A false story, fiction, myth, an invention, falsehood; from the Greek myʹthos. Myʹthos is found at 1 Timothy 1:4; 4:7; 2 Timothy 4:4; Titus 1:14; 2 Peter 1:16.

Myʹthos is the opposite of a·leʹthei·a, “truth,” signifying the manifested, veritable essence of a matter. At Galatians 2:5 “the truth of the good news” contrasts the true teaching of the gospel with perversions of it. The apostles warned Christians against the danger of being turned away from the truth to false stories, as these had no basis in fact but were the imaginations of men. Judaism was filled with such false stories, the traditions of the elders making up the so-called oral law that came to be incorporated into the Talmud. Judaism, the leading opponent of Christianity in the first century, had been greatly influenced by pagan philosophies and teachings.

As an example of one of these false stories, consider this from the Palestinian (Jerusalem) Talmud: “R. Samuel b. Nahman in the name of R. Jonathan said: The tables [on which Moses received the Ten Commandments] were six hand-breadths long and three wide: and Moses was holding two hand-breadths, and God two, so that there were two hand-breadths interval between their fingers; and when the Israelites were adoring the calf, God sought to snatch the tables away from Moses’ hands; but Moses’ hands were so powerful that he snatched them from Him.” The story continues that then “the letters flew off” the tablets; as a result, since “the writing was sustaining them,” the tablets “became too heavy for Moses’ hands, and fell, and were broken.”​—Taʽanit, V, pp. 116, 117, translated by A. W. Greenup.

The Apocryphal writings abound in false, imaginary stories, such as the one about Daniel’s killing a great dragon with a mixture of pitch, fat, and hair (Addition to Daniel 14:22-26, Dy), and another about Tobias’ getting curative and demon-exorcising powers out of the heart, gall, and liver of a monstrous fish.​—Tobias 6:2-9, 19, Dy.

Christians to Reject Fables. At 1 Timothy 1:4, Paul instructs Christians not to pay attention to false stories. These can get Christians involved in research of no real benefit and can turn their minds away from the truth. Some of these false stories are the kind told by old women whose lives have been spent in worldly practices. They violate God’s holy, righteous standards. (1Ti 4:6, 7; Tit 1:14) The apostle Peter, at 2 Peter 1:16, makes reference to false stories (which are not only fictitious but also artfully and cunningly devised in order possibly to turn a Christian aside) and contrasts these with the true, factual account of the transfiguration, of which he was an eyewitness. (Mr 9:2) Paul, at 2 Timothy 4:3, 4, foretold that at a future time people would willingly turn aside to false stories in preference to the truth.

See CLOTH; COTTON; LINEN.

The Hebrew and Greek words for “face” (Heb., pa·nehʹ; Gr., proʹso·pon) are used in varied senses, even as is true of the English word.

The literal face, the front part of the head, is often meant. (Ge 50:1; Mt 6:16, 17; Jas 1:23) Similarly, the front or forepart of anything may be meant. (Ex 26:9; 2Sa 10:9; Eze 2:9, 10, where the Hebrew term for “face” is translated “forefront,” or “front.”) Or the reference may be to the surface (Isa 14:21; Job 38:30; Ac 17:26) or outward appearance of a thing.​—Lu 12:56; Jas 1:11.

Attitude or Position. The expressions of one’s countenance are an important index of one’s frame of mind and feelings. Therefore “face” is often used to describe the attitude of God and man under various circumstances or to denote one’s position as viewed by God or others. Some frequent usages are here presented:

‘Seeking the face’ meant to seek audience before another, as before God or before an earthly ruler, imploring favorable attention or help. (Ps 24:6; 27:8, 9; 105:4; Pr 29:26; Ho 5:15) The Hebrews spoke of ‘lifting up another’s face,’ thereby meaning ‘showing consideration for’ such one.​—1Sa 25:35; see IMPARTIALITY.

