though Levi, Kohath, Amram, and Moses represent four generations from the viewpoint of their four lifetimes, each could have seen several generations during his lifetime. Thus, even though we allow 60 years each between the births of Levi and Kohath, Kohath and Amram, and Amram and Moses, many generations could have been born within each 60-year period. Moses could have seen great-great-grandnephews, and possibly even their children, by the time of the Exodus. Hence the total of 8,600 (or, possibly, 8,300) would not necessitate another Amram between Amram the son of Kohath and Moses.

A question arises in connection with the line of the promised Seed, the Messiah, in the genealogy from Nahshon, who was chieftain of the tribe of Judah after the Exodus. At Ruth 4:20-22, Jesse is the fifth link from Nahshon to David. The period of time from the Exodus to David is about 400 years. This would mean that the average age of each of these forefathers of David was possibly 100 years (as was Abraham) at the time of his son’s birth. This would not be impossible and may have been the case. These sons listed in the book of Ruth would not have had to be firstborn sons, even as David was not the firstborn but was the youngest of several sons of Jesse. Also, Jehovah may have brought the line of the Seed through this almost miraculous course so that it could be seen in retrospect that He had all along been directing the affairs of the promised Seed, as He had definitely done in the cases of Isaac and Jacob.

Again, it may be that there were intentional omissions of names in this 400-year portion of the Messianic genealogy, which is recorded also at 1 Chronicles 2:11-15; Matthew 1:4-6; and Luke 3:31, 32. But the fact that all the lists agree in this section of the genealogy may mean that no names were left out. Nevertheless, even though the chroniclers compiling these lists did leave out certain names not considered important or necessary for their purpose, it would present no problem, for the assumption that several additional generations intervened would do no violence to other Biblical statements or chronology.

Bible Genealogy Is Reliable. The careful, sincere student of Bible genealogy will not accuse the Bible chroniclers of carelessness, inaccuracy, or exaggeration in an effort to glorify their nation, a tribe, or an individual. It must be kept in mind that those including genealogies in their writings (Ezra and Nehemiah, for example) referred to the national archive and drew their material from the official sources available to them. (See CHRONICLES, THE BOOKS OF.) They found there the information that filled their need. They used these lists to prove satisfactorily to all whatever needed to be proved then. Evidently their genealogical listings were fully accepted by those living at that time, persons having access to the facts and the records. Consequently, we must recognize the situation with which they were dealing. Ezra and Nehemiah were dealing with these matters in times of reorganization, and the genealogies they compiled were essential to the functioning of things vital to the nation’s existence.

Such genealogical lists were bound to vary from period to period; new names would be added and others would be dropped; often only the more important family heads would be named in those lists dealing with the more remote past. In some cases less important names might appear on certain lists because of being of current interest. The sources employed in some cases may have given only partial lists. Some portions may have been missing, or the chronicler himself may have skipped over sections because they were not necessary for his purpose. And they are not necessary for our purpose today.

In a few instances, copyists’ errors may have crept into the text, particularly in the spelling of names. But these do not present problems that have any significant bearing on lineages necessary to our understanding of the Bible; nor do they affect Christianity’s foundation.

A careful examination of the Bible will eliminate the false idea sometimes advanced that the ancient genealogies in Genesis, chapters 5 and 11, and in other Bible books contain imaginary, or fictitious, names to suit some scheme of the chronicler. These chroniclers were dedicated servants of Jehovah, not nationalists; they were concerned with Jehovah’s name and dealings with his people. Furthermore, not only did other Bible writers refer to many of these individuals as real persons but so did Jesus Christ. (Isa 54:9; Eze 14:14, 20; Mt 24:38; Joh 8:56; Ro 5:14; 1Co 15:22, 45; 1Ti 2:13, 14; Heb 11:4, 5, 7, 31; Jas 2:25; Jude 14) To contradict all this testimony would be accusing the God of truth of lying, or of needing some artifice or expedient to promote belief in his Word. It would also deny the Bible’s inspiration.

As the apostle states, “All Scripture is inspired of God and beneficial for teaching, for reproving, for setting things straight, for disciplining in righteousness, that the man of God may be fully competent, completely equipped for every good work.” (2Ti 3:16, 17) Therefore, we may rely fully on the genealogies recorded in the Bible. They provided vital statistics not only for the time they were written but also for us today. By them we have full genealogical assurance that Jesus Christ is the promised, long-awaited Seed of Abraham. We are aided greatly in establishing chronology back to Adam, something found in no other source. We know that God “made out of one man every nation of men, to dwell upon the entire surface of the earth.” (Ac 17:26) We see that truly “when the Most High gave the nations an inheritance, when he parted the sons of Adam from one another, he proceeded to fix the boundary of the peoples with regard for the number of the sons of Israel” (De 32:8), and we understand how the nations are related.

By knowing the origin of mankind, that Adam was originally a “son of God” and that we all descended from Adam (Lu 3:38), we can clearly understand the statement: “Just as through one man sin entered into the world and death through sin, and thus death spread to all men because they had all sinned.” (Ro 5:12) Also, such knowledge makes understandable how Jesus Christ can be “the last Adam” and the “Eternal Father” and how it can be that “just as in Adam all are dying, so also in the Christ all will be made alive.” (Isa 9:6; 1Co 15:22, 45) We can better understand God’s purpose to bring obedient men back into the relationship of “children of God.” (Ro 8:20, 21) We observe that Jehovah’s loving-kindness is expressed toward those loving him and keeping his commandments “to a thousand generations.” (De 7:9) We observe his trueness as the covenant-keeping God and his careful preservation of a historical record on which we can safely build our faith. Genealogy, as well as other features of the Bible, proves God to be the great Recorder and Preserver of history.​—See GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST.

Paul’s Counsel Regarding Genealogies. The apostle Paul, writing about 61-64 C.E., told Timothy not to pay attention to “false stories and to genealogies, which end up in nothing, but which furnish questions for research rather than a dispensing of anything by God in connection with faith.” (1Ti 1:4) The force of this warning is more appreciated when we know of the extremes to which the Jews later went in researching genealogies and how minutely they investigated any possible discrepancy. The Babylonian Talmud (Pesahim 62b) makes the statement that “between ‘Azel’ and ‘Azel’ [1 Chronicles 8:38–9:44, a genealogical portion of the Bible] they were laden with four hundred camels of exegetical interpretations!”​—Hebrew-English Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, translated by H. Freedman, London, 1967.

To engage in studying and discussing such matters was pointless, and it was even more so at the time Paul wrote to Timothy. It was no longer vital to have the genealogical records maintained to prove one’s ancestry, since God did not now recognize any distinction between Jew and Gentile in the Christian congregation. (Ga 3:28) And the genealogical records had already established the descent of Christ through the line of David. Also, it would not be long after Paul wrote this admonition that Jerusalem would be destroyed, and along with it the Jewish records. God did not preserve them. Accordingly, Paul was anxious that Timothy and the congregations should not be sidetracked into spending time in research and in controversy over matters of personal pedigree, which contributed nothing to Christian faith. The genealogy furnished by the Bible is sufficient to prove Christ’s Messiahship, the genealogical matter of prime importance to Christians. The other Biblical genealogies stand as a testimony to the authenticity of the Scriptural record, manifesting clearly that it is a genuinely historical account.

GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST

In the first chapter of Matthew we find the genealogy of Jesus running from Abraham forward. At Luke chapter 3 is a genealogy back to “Adam, son of God.” Jesus’ genealogy is the only one given in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Part of his genealogy appears at 1 Chronicles chapters 1 to 3, running from Adam through Solomon and Zerubbabel. The books of Genesis and Ruth combined give the line from Adam to David.

The latter three lists (Genesis/​Ruth, 1 Chronicles, and Luke) agree fully from Adam to Arpachshad, with minor differences as to certain names, such as Kenan, which is “Cainan” at Luke 3:37. The Chronicles and Genesis/​Ruth lists agree down to David, while another “Cainan” is found in Luke’s account between Arpachshad and Shelah.​—Lu 3:35, 36.

From Solomon to Zerubbabel, the Chronicles record and Matthew agree in the main, Matthew omitting some names. These differences and differences in Luke’s account from David to Jesus will be discussed later.

Under GENEALOGY, we have shown that besides many private family records, the Jews kept public records of genealogies and that the chroniclers, such as Ezra, had access to these when compiling their lists; also, that the public registers existed in the first century evidently up until 70 C.E. The matter of the descent of the Messiah from Abraham, and through David, was of prime importance to them. So we can be confident that both Matthew and Luke consulted these genealogical tables.

Reliability of the Gospel Genealogies. The question arises: Why does Matthew leave out some names that are contained in the listings of the other chroniclers? First of all, to prove one’s genealogy it was not necessary to name every link in the line of descent. For example, Ezra, in proving his priestly lineage, at Ezra 7:1-5, omitted several names contained in the listing of the priestly line at 1 Chronicles 6:1-15. Obviously it was not essential to name all these ancestors to satisfy the Jews as to his priestly lineage. Similarly with Matthew: He doubtless used the public register and copied from it, if not every name, the ones necessary to prove the descent of Jesus from Abraham and David. He also had access to the Hebrew Scriptures, which he could consult alongside the official public records.​—Compare Ru 4:12, 18-22 and Mt 1:3-6.

The lists made by both Matthew and Luke were comprised of names publicly recognized by the Jews of that time as authentic. The scribes and Pharisees as well as the Sadducees were bitter enemies of Christianity, and they would have used any possible argument to discredit Jesus, but it is noteworthy that they never challenged these genealogies. If either Matthew’s or Luke’s genealogy of Jesus had been in error, what an opportunity it would have been for these opponents to prove it then and there! For until 70 C.E. they evidently had ready access to the public genealogical registers and the Scriptures.

The same is true regarding the first-century pagan enemies of Christianity, many of whom were, like those Jews, learned men who would readily have pointed to any evidence that these lists of Matthew and Luke were unauthentic and contradictory. But there is no record that the early pagan enemies attacked Christians on this point.

Also, both Matthew and Luke achieved their objective, and that was all they needed to do. To prove that Jesus was descended from Abraham and David, it was not necessary to make a new genealogy. All they had to do was copy from the public tables that the nation fully accepted regarding the lineage of David and of the priesthood and all other matters requiring proof of one’s descent. (See Lu 1:5; 2:3-5; Ro 11:1.) Even if there was an omission in these tables, it did not detract from what these Gospel writers intended and indeed accomplished, namely, presenting legally and publicly recognized proof of the genealogy of Jesus the Messiah.

Problems in Matthew’s Genealogy of Jesus. Matthew divides the genealogy from Abraham to Jesus into three sections of 14 generations each. (Mt 1:17) This division may have been made as a memory aid. However, in counting the names we find that they total 41, rather than 42. One suggestion as to how they may be counted is as follows: By taking Abraham to David, 14 names, then using David as the starting name for the second 14, with Josiah as the last; finally, by heading the third series of 14 names with Jeconiah (Jehoiachin) and ending with Jesus. Notice that Matthew repeats the name David as the last of the first 14 names and as the first of the next 14. Then he repeats the expression “the deportation to Babylon,” which he links with Josiah and his sons.​—Mt 1:17.

As stated earlier, Matthew may have copied his list exactly from the public register that he used, or he may have purposely left out some links with a view to aiding memory. However, a suggestion as to the omission here of three kings of David’s line between Jehoram and Uzziah (Azariah) is that Jehoram married wicked Athaliah of the house of Ahab, the daughter of Jezebel, thereby bringing this God-condemned strain into the line of the kings of Judah. (1Ki 21:20-26; 2Ki 8:25-27) Naming Jehoram as first in the wicked alliance, Matthew omits the names of the next three kings to the fourth generation, Ahaziah, Jehoash, and Amaziah, the fruits of the alliance.​—Compare Mt 1:8 with 1Ch 3:10-12.

Matthew indicates that Zerubbabel is the son of Shealtiel (Mt 1:12), and this coincides with other references. (Ezr 3:2; Ne 12:1; Hag 1:14; Lu 3:27) However, at 1 Chronicles 3:19 Zerubbabel is referred to as the son of Pedaiah. Evidently Zerubbabel was the natural son of Pedaiah and the legal son of Shealtiel by reason of brother-in-law marriage; or possibly, after Zerubbabel’s father Pedaiah died, Zerubbabel was brought up by Shealtiel as his son and therefore became legally recognized as the son of Shealtiel.

A Problem in Luke’s Genealogy of Jesus. Available manuscript copies of Luke list a second “Cainan,” between Arpachshad (Arphaxad) and Shelah. (Lu 3:35, 36; compare Ge 10:24; 11:12; 1Ch 1:18, 24.) Most scholars take this to be a copyist’s error. In the Hebrew Scriptures, “Cainan” is not found in this relative position in the genealogical listings in the Hebrew or the Samaritan texts, nor is it in any of the Targums or versions except the Greek Septuagint. And it does not seem that it was even in the earlier copies of the Septuagint, because Josephus, who usually follows the Septuagint, lists Seles (Shelah) next as the son of Arphaxades (Arpachshad). (Jewish Antiquities, I, 146 [vi, 4]) Early writers Irenaeus, Africanus, Eusebius, and Jerome rejected the second “Cainan” in copies of Luke’s account as an interpolation.​—See CAINAN No. 2.

Why do the genealogies of Jesus Christ as given by Matthew and by Luke differ?

The difference in nearly all the names in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus as compared with Matthew’s is quickly resolved in the fact that Luke traced the line through David’s son Nathan, instead of Solomon as did Matthew. (Lu 3:31; Mt 1:6, 7) Luke evidently follows the ancestry of Mary, thus showing Jesus’ natural descent from David, while Matthew shows Jesus’ legal right to the throne of David by descent from Solomon through Joseph, who was legally Jesus’ father. Both Matthew and Luke signify that Joseph was not Jesus’ actual father but only his adoptive father, giving him legal right. Matthew departs from the style used throughout his genealogy when he comes to Jesus, saying: “Jacob became father to Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom Jesus was born, who is called Christ.” (Mt 1:16) Notice that he does not say ‘Joseph became father to Jesus’ but that he was “the husband of Mary, of whom Jesus was born.” Luke is even more pointed when, after showing earlier that Jesus was actually the Son of God by Mary (Lu 1:32-35), he says: “Jesus . . . being the son, as the opinion was, of Joseph, son of Heli.”​—Lu 3:23.

Since Jesus was not the natural son of Joseph but was the Son of God, Luke’s genealogy of Jesus would prove that he was, by human birth, a son of David through his natural mother Mary. Regarding the genealogies of Jesus given by Matthew and by Luke, Frederic Louis Godet wrote: “This study of the text in detail leads us in this way to admit​—1. That the genealogical register of Luke is that of Heli, the grandfather of Jesus; 2. That, this affiliation of Jesus by Heli being expressly opposed to His affiliation by Joseph, the document which he has preserved for us can be nothing else in his view than the genealogy of Jesus through Mary. But why does not Luke name Mary, and why pass immediately from Jesus to His grandfather? Ancient sentiment did not comport with the mention of the mother as the genealogical link. Among the Greeks a man was the son of his father, not of his mother; and among the Jews the adage was: ‘Genus matris non vocatur genus [“The descendant of the mother is not called (her) descendant”]’ (‘Baba bathra,’ 110, a).”​—Commentary on Luke, 1981, p. 129.

Actually each genealogy (Matthew’s table and Luke’s) shows descent from David, through Solomon and through Nathan. (Mt 1:6; Lu 3:31) In examining the lists of Matthew and Luke, we find that after diverging at Solomon and Nathan, they come together again in two persons, Shealtiel and Zerubbabel. This can be explained in the following way: Shealtiel was the son of Jeconiah; perhaps by marriage to the daughter of Neri he became Neri’s son-in-law, thus being called the “son of Neri.” It is possible as well that Neri had no sons, so that Shealtiel was counted as his “son” for that reason also. Zerubbabel, who was likely the actual son of Pedaiah, was legally reckoned as the son of Shealtiel, as stated earlier.​—Compare Mt 1:12; Lu 3:27; 1Ch 3:17-19.