To ‘soften another’s face’ indicates an allaying of his anger or a gaining of his favor and goodwill.​—Ex 32:11; Ps 119:58.

‘Making one’s face to shine’ toward another expresses favor (Nu 6:25; compare Ps 80:7), and ‘setting a person before one’s face’ denotes favorable attention.​—Ps 41:12; compare Ps 140:13.

“Face to face” may denote intimate association or communication. Thus, Moses was privileged to have such a close relationship with God and be used so powerfully by God that he is referred to as a prophet “whom Jehovah knew face to face.” (De 34:10-12) While it is said that Moses beheld “the appearance of Jehovah” and that Jehovah spoke to him “mouth to mouth,” yet Moses never saw Jehovah’s face literally. Rather, as the context shows, it was God’s speaking through angelic spokesmen to Moses in open, verbal communication (instead of by visions or dreams) that gave the basis for such expression. (Nu 12:6-8; Ex 33:20; Ac 7:35, 38; Ga 3:19; compare Ge 32:24-30; Ho 12:3, 4.) Moses recalled to Israel that God spoke “face to face” with them, since they heard the loud voice at Sinai, though none of them actually saw Jehovah.​—De 5:4; 4:11-15; Heb 12:19.

By contrast, Jesus, in his prehuman existence, had personally been with the Father, and he pointed out that angels, spirit sons of God, also behold “the face” of God, serving in his heavenly courts. (Joh 1:18; 8:57, 58; Mt 18:10; compare Lu 1:19.) So, too, those called to be joint heirs with Christ in the heavens, in due time, see Jehovah God.​—1Jo 3:1-3.

Comparing the understanding of God’s purpose had by the early Christian congregation with the fuller understanding to be had upon receiving their heavenly reward, and then coming to comprehend the divine purpose in its entirety as prophecy is fulfilled, the apostle Paul said: “For at present we see in hazy outline by means of a metal mirror, but then it will be face to face.”​—1Co 13:12; compare 2Co 3:18; 4:6.

To say or do anything ‘to one’s face’ indicates directness, an open confrontation (De 7:10; Job 21:31) and, in an unfavorable sense, may imply audacity and disrespect. (Job 1:11; Isa 65:3) A related expression is ‘the rebuke of the face.’​—Ps 80:16.

To ‘set or direct one’s face’ has the sense of looking toward some goal, purpose, or desire (Ge 31:21; 1Ki 2:15; 2Ki 12:17), and it carries the thought of strong intention and determination. (2Ch 20:3; Da 11:16-19; Lu 9:51-53) Daniel ‘set his face to Jehovah’ in that he earnestly sought Him, looking to him for help. (Da 9:3; compare 2Co 1:11.) Strong determination is often reflected in the countenance by the firm set of the lips and jaw, as well as the steadiness of the gaze. Isaiah ‘set his face like a flint’ in his determination not to let enemy attempts turn him from his assigned ministry. (Isa 50:7) Rebellious Judeans “made their faces harder than a crag” in their obstinacy and refusal to accept correction. (Jer 5:3) On the other hand, Jehovah’s ‘setting his face against’ the violators of his righteous law meant their being rejected and condemned, resulting in calamity or death.​—Le 17:10; 20:3-6; Jer 21:10; compare 1Pe 3:12.

To ‘conceal the face’ has a variety of meanings, depending on the circumstance. Jehovah God’s concealing his face often signifies a withdrawal of his favor or his sustaining power. This may be as a consequence of the disobedience of the individual or body of persons involved, such as the nation of Israel. (Job 34:29; Ps 30:5-8; Isa 54:8; 59:2) In some cases it may denote that Jehovah refrains from revealing himself by action or reply, awaiting his own due time. (Ps 13:1-3) David’s request, “Conceal your face from my sins,” petitioned God to pardon or set aside such transgressions.​—Ps 51:9; compare Ps 10:11.

The concealing, or covering, of the face by a human or an angel may express humility or reverential fear and respect. (Ex 3:6; 1Ki 19:13; Isa 6:2) It may also be a sign of mourning. (2Sa 19:4) By contrast, Eliphaz falsely intimated that Job’s prosperity had made him arrogant, so that, in effect, he was ‘covering his face with his fattiness.’ (Job 15:27) As in Haman’s case, for another to cover one’s face could represent shamefulness and possibly doom.​—Es 7:8; compare Ps 44:15; Jer 51:51.

‘Turning the face away’ may display insulting indifference or contempt. (2Ch 29:6; Jer 2:27; 32:33) God manifests his disdain for those who reject his counsel by showing them “the back, and not the face,” in their day of disaster.​—Jer 18:17.

To ‘spit in the face’ of another was a particularly significant act of reproach or humiliation.​—Nu 12:14; De 25:9; Isa 50:6; Mt 26:67.

One’s Person or Presence. Since the face is the most distinctive part of a person, identifying him more than any other feature of the body as well as being most expressive of his personality, the word “face” at times was used metonymically for one’s own person or self. See, for example, 2 Samuel 7:9; 17:11; and Acts 3:19, where the expressions “before you” (in the phrase “from before you”), “your own person,” and “person” come from the original Hebrew or Greek words for “your face” or “face.” In other cases the face may refer to the person’s presence, as at Acts 3:13.

“The showbread” of the tabernacle is literally called the bread of the face in Hebrew (Ex 25:30), that is, it was the bread of Jehovah’s presence. This expression emphasized his closeness to the people as represented in the sanctuary.

Other Usages and Terms. The Greek term for “face” (proʹso·pon) at times denotes the “outward appearance” a person presents, by reason of wealth or poverty, high rank or lowly position, and similar things.​—Mt 22:16; 2Co 5:12; Ga 2:6.

The Hebrew word ʼaph (nose; nostrils) sometimes refers to the region of the nose and is thus rendered “face,” usually in the context of bowing. (Ge 3:19; 19:1; 48:12) The Hebrew ʽaʹyin (eye) is used in speaking of Jehovah as appearing to his people, figuratively, “face to face.”​—Nu 14:14, ftn.

[Fine Harbors].

A harbor near the city of Lasea identified with the bay on the S coast of Crete that still bears the same name in modern Greek, Kaloi Limniones. (Ac 27:7, 8) This bay is located about 8 km (5 mi) E of Cape Matala (Akra Lithinon), the southernmost point of Crete.

In about 58 C.E. the apostle Paul, as a prisoner, was sailing from Myra (on the southern coast of Asia Minor) via Cnidus en route to Rome. The more direct way from Cnidus to Rome would have been to the N of Crete. But evidently adverse winds, probably from the NW, forced the mariners to take a southerly course from Cnidus to Crete and then sail under the shelter of the island’s S coast, finally reaching Fair Havens with difficulty.​—Ac 27:5-8.

When consideration was given to leaving Fair Havens “considerable time had passed,” perhaps in waiting there for the wind to abate or because of the slow and difficult journey. It was already past the Atonement Day fast (late September or early October), and hence navigation was hazardous.​—Ac 27:9.

Paul, who had often been in dangers at sea and had personally experienced at least three previous shipwrecks (2Co 11:25, 26), wisely recommended that the boat winter at Fair Havens. (Whether his advice was inspired on this occasion is not revealed in the account.) However, the army officer, evidently in control of matters, heeded the advice of the pilot and the shipowner instead. Fair Havens was an “inconvenient” harbor for wintering; so the majority advised leaving there, and the mariners set sail for Phoenix farther down the coast. The softly blowing S wind was deceptive. Soon thereafter the ship was seized by a tempestuous wind and finally was wrecked on the coast of Malta, about 900 km (560 mi) to the W.​—Ac 27:9-15, 39-41; 28:1.