Then the accounts indicate that Zerubbabel had two sons, Rhesa and Abiud, the lines diverging again at this point. (These could have been, not actual sons, but descendants, or one, at least, could have been a son-in-law. Compare 1Ch 3:19.) (Lu 3:27; Mt 1:13) Both Matthew’s and Luke’s genealogies of Jesus vary here from that found in 1 Chronicles chapter 3. This may be because a number of names were purposely left out by Matthew and possibly also by Luke. But the fact should be kept in mind that such differences in the genealogical lists of Matthew and Luke are very likely those already present in the genealogical registers then in use and fully accepted by the Jews and were not changes made by Matthew and Luke.

We may conclude, therefore, that the two lists of Matthew and Luke fuse together the two truths, namely, (1) that Jesus was actually the Son of God and the natural heir to the Kingdom by miraculous birth through the virgin girl Mary, of David’s line, and (2) that Jesus was also the legal heir in the male line of descent from David and Solomon through his adoptive father Joseph. (Lu 1:32, 35; Ro 1:1-4) If there was any accusation made by hostile Jews that Jesus’ birth was illegitimate, the fact that Joseph, aware of the circumstances, married Mary and gave her the protection of his good name and royal lineage refutes such slander.

[Chart on pages 913-914]

BIBLE LISTS OF JESUS’ GENEALOGY

Genesis and Ruth

1 Chronicles Chaps 1, 2, 3

Matthew Chap 1

Luke Chap 3

Adam

Adam

—

Adam

Seth

Seth

—

Seth

Enosh

Enosh

—

Enosh

Kenan

Kenan

—

Cainan

Mahalalel

Mahalalel

—

Mahalaleel

Jared

Jared

—

Jared

Enoch

Enoch

—

Enoch

Methuselah

Methuselah

—

Methuselah

Lamech

Lamech

—

Lamech

Noah

Noah

—

Noah

Shem

Shem

—

Shem

Arpachshad

Arpachshad

—

Arpachshad

—

—

—

Cainan

Shelah

Shelah

—

Shelah

Eber

Eber

—

Eber

Peleg

Peleg

—

Peleg

Reu

Reu

—

Reu

Serug

Serug

—

Serug

Nahor

Nahor

—

Nahor

Terah

Terah

—

Terah

Abram (Abraham)

Abraham

Abraham

Abraham

Isaac

Isaac

Isaac

Isaac

Jacob (Israel)

Jacob

Jacob

Jacob

Judah (and Tamar)

Judah

Judah (and Tamar)

Judah

Perez

Perez

Perez

Perez

Hezron

Hezron

Hezron

Hezron

Ram

Ram

Ram

Arni (Ram?)

Amminadab

Amminadab

Amminadab

Amminadab

Nahshon

Nahshon

Nahshon

Nahshon

Salmon

Salmon (Salma, 1Ch 2:11)

Salmon (and Rahab)

Salmon

Boaz (and Ruth)

Boaz

Boaz (and Ruth)

Boaz

Obed

Obed

Obed

Obed

Jesse

Jesse

Jesse

Jesse

David

David

David (and Bath-sheba)

David

—

Solomon

Solomon

Nathan¹

Mattatha

Menna

Melea

Eliakim

Jonam

Joseph

Judas

Symeon

Levi

Matthat

Jorim

Eliezer

Jesus

Er

Elmadam

Cosam

Addi

Melchi

Neri

—

Rehoboam

Rehoboam

—

Abijah

Abijah

—

Asa

Asa

—

Jehoshaphat

Jehoshaphat

—

Jehoram

Jehoram

—

Ahaziah

—

—

Jehoash

—

—

Amaziah

—

—

Azariah (Uzziah)

Uzziah (Azariah)

—

Jotham

Jotham

—

Ahaz

Ahaz

—

Hezekiah

Hezekiah

—

Manasseh

Manasseh

—

Amon

Amon

—

Josiah

Josiah

—

Jehoiakim

—

—

Jeconiah (Jehoiachin)

Jeconiah

—

Shealtiel (Pedaiah)²

Shealtiel

Shealtiel³

—

Zerubbabel⁴

Zerubbabel

Zerubbabel

Rhesa

Joanan

Joda

Josech

Semein

Mattathias

Maath

Naggai

Esli

Nahum

Amos

Mattathias

Joseph

Jannai

Melchi

Levi

Matthat

Heli (father of Mary)

—

—

Abiud

—

—

Eliakim

—

—

Azor

—

—

Zadok

—

—

Achim

—

—

Eliud

—

—

Eleazar

—

—

Matthan

—

—

Jacob

—

—

Joseph

Joseph (Heli’s son-in-law)

—

—

Jesus (foster son)

Jesus (Mary’s son)

¹ At Nathan, Luke begins reckoning the genealogy through Jesus’ maternal line, while Matthew continues with the paternal line.

² Zerubbabel evidently was the natural son of Pedaiah and the legal son of Shealtiel by brother-in-law marriage; or he was brought up by Shealtiel after his father Pedaiah’s death and became legally recognized as the son of Shealtiel.​—1Ch 3:17-19; Ezr 3:2; Lu 3:27.

³ Shealtiel the son of Jeconiah possibly was the son-in-law of Neri.​—1Ch 3:17; Lu 3:27.

⁴ The lines meet in Shealtiel and Zerubbabel, afterward diverging. This divergence could have been through two different descendants of Zerubbabel, or Rhesa or Abiud could have been a son-in-law.

GENERATION

A generation commonly refers to all persons who were born about the same time. (Ex 1:6; Mt 11:16) Associated with this is the meaning “contemporaries.” At Genesis 6:9 it is stated concerning Noah: “He proved himself faultless among his contemporaries [literally, generations].” When used with reference to family relationships, a generation can refer to a group of descendants, as sons and daughters or grandsons and granddaughters.​—Job 42:16.

The term can be used as a measure of time with reference to past or future ages. The generations of mankind descended from the sinner Adam have been transitory, as contrasted with the earth, which abides forever. (Ec 1:4; Ps 104:5) But the expressions “unnumbered generations” and “a thousand generations” refer to that which is to time indefinite. (1Ch 16:15; Isa 51:8) The command to the Jews that the celebration of the Passover was to be observed “throughout your generations” denoted continual performance to a time then indefinite. (Ex 12:14) God stated to Moses that Jehovah was his name as a memorial “to time indefinite,” “to generation after generation,” which implies forever. (Ex 3:15) The apostle Paul tells us that God is to be given glory “to all generations forever and ever.”​—Eph 3:21.

A generation may mean a class of persons, that is, those characterized by certain qualities or conditions. The Bible speaks of “the generation of the righteous one” (Ps 14:5; 24:6; 112:2) and “a generation crooked and twisted,” “a generation of perverseness.” (De 32:5, 20; Pr 30:11-14) Jesus Christ, when on earth, spoke similarly of the people of the Jewish nation of that day, and the apostle Paul applied such terms to the world of his day in general, which was alienated from God.​—Mt 12:39; 16:4; 17:17; Mr 8:38; Php 2:14, 15.

One Hebrew word for “generation” is dohr, corresponding to the Aramaic dar. (Da 4:3, 34) Dohr comes from a root verb meaning “stack in a circle” or “move around” (Eze 24:5; Ps 84:10) and thus has a basic underlying meaning of “circle.” The related word dur means “ball.” (Isa 22:18) The Greek equivalent is ge·ne·aʹ, from a root meaning “be born.”

Another Hebrew word, toh·le·dhohthʹ, is occasionally rendered “generations” or “genealogy” (Nu 3:1; Ru 4:18), also “descendants” or “families” (1Ch 5:7; 7:2, 4, 9) and “history” or “origins.”​—Ge 2:4; 5:1; 6:9; compare AS, AT, KJ, Dy, NW, RS, and other translations.

Length. When the term “generation” is used with reference to the people living at a particular time, the exact length of that time cannot be stated, except that the time would fall within reasonable limits. These limits would be determined by the life span of the people of that time or of that population. The life span of the ten generations from Adam to Noah averaged more than 850 years each. (Ge 5:5-31; 9:29) But after Noah, man’s life span dropped off sharply. Abraham, for example, lived only 175 years. (Ge 25:7) Today, much as it was in the time of Moses, people living under favorable conditions may reach 70 or 80 years of age. Moses wrote: “In themselves the days of our years are seventy years; and if because of special mightiness they are eighty years, yet their insistence is on trouble and hurtful things; for it must quickly pass by, and away we fly.” (Ps 90:10) Some few may live longer, but Moses stated the general rule. Moses himself, who lived 120 years, was an exception, as were his brother Aaron (123 years), Joshua (110 years), and some others whose strength and vitality were unusual.​—De 34:7; Nu 33:39; Jos 24:29.

“This Generation” of Christ’s Prophecies. When Bible prophecy speaks of “this generation,” it is necessary to consider the context to determine what generation is meant. Jesus Christ, when denouncing the Jewish religious leaders, concluded by saying: “Truly I say to you, All these things will come upon this generation.” History recounts that about 37 years later (in 70 C.E.) that contemporary generation personally experienced the destruction of Jerusalem, as foretold.​—Mt 23:36.

Later that same day, Jesus again used practically the same words, saying: “Truly I say to you that this generation will by no means pass away until all these things occur.” (Mt 24:34) In this instance, Jesus was answering a question regarding the desolation of Jerusalem and its temple as well as regarding the sign of his presence and of the conclusion of the system of things. So his comment about “this generation” logically had an application down to 70 C.E. However, he was also using the word “generation” with reference to humans whose lives would in some way be associated with the foretold events during his presence.​—Mt 24.

GENEROSITY

That noble and warmhearted readiness to bless others by freely giving out of an open hand, unstintingly. The Hebrew word na·dhivʹ, rendered “generous” in Isaiah 32:8, is also rendered “willing” and ‘noble.’ (Ps 51:12; Nu 21:18, ftn) The Greek noun ha·ploʹtes (“generosity” [2Co 8:2; 9:11]; “liberality” [Ro 12:8]; “sincerity” [Eph 6:5]) has the basic meaning “simplicity.” (2Co 11:3, Int) Jehovah himself is the personification of generosity, the One who fully supplies all the needs of his obedient creatures “according to his will.” (1Jo 5:14; Php 4:19) Every good gift and perfect present is from him, including such an intangible gift as wisdom.​—Jas 1:5, 17.

Moses urged his fellow Israelites to cultivate this divine quality of generosity, even when making a loan on pledge. “You must not harden your heart or be closefisted toward your poor brother. For you should generously open your hand to him . . . You should by all means give to him, and your heart should not be stingy in your giving to him . . . That is why I am commanding you, saying, ‘You should generously open up your hand to your afflicted and poor brother in your land.’”​—De 15:7-11.

Says the proverb: “The generous soul [literally, the soul with a blessing gift] will itself be made fat [prosperous], and the one freely watering others will himself also be freely watered.” (Pr 11:25) Jesus Christ expressed it this way: “There is more happiness in giving than there is in receiving.” (Ac 20:35) Again he said: “Practice giving, and people will give to you. They will pour into your laps a fine measure, pressed down, shaken together and overflowing. For with the measure that you are measuring out, they will measure out to you in return.”​—Lu 6:38.

In the Christian Congregation. The apostle Paul also stated this proverbial truth in yet another way: “He that sows sparingly will also reap sparingly; and he that sows bountifully will also reap bountifully.” Since this is so, the apostle reasons, “let each one do just as he has resolved in his heart, not grudgingly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.” (2Co 9:6, 7) Paul continues by pointing to Jehovah’s great example of generosity not only in abundantly supplying seed for the sower and bread for food but also in enriching the Corinthian brothers “for every sort of generosity,” that they might be generous toward others. Such gestures of generosity, Paul declared, resulted in “an expression of thanks to God.”​—2Co 9:8-13.

Paul, encouraging this same godly generosity, wrote the Romans (12:8): “He that distributes, let him do it with liberality.” To the Hebrews (13:16) he wrote: “Moreover, do not forget the doing of good and the sharing of things with others, for with such sacrifices God is well pleased.” The congregations in Macedonia were outstanding examples of generous giving. The fact that they had even joyfully gone “beyond their actual ability,” contributing out of their poverty, made “the riches of their generosity abound.”​—2Co 8:1-4.

Let it be noted that these scriptures on generosity and liberality are not in conflict or out of balance with others that condemn ingrates, sluggards, and lazy persons. For example, the lazy one who will not plow in cold weather deserves nothing when begging in harvesttime; he that refuses to work is not entitled to the generosity of others. (Pr 20:4; 2Th 3:10) Widows were not to be put on the list for relief unless they qualified. (1Ti 5:9, 10) The contributions made by the congregations throughout Galatia, Macedonia, and Achaia were not for the needy ones among pagan worshipers in general but for “the holy ones” that were in need.​—1Co 16:1; 2Co 9:1, 2.

GENESIS, BOOK OF

The first book of the Pentateuch (Greek for “five rolls” or “fivefold volume”). “Genesis” (meaning “Origin; Birth”) is the name given to the first of these books by the Greek Septuagint, whereas its Hebrew title Bereʼ·shithʹ (In the Beginning) is taken from the first word in its opening sentence.

When and Where Written. The book of Genesis was evidently part of the one original writing (the Torah), and it was possibly completed by Moses in the wilderness of Sinai in the year 1513 B.C.E. After Genesis 1:1, 2 (relating to the creation of the heavens and the earth), the book evidently covers a span of thousands of years involved in the preparation of the earth for human habitation (see CREATION; DAY), and thereafter it covers the period from man’s creation on down to the year 1657 B.C.E., when Joseph died.​—See CHRONOLOGY (From Human Creation to the Present).

Writership. The objection once raised by some skeptics that writing was not known in Moses’ day is today generally discounted. In his book New Discoveries in Babylonia About Genesis (1949, p. 35), P. J. Wiseman points out that archaeological research gives ample proof that “the art of writing began in the earliest historical times known to man.” Virtually all modern scholars acknowledge the existence of writing long before the time of Moses (in the second millennium B.C.E.). Expressions such as that found in Exodus 17:14, “Write this as a memorial in the book,” substantiate the fact that writing was in common use in Moses’ day. Although Adam must have had the ability to devise a form of writing, God having given him, as a perfect man, a language, with the ability to handle it perfectly, the Bible gives no proof that he did so.​—Ge 2:19, 23.

From where did Moses get the information he included in Genesis?

All the information contained in the book of Genesis relates to events that took place prior to Moses’ birth. It could have been received directly by divine revelation. It is obvious that someone had to receive the information relating to the events prior to man’s creation in that way, whether Moses or someone prior to him. (Ge 1:1-27; 2:7, 8) This information and the remaining details, however, could have been transmitted to Moses by means of oral tradition. Because of the long life span of men of that period, the information could have been passed from Adam to Moses through just five human links, namely, Methuselah, Shem, Isaac, Levi, and Amram. A third possibility is that Moses obtained much of the information for Genesis from already existing writings or documents. As far back as the 18th century, the Dutch scholar Campegius Vitringa held this view, basing his conclusion upon the frequent occurrence in Genesis (ten times) of the expression (in KJ) “these are the generations of,” and once “this is the book of the generations of.” (Ge 2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10, 27; 25:12, 19; 36:1, 9; 37:2) In this expression the Hebrew word for “generations” is toh·le·dhohthʹ, and it is better rendered “histories” or “origins.” For example, “generations of the heavens and of the earth” would hardly be fitting, whereas “history of the heavens and the earth” is meaningful. (Ge 2:4) In harmony with this, the German Elberfelder, the French Crampon, and the Spanish Bover-Cantera all use the term “history,” as does the New World Translation. There is no doubt that even as men today are interested in an accurate historical record, so they have been from the start.

Although there is no Biblical proof, Vitringa and others have understood toh·le·dhohthʹ in Genesis to refer to an already existing written historical document that Moses had in his possession and that he relied on for the majority of the information recorded in Genesis. They believe that the persons named in direct connection with such ‘histories’ (Adam, Noah, Noah’s sons, Shem, Terah, Ishmael, Isaac, Esau, and Jacob) were either the writers or original possessors of those written documents. This, of course, would still leave unexplained how all such documents came to be in the possession of Moses. It also leaves unexplained why documents obtained from men who were not distinguished as faithful worshipers of Jehovah (such as Ishmael and Esau) should be the source of much of the information used. It is entirely possible that the expression “This is the history of” is simply an introductory phrase serving conveniently to divide off the various sections of the long overall history. Compare Matthew’s use of a similar expression to introduce his Gospel account.​—Mt 1:1; see WRITING.

No definite conclusion can be arrived at, therefore, as to the immediate source from which Moses obtained the information he recorded. Rather than just by one of the methods discussed, the information may have been received by all three, some through direct revelation, some through oral transmission, some by written records. The important point is that Jehovah God guided the prophet Moses so that he wrote by divine inspiration.​—2Pe 1:21.

The material was to serve as an inspired guide to future generations. It was to be read to the people on frequent occasions (De 31:10-12; 2Ki 23:2, 3; Ne 8:2, 3, 18), and Israel’s kings were to take instructions from it.​—De 17:18, 19.

The “Documentary Theory” of Critics. A theory has been set forth by some Bible critics that Genesis is not the work of one writer or compiler, namely, Moses, but rather that it represents the work of several writers, some of these living long after Moses’ time. On the basis of supposed differences of style and word usage, they have advanced the so-called documentary theory. According to this theory, there were three sources, which they call “J” (Jahwist), “E” (Elohist), and “P” (Priest Codex). Because of a double mention of a certain event or because of similarity of accounts in different parts of Genesis, some would add still further sources to the list, going so far in dissecting the book of Genesis as to claim that there were up to 14 independent sources. They contend that these various sources or writers held different views and theologies yet that, nevertheless, Genesis as an amalgamated product of these sources somehow forms a connected whole. There are many absurdities to which they go to support their theories, a few of which may be mentioned.

The original basis for the documentary theory was the use of different titles for God; the critics claim that this indicates different writers. The unreasonableness of such a view, however, can be seen in that in just one small portion of Genesis we find the following titles: “the Most High God” (ʼEl ʽEl·yohnʹ, Ge 14:18); “Producer of heaven and earth” (14:19); “Sovereign Lord” (ʼAdho·naiʹ, 15:2); “God of sight” (16:13); “God Almighty” (ʼEl Shad·daiʹ, 17:1); “God” (ʼElo·himʹ, 17:3); “the true God” (ha·ʼElo·himʹ, 17:18); “the Judge of all the earth” (18:25). Trying to use this as a basis for attributing each of these sections to a different writer produces insurmountable difficulties and becomes absurd. Rather, the truth is that the different titles applied to God in Genesis are used because of their meaning, revealing Jehovah in his different attributes, in his various works, and in his dealings with his people.

Other examples are: Because of the use of the word ba·raʼʹ, “created,” Genesis 1:1 is said to be written by the source called “P.” Yet we find the same word at Genesis 6:7 in the source supposed to be “J.” The expression “land of Canaan” appearing in several texts (among which are Ge 12:5; 13:12a; 16:3; 17:8) is said to be a peculiarity of the writer known as “P,” and therefore these critics hold that “P” wrote these passages. But in chapters 42, 44, 47, and 50, we find the same expression in the writings attributed by the same critics to “J” and “E.” Thus, while the critics claim that their theories are needed to account for supposed inconsistencies in Genesis, examination shows that the theories themselves are riddled with inconsistencies.

If the material attributed to each theoretical source is extricated portion by portion, and sentence by sentence, from the Genesis account and then reassembled, the result is a number of accounts each one of which by itself is illogical and incoherent. If we were to believe that these various sources were used and put together by a later compiler, we would be forced to believe that these incoherent accounts, before being amalgamated, were accepted as historical and were used for centuries by the nation of Israel. But what writer, especially a historian, would even construct such disconnected narratives, and if he did, what nation would accept them as a history of its people?

Illustrating the unreasonableness of the advocates of the “documentary theory” is this statement by Egyptologist K. A. Kitchen: “In Pentateuchal criticism it has long been customary to divide the whole into separate documents or ‘hands’. . . . But the practice of Old Testament criticism in attributing these characteristics to different ‘hands’ or documents becomes a manifest absurdity when applied to other ancient Oriental writings that display precisely similar phenomena.” He then cites an example from an Egyptian biography that might, using the theoretical methods employed by the critics of Genesis, be attributed to different “hands” but which work the evidence shows “was conceived, composed, written, and carved within months, weeks, or even less. There can be no ‘hands’ behind its style, which merely varies with the subjects in view and the question of fitting treatment.” (The New Bible Dictionary, edited by J. Douglas, 1980, p. 349) The weakness of the critics’ theories actually gives added strength to the evidence that only one man, Moses, recorded the connected, coherent account found in Genesis as inspired by God.

The Historical Character of Genesis. Genesis is the only source known to humans that provides a logical, coherent history of things back to the beginning. Without its factual history of the first man and woman, we would be left with the fanciful stories or allegorical explanations of man’s beginning that are found in the creation accounts of pagan nations. A comparison of the book of Genesis with the pagan creation accounts clearly demonstrates the superiority of the Bible account.

Thus, the principal Babylonian myth says that the god Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, killed the goddess Tiamat, then took her corpse and “split her like a shellfish into two parts: Half of her he set up and ceiled it as sky.” So the earth and its sky came into existence. As to the creation of human life, this myth states that the gods caught the god Kingu and they “imposed on him his guilt and severed his blood (vessels). Out of his blood they fashioned mankind.” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by James Pritchard, 1974, pp. 67, 68) Egyptian creation myths likewise involve the activities of several gods, but they disagree as to which city’s god (that of Memphis or that of Thebes) was the one who conceived the creation. One Egyptian myth relates that the sun-god Ra created mankind from his tears. Greek myths parallel those of the Babylonians. Ancient Chinese records are mostly calendars and chronological calculations or records of merely local or temporary interest.

Not one of such ancient sources furnishes us with the history, genealogy, and chronology that the book of Genesis provides. The writings of the ancient nations in general show uncertainty and confusion as to who their national founders were. The definiteness and detail with which Israel’s early history is presented is strikingly different. In reality we should not expect it to be otherwise, in view of God’s purpose toward his people. The Bible tells us that the nation of Israel was directly governed by God and that he dealt with their forefathers, especially Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Then he used Moses in a very special way, through him giving Israel the Law that established them as a nation. Israel’s history is in recorded form not only for Israel’s benefit but also for the benefit of all who will learn of the ways and dealings of the true God and serve him.

In answering those who would reject many portions of Genesis as fables or folklore, Wilhelm Möller says: “I do not think that it can be made plausible, that in any race fables and myths came in the course of time more and more to be accepted as actual facts, so that perchance we should now be willing to accept as historical truths the stories of the Nibelungenlied or Red Riding Hood. But this, according to the critics, must have been the case in Israel.” (The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, edited by J. Orr, 1960, Vol. II, p. 1209) He goes on to point out that the prophets accepted the account of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah as correct (Isa 1:9; Am 4:11) and that they accepted Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph as real persons. (Isa 29:22; Mic 7:20) Not only this, but in the Christian Greek Scriptures, Abraham is mentioned in many places, even by Jesus Christ at Matthew 22:32, in connection with the argument about the resurrection. If Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob had not really lived, Jesus would have used another illustration.​—Mt 22:31-33.

Value of the Book. Genesis tells us how the universe came into being. In a matter-of-fact way it describes the wonders of creation, without making these overshadow the main purpose of the book. It is thus unlike the pagan creation stories that make these marvels the main thing and go to absurdities and obvious untruths to stress them. Genesis tells about the work of creation, and it shows God’s purpose in creating man, the relationship of man to God, and the relationship of man to the animals. It gives us the reason for death and trouble experienced by mankind and the hope of deliverance. It points out that all humans descended from the one man Adam, who sinned and lost life for his posterity; it thereby enables us to understand how the ransom sacrifice of one man, Jesus Christ, could atone for the sins of mankind. Genesis enables us to see how the issue of the rightfulness of God’s sovereignty was raised by the symbolic serpent, Satan the Devil. It gives the sure hope of destruction of Satan and of relief for mankind. It recounts the origin of Babylon and thus of all false religion in the post-Flood earth, thereby aiding in the identification of Babylon the Great in the book of Revelation.​—See BABYLON THE GREAT.

Jesus said that if anyone serves God, that one must worship Him with spirit and truth. (Joh 4:24) The Genesis account sets forth the truth of man’s beginnings and of God’s dealings with him. Since everything recorded in Genesis is true and not mythical, we are able to know the truth about man’s history. We can see that up to the time of the Flood men certainly knew the truth of the Biblical account about Eden, for the garden was there and cherubs were there with the flaming sword at its gate. (Ge 3:24) But those who wanted to go the way of their own desires ignored the facts that were before them. Noah, however, served God according to the way that man was originally created to serve him, according to true history. Although, following the Flood, Nimrod set up rebellion against God at the Tower of Babel, the patriarchs through the line of Shem continued to hold to the true way of life. When it was God’s time to organize Israel into a nation and give them the Law, it did not come to them like something completely unknown, a revolutionary change in their way of life. No, for in the patriarchal society they had done many of the things that are found in the Law. As M’Clintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia (1881, Vol. III, p. 782), declares: “This theocracy cannot have entered into history without preparatory events. The facts which led to the introduction of the theocracy are contained in the accounts of Genesis.”

This, in turn, prepared the way for the Messiah and the introduction of Christianity. When Jesus Christ arrived, those who had been living according to the Law to the best of their ability were soon able to identify him. He did not appear suddenly and announce himself to be a great savior and leader without any background or historical credentials. The background that had been furnished right from Genesis on down enabled the honesthearted ones to recognize and follow him. Therefore a strong organization of Jewish Christians could be established as a nucleus, prepared to bring a convincing gospel message to the nations. The forefathers of the pagan nations had led them away from the truth. They were “alienated from the state of Israel and strangers to the covenants of the promise, and . . . had no hope and were without God in the world.” (Eph 2:12) Therefore, they had to learn the principles of God from the beginning before they could become Christians.

Genesis, then, provides a valuable basis for understanding all the other books of the Bible and is essential to Christianity. It sets the theme for the Bible, namely, the vindication of Jehovah’s sovereignty and the ultimate fulfillment of his purpose for the earth, by means of his Kingdom under the promised Seed. In addition to the very first and basic prophecy at Genesis 3:15, Genesis has within it numerous other prophecies, a great many of which have been fulfilled since its composition.

[Box on page 921]

HIGHLIGHTS OF GENESIS

A record of God’s creating and preparing the earth for human habitation, of mankind’s role in God’s purpose, and of God’s dealings with men of faith during some 2,300 years of early human history

Covers the period from the beginning of the physical creation down to the death of Joseph in Egypt (1657 B.C.E.)

Creation of physical heavens and earth, and the preparation of the earth for human habitation (1:1–2:25)

Sin and death enter world; “seed” foretold as deliverer (3:1–5:5)

Serpent deceives woman; she and Adam partake of forbidden fruit

Serpent, woman, and Adam sentenced; woman’s seed to crush serpent

Cain, firstborn son of Adam and Eve, murders his brother Abel

In fulfillment of God’s judgment, Adam dies at 930 years of age

Wicked angels and men ruin earth; God brings global Flood (5:6–11:9)

Noah is born in line of Adam’s son Seth; in his day disobedient angels marry women and father the Nephilim, who indulge in violence

Jehovah decrees destruction by a deluge but instructs Noah to build an ark for the preservation of his family and basic animal kinds

Floodwaters overwhelm the whole earth; all humans, flying creatures, and land animals outside ark perish

After the Flood, Jehovah prohibits eating blood, authorizes death penalty for murder, and establishes rainbow covenant, promising never to bring another deluge

During the second generation born after the Flood, people begin to build a tower, defying God’s purpose for them to spread abroad; Jehovah confuses their language, scattering them

Jehovah’s dealings with Abraham (11:10–25:26)

Shem’s descendant Abram leaves Ur in obedience to God’s call

In Canaan, Abram is promised that his seed will receive the land

Lot separates from his uncle Abram, settles near Sodom, is taken captive, and afterward is freed by Abram; Melchizedek blesses Abram

Abram takes Hagar as concubine, and she gives birth to Ishmael

Jehovah changes Abram’s name to Abraham, and Sarai’s name to Sarah; covenant of circumcision is established

Jehovah’s angel informs Abraham that Sarah will bear a son​—Isaac

Told of judgment upon Sodom, Abraham pleads for the righteous

Angels urge Lot and his family to leave Sodom; Lot’s wife perishes for disobedience

Isaac is born; Ishmael’s taunts at Isaac’s weaning lead to dismissal

In obedience to Jehovah, Abraham attempts to sacrifice Isaac, and he receives assurance respecting the covenant promises

After Sarah’s death, Abraham arranges to get a wife for Isaac

Isaac’s wife Rebekah gives birth to Esau and Jacob

Jacob (Israel) and his 12 sons; to Egypt for the preservation of life (25:27–50:26)

After Jacob had bought the birthright from Esau for a meal and later, at Rebekah’s urging, procured the blessing Isaac intended for Esau, Jacob departs for Paddan-aram, seeking a wife

Rebekah’s brother Laban tricks Jacob into marrying Leah; then Jacob marries Rachel; by Leah and Rachel and their two maidservants, Jacob has 11 sons and a daughter Dinah before leaving Paddan-aram with his family

Jacob wrestles with an angel, and his thigh joint is put out of place; he desperately clings to the angel in order to receive a blessing, and his name is changed to Israel

After a peaceful meeting with Esau, Jacob resides at Succoth and then at Shechem, where Dinah is violated

Rachel dies when giving birth to Jacob’s 12th son, Benjamin

Out of hatred for Joseph, Rachel’s firstborn, his half brothers sell him; he becomes a slave to Potiphar in Egypt

Imprisoned on false charges, Joseph comes into circumstances that bring his ability to interpret dreams to Pharaoh’s attention

Joseph interprets Pharaoh’s dreams regarding a famine and is made second ruler in Egypt

Famine in Canaan forces Jacob’s sons to go to Egypt for food; in time Joseph reveals himself to his half brothers

Jacob and his household move to Egypt; Joseph cares for them

Jacob dies in Egypt after pronouncing prophetic blessings on Joseph’s sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, and on his own 12 sons

GENNESARET

(Gen·nesʹa·ret).

1. A small, somewhat triangular plain bordering on the NW shore of the Sea of Galilee and measuring about 5 by 2.5 km (3 by 1.5 mi). In this region, Jesus Christ performed works of miraculous healing. (Mt 14:34-36; Mr 6:53-56; PICTURE, Vol. 2, p. 739) According to the Jewish historian Josephus, this plain was a beautiful, fruitful, and well-watered region, where walnut, palm, and olive trees thrived, and where figs and grapes were available for ten months out of the year.​—The Jewish War, III, 516-521 (x, 8).

2. “The lake of Gennesaret” was another name for the Sea of Galilee. (Lu 5:1) Some scholars believe that Gennesaret is probably the Greek form for the early Hebrew name Chinnereth.​—Nu 34:11; see GALILEE, SEA OF.

GENTILES

See NATIONS.

GENTILE TIMES

See APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS.

GENTLENESS

A mildness of disposition or manner, thus the opposite of roughness or harshness. Gentleness is closely related to humility and meekness.

Gentleness is a requisite for a servant of God, particularly one in a responsible position of oversight. The apostle Paul stated that “a slave of the Lord does not need to fight, but needs to be gentle [Gr., eʹpi·on] toward all.” (2Ti 2:24) The gentle person is not loud, noisy, or immoderate. Moses, the man of the true God, though not in every instance manifesting the proper disposition, “was by far the meekest of all the men who were upon the surface of the ground.” (Nu 12:3; Ps 90:Sup) His speech on one occasion was said to be like “gentle rains upon grass.”​—De 32:2.

At 1 Thessalonians 2:7 Paul described himself and his companions as becoming “gentle in the midst of you [the Thessalonians], as when a nursing mother cherishes her own children.” This was because they had real love for those whom they taught, as well as concern for their spiritual growth. (1Th 2:8) The word eʹpi·oi (translated “gentle”) is found in Textus Receptus, Tischendorf, Merk, and some manuscripts. According to W. E. Vine, eʹpi·os “was frequently used by Greek writers as characterizing a nurse with trying children or a teacher with refractory scholars, or of parents toward their children. In I Thess. 2:7, the Apostle uses it of the conduct of himself and his fellow-missionaries towards the converts at Thessalonica.”​—Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words, 1981, Vol. 2, p. 145.

However, at 1 Thessalonians 2:7, the Westcott and Hort Greek text and certain manuscripts read neʹpi·oi, “babes.” Regarding this, The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology remarked: “There are two readings of 1 Thess. 2:7: (a) ēpioi (we were gentle in your company); (b) nēpioi (babes). The preceding word ends with n, and it seems likely that this n has been doubled by mistake in copying. Moreover the interpretation of the second reading leads to difficulties. For in v. 7b it is not himself but the Thessalonians whom Paul likens to ‘children’; he and his colleagues were like a nurse (trophos).”​—Edited by C. Brown, 1975, Vol. 1, p. 282.

Not Weakness. Gentleness does not denote weakness. It requires strength of disposition to be gentle with others and to pacify them or to spare their feelings, especially when one is under provocation. At 2 Samuel 18:5 David, a man of war, because of fatherly love, commanded Joab to deal gently with his rebellious son Absalom. The Hebrew word here (ʼat) has reference to a going softly or a gentle motion. The apostle Paul, although gentle, was not a weakling, as testified to by his ability to speak very strongly when the need arose, for example, when he wrote his first and second letters to the Christian congregation in Corinth.

A Unifying Force. It is pleasant and conducive to peace when one speaks and acts with gentleness. Such a person is approachable, not forbidding, and his manner tends toward the spiritual upbuilding of others. Harshness, roughness, boisterousness, and vulgarity are divisive and drive others away. But gentleness attracts and unifies. Jehovah is spoken of as collecting together his lambs and as carrying them in his bosom (referring to the voluminous folds of the upper part of the garment, in which lambs were sometimes carried by shepherds). (Isa 40:11) His Son Jesus Christ said to Jerusalem: “How often I wanted to gather your children together, the way a hen gathers her chicks together under her wings!” “But,” he added, “you people did not want it.” (Mt 23:37) Therefore, they received harsh treatment at the hands of the Roman army when their city was desolated in 70 C.E.

False Gentleness. Gentleness in tone or manner, such as being soft-spoken, does not always prove true gentleness. It is a quality that, to be thoroughly genuine, must come from the heart. While Job, God’s servant, was suffering at the hands of Satan in a test of his integrity to God, he was verbally attacked by three companions. They charged Job with secret sin, wickedness, and stubbornness, intimating also that he was apostate and that his sons had met death at God’s hands because of their wickedness. Yet one of the three, Eliphaz, said to Job: “Are the consolations of God not enough for you, or a word spoken gently with you?” (Job 15:11) Thus, some of their speech at least may have been in a soft tone, yet it was harsh in content, hence not truly gentle.

GENUBATH

(Ge·nuʹbath).

Son of Edomite prince Hadad. When the army chief Joab occupied Edom during the reign of David, Hadad fled to Egypt. There he gained the favor of Pharaoh, whose sister-in-law he was given as a wife. By her, Hadad fathered Genubath, who was raised with the sons of Pharaoh.​—1Ki 11:14-20.

GERA

(Geʹra) [possibly, Alien Resident].

1. Son of Benjamin’s firstborn Bela. (1Ch 8:1, 3) The designation “sons” at Genesis 46:21, where Gera is listed, apparently includes grandsons.

2. Evidently another descendant of Bela the Benjamite; possibly identical with the Gera mentioned in 1 Chronicles 8:7.​—1Ch 8:5.

3. Father of Benjamite Judge Ehud.​—Jg 3:15.

4. Father of the Benjamite Shimei who called down evil upon David.​—2Sa 16:5; 19:16, 18; 1Ki 2:8.

GERAH

(geʹrah).

A weight corresponding to 1⁄20 shekel and equivalent to 0.57 g (0.01835 oz t).​—Ex 30:13; Le 27:25; Nu 3:47; 18:16; Eze 45:12.

GERAR

(Geʹrar).

A site near Gaza mentioned in the earliest record of the boundaries of Canaanite territory. (Ge 10:19) In the past Gerar was commonly linked with Tell Jemmeh (Tel Gamma), about 12 km (7.5 mi) S of modern Gaza. But currently it is identified by numerous geographers with Tell Abu Hureirah (Tel Haror), located in the foothills of the mountains of Judea, about 19 km (12 mi) SE of modern Gaza. Many earthenware fragments believed to date from the time of the patriarchs have been found at the site. Abraham and, later, Isaac resided for a time as aliens at Gerar and dealt with its king Abimelech (possibly two different rulers that bore this name or official title).​—Ge 20:1-18; 21:22-34; 26:1-31; see ABIMELECH Nos. 1 and 2.

After Jehovah brought about the defeat of the impressive army of Zerah the Ethiopian, King Asa’s forces pursued the fleeing enemy as far as Gerar. Thereafter the Judeans struck and plundered “all the cities round about Gerar” (probably because of their being allied with the Ethiopians); “even the tents with livestock they struck so that they took captive flocks in great number and camels.”​—2Ch 14:8-15.

Some scholars suggest altering 1 Chronicles 4:39, 40 to read “Gerar” (as does LXX) instead of “Gedor.” This passage connects Gedor with a region originally inhabited by the Hamites and having good pasturage, and this description would fit the Biblical references to the area around Gerar.

GERAR, TORRENT VALLEY OF

In recent years it has been suggested that the torrent valley of Gerar corresponds to the Wadi esh-Shariʽah (Nahal Gerar), running about 0.5 km (0.3 mi) S of Tell Abu Hureirah (Tel Haror), the probable site of ancient Gerar. The general area around the torrent valley of Gerar was ideal for pastoral life. Apparently water could readily be found by digging pits in the torrent bed. (Ge 26:17-19) The patriarch Abraham resided temporarily as an alien in this region. (Ge 20:1, 2) Later, in a time of famine, Isaac returned to the area. Here he engaged in agriculture and raised flocks and herds. (Ge 26:1, 6, 12-14) In the torrent valley itself Isaac’s servants dug two wells that provoked quarrels with the covetous shepherds of Gerar.​—Ge 26:17-22.

GERASENES

(Gerʹa·senes) [Of (Belonging to) Gerasa].

In “the country of the Gerasenes,” of which at least a portion lay E of the Sea of Galilee, Jesus Christ healed two demon-possessed men. (Mr 5:1-20; Lu 8:26-39; compare Mt 8:28-34.) The exact limits of this region are today unknown, and the identification is uncertain. Some scholars link it with the area on the E shore of the Sea of Galilee around Kursi, the site identified by Origen and Eusebius as Gergesa. It is only here that there are cliffs near the shore. Others suggest it is the large district radiating from the city of Gerasa (Jarash).​—See GADARENES.

GERIZIM, MOUNT

(Gerʹi·zim).

Mount Gerizim, now known as Jebel et Tur (Har Gerizim), together with Mount Ebal to the NE, is situated in the heart of the district of Samaria. Standing opposite each other, these mountains are the most eminent ones of the region and guard a significant E-W pass. Between the two mountains is a fertile valley, the Valley of Shechem, in which present-day Nablus is situated. Shechem, a strong and important city of Canaan before the Israelites entered the Promised Land, stood at the eastern end of the valley, about 1.5 km (1 mi) SE of Nablus. The strategic location of Mounts Gerizim and Ebal gave them military and political significance, the area also being one of religious importance.​—PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 331.

Mount Gerizim’s summit rises over 850 m (2,800 ft) above the Mediterranean Sea. Though approximately 60 m (200 ft) lower than Mount Ebal, Gerizim offers an excellent view of surrounding territory. From it one can see to the N the snowy peak of Mount Hermon, to the E the fertile valley of the Jordan, to the S the mountains in the territory of Ephraim, and to the W the Plain of Sharon and the blue Mediterranean.

Abram (Abraham) once camped “near the big trees of Moreh” between Mounts Gerizim and Ebal, and there he received Jehovah’s promise: “To your seed I am going to give this land.” (Ge 12:6, 7) Jacob also camped in this vicinity.​—Ge 33:18.

In harmony with instructions given by Moses, the tribes of Israel assembled at Mounts Gerizim and Ebal under Joshua’s direction shortly after their conquest of Ai. There the people heard the reading of the blessings they would receive if they obeyed Jehovah and the maledictions that awaited them if they disobeyed him. The tribes of Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Joseph, and Benjamin stood in front of Mount Gerizim. The Levites and the ark of the covenant were situated in the valley, and the other six tribes stood in front of Mount Ebal. (De 11:29, 30; 27:11-13; Jos 8:28-35) Apparently, the tribes stationed in front of Mount Gerizim responded to the blessings read in their direction, whereas the other tribes responded to the curses read in the direction of Mount Ebal. While it has been suggested that the blessings were read toward Mount Gerizim because of its greater beauty and fertility in contrast with rocky, largely barren Mount Ebal, the Bible does not furnish any information on this matter. The Law was read aloud “in front of all the congregation of Israel, together with the women and the little ones and the alien residents who walked in their midst.” (Jos 8:35) This vast throng could hear the words from positions in front of either mountain. This was probably due, at least in part, to the excellent acoustics of the area.​—See EBAL, MOUNT.

In the days of Israel’s Judges, Gideon’s son Jotham addressed the landowners of Shechem while standing “on the top of Mount Gerizim.” (Jg 9:7) Even today a ledge about halfway up the mountain is called Jotham’s pulpit, but it is merely a traditional site.

Samaritan Temple. A Samaritan temple rivaling the one in Jerusalem was constructed on Mount Gerizim perhaps in the fourth century B.C.E. and was destroyed in 128 B.C.E. According to tradition, it was desolated by John Hyrcanus. (Jewish Antiquities, XI, 310, 311, 324 [viii, 2, 4]; XIII, 254-256 [ix, 1]; The Jewish War, I, 63 [ii, 6]) Even up to modern times the Samaritans have celebrated festivals such as the Passover on Mount Gerizim, at what they believe to be the site of the ancient temple. It was evidently with reference to Mount Gerizim that the Samaritan woman told Jesus Christ: “Our forefathers worshiped in this mountain; but you people say that in Jerusalem is the place where persons ought to worship.”​—Joh 4:5, 19, 20.

As depicted on ancient coins discovered at Nablus, a temple of Zeus once stood on the NE part of Mount Gerizim, with an approach calculated to have had 1,500 steps. A church was built on the summit of the mountain in the fifth century C.E., and another was constructed by the Byzantine emperor Justinian. It is suggested that ruins now found there are of Justinian’s time.

GERSHOM

(Gerʹshom) [An Alien Resident There].

1. The first-listed son of Levi the son of Jacob. He was the father of Libni and Shimei. (1Ch 6:16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71) He is also called Gershon.​—Ge 46:11; Ex 6:16, 17; Nu 3:17, 18; 1Ch 6:1; 23:6.

2. The firstborn son of Moses by Zipporah; born in Midian. (Ex 2:21, 22; 1Ch 23:14-16) Moses’ father-in-law Jethro came to Moses in the wilderness, bringing with him Moses’ wife Zipporah and their two sons, Gershom and Eliezer. (Ex 18:2-4) The priestly service of Gershom’s descendant Jonathan on behalf of the Danites was illegal, because, although he was a Levite, he was not of Aaron’s family.​—Jg 18:30.

3. Head of the paternal house of Phinehas who accompanied Ezra from Babylon.​—Ezr 8:1, 2.

GERSHON

(Gerʹshon) [An Alien Resident There].

The first listed of Levi’s three sons. Gershon’s descendants were called Gershonites and “sons of Gershon.” (Ex 6:16; Nu 3:17, 21; 7:7; 26:57; Jos 21:6, 27; 1Ch 6:1; 23:6) He is also called Gershom. (1Ch 6:16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71; 15:7) Gershon’s sons were Libni (evidently called Ladan at 1Ch 23:7; 26:21) and Shimei.​—Ex 6:17; Nu 3:18; 1Ch 6:17, 20.

GERSHONITES

(Gerʹshon·ites) [Of (Belonging to) Gershon].

The descendants of Gershon, or Gershom​—the first named of the three sons of Levi—​through his two sons Libni and Shimei. (1Ch 6:1, 16, 17) The Gershonites constituted one of the three great divisions of the Levites. At the first census in the wilderness, they numbered 7,500 males from a month old and upward. Those from 30 to 50 years of age who served at the tabernacle numbered 2,630 males. (Nu 3:21, 22; 4:38-41) The service of the Gershonites in the wilderness included caring for the tabernacle (the tent of meeting), its various coverings, the screen of the entrance of the tabernacle, the hangings of the courtyard, the screen of the courtyard entrance, and the tent cords. (Nu 3:23-26; 4:21-28; Ex 26:1, 7, 14, 36; 27:9, 16) In the camp in the wilderness, their place was on the W side of the tabernacle. Behind them, at a distance from the tabernacle, camped the three-tribe division of Ephraim. (Nu 3:23; 2:18) When the chieftains of Israel presented 6 covered wagons and 12 bulls for tabernacle service, Moses gave 2 wagons and 4 bulls to the sons of Gershon. (Nu 7:1-7) When moving camp, the Gershonites marched with the Merarites between the leading three-tribe division of Judah and the three-tribe division of Reuben.​—Nu 10:14-20.

The Gershonites were allotted 13 cities with pasture grounds in the territories of Manasseh, Issachar, Asher, and Naphtali. Kedesh, in Galilee, and Golan, in Bashan, allotted to them, were two of the nation’s six cities of refuge. (Jos 21:27-33) When David reorganized the Levites, responsibility in connection with singing and the treasury were duties given to some of the Gershonites. (1Ch 6:31, 32, 39-43; 23:4-11; 26:21, 22) Gershonites were among the Levites who engaged in the work of cleansing the temple in the days of King Hezekiah.​—2Ch 29:12-17.

GESHAN

(Geʹshan).

The third-named son of Jahdai of the tribe of Judah. Geshan is listed among the descendants of Caleb.​—1Ch 2:47.

GESHEM

(Geʹshem) [possibly, Downpour; Pouring Rain].

An Arabian, who, along with Sanballat and Tobiah, opposed Nehemiah in the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s wall. These enemies first derided Nehemiah and his coworkers. (Ne 2:19) Then they conspired and plotted against Nehemiah, to no avail. (Ne 6:1-4) Finally, Sanballat sent a letter to Nehemiah, quoting Geshem’s accusation that Nehemiah and the Jews were scheming to rebel and that Nehemiah was becoming a king to them. In this, too, these enemies failed. (Ne 6:5-7) Sanballat’s quoting of Geshem in the letter seems to indicate that he was a man of influence. It may be noted that relations between the Persian court and the Arab tribes were reportedly good following Persia’s invasion of Egypt.

A dialect form of Geshem, the name Gashm, is mentioned in an inscription found in ancient Dedan, in the northern part of Arabia. The name Geshem appears in an Aramaic inscription on a silver bowl found in Egypt. The text reads: “That-which Qainu bar Gesem [Geshem], king of Qedar, brought-in-offering to [the goddess] han-ʼIlat.”​—Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1956, Vol. XV, p. 2.

GESHUR

(Geshʹur).

1. An Aramaean kingdom bordering on the Argob region of Bashan, E of the Jordan River. Its northerly neighbor was Maacath. Although Israel’s early conquests extended as far as Geshur, the region itself was not taken. (De 3:14; Jos 12:1, 4, 5; 13:13) It was to Geshur, the realm of his maternal grandfather Talmai, that Absalom fled after murdering his half brother Amnon. There he continued in banishment for three years, until he was brought back to Jerusalem by Joab. (2Sa 3:2, 3; 13:28-38; 14:23; 15:8) At a later period Geshur and Syria annexed many Israelite cities E of the Jordan.​—1Ch 2:23.

2. Domain of the Geshurites in southern Palestine, near Philistine territory. (Jos 13:2; 1Sa 27:7-11) With reference to this area, the form “Geshur” is not specifically employed.

GESHURITES

(Geshʹur·ites) [Of (Belonging to) Geshur].

1. The inhabitants of Geshur, a territory E of the Jordan.​—De 3:14; Jos 12:4, 5; 13:11, 13.

2. A people of southern Palestine residing in the vicinity of Philistine territory. (Jos 13:2) While outlawed by King Saul, David made raids on the Geshurites and other peoples dwelling in that general area.​—1Sa 27:7-11.

GESTURES

See ATTITUDES AND GESTURES.

GETHER

(Geʹther).

A descendant of Aram, son of Shem. (Ge 10:22, 23; 1Ch 1:17) Nothing certain is known concerning Gether’s descendants.