Regarding this account in Acts, James Smith writes: “It is interesting to observe how each addition to our knowledge of the scene of the narrative confirms its authenticity and accuracy. It now appears, from Mr. Brown’s observations and the late surveys, that Fair Havens is so well protected by islands, that though not equal to Lutro [thought to be Phoenix], it must be a very fair winter harbour; and that considering the suddenness, the frequency, and the violence with which gales of northerly wind spring up, and the certainty that, if such a gale sprang up in the passage from Fair Havens to Lutro, the ship must be driven off to sea, the prudence of the advice given by the master and owner was extremely questionable, and that the advice given by St. Paul may probably be supported even on nautical grounds.”​—The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, London, 1866, p. 85, ftn.

The word “faith” is translated from the Greek piʹstis, primarily conveying the thought of confidence, trust, firm persuasion. Depending on the context, the Greek word may also be understood to mean “faithfulness” or “fidelity.”​—1Th 3:7; Tit 2:10.

The Scriptures tell us: “Faith is the assured expectation of things hoped for, the evident demonstration of realities though not beheld.” (Heb 11:1) “Assured expectation” translates the Greek word hy·poʹsta·sis. This term is common in ancient papyrus business documents. It conveys the idea of something that underlies visible conditions and guarantees a future possession. In view of this, Moulton and Milligan suggest the rendering: “Faith is the title deed of things hoped for.” (Vocabulary of the Greek Testament, 1963, p. 660) The Greek word eʹleg·khos, rendered “evident demonstration,” conveys the idea of bringing forth evidence that demonstrates something, particularly something contrary to what appears to be the case. Thereby this evidence makes clear what has not been discerned before and so refutes what has only appeared to be the case. “The evident demonstration,” or evidence for conviction, is so positive or powerful that faith is said to be it.

Faith is, therefore, the basis for hope and the evidence for conviction concerning unseen realities. The entire body of truths delivered by Jesus Christ and his inspired disciples constitutes the true Christian “faith.” (Joh 18:37; Ga 1:7-9; Ac 6:7; 1Ti 5:8) Christian faith is based on the complete Word of God, including the Hebrew Scriptures, to which Jesus and the writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures frequently referred in support of their statements.

Faith is based on concrete evidence. The visible creative works testify to the existence of an invisible Creator. (Ro 1:20) The actual occurrences taking place during the ministry and earthly life of Jesus Christ identify him as the Son of God. (Mt 27:54; see JESUS CHRIST.) God’s record of providing for his earthly creatures serves as a valid basis for believing that he will surely provide for his servants, and his record as a Giver and Restorer of life lends ample evidence to the credibility of the resurrection hope. (Mt 6:26, 30, 33; Ac 17:31; 1Co 15:3-8, 20, 21) Furthermore, the reliability of God’s Word and the accurate fulfillment of its prophecies instill confidence in the realization of all of His promises. (Jos 23:14) Thus, in these many ways, “faith follows the thing heard.”​—Ro 10:17; compare Joh 4:7-30, 39-42; Ac 14:8-10.

So faith is not credulity. The person who may ridicule faith usually has faith himself in tried and trusted friends. The scientist has faith in the principles of his branch of science. He bases new experiments on past discoveries and looks for new discoveries on the basis of those things already established as true. Likewise, the farmer prepares his soil and sows the seed, expecting, as in previous years, that the seed will sprout and that the plants will grow as they receive the needed moisture and sunshine. Therefore faith in the stability of the natural laws governing the universe actually constitutes a foundation for man’s plans and activities. Such stability is alluded to by the wise writer of Ecclesiastes: “The sun also has flashed forth, and the sun has set, and it is coming panting to its place where it is going to flash forth. The wind is going to the south, and it is circling around to the north. Round and round it is continually circling, and right back to its circlings the wind is returning. All the winter torrents are going forth to the sea, yet the sea itself is not full. To the place where the winter torrents are going forth, there they are returning so as to go forth.”​—Ec 1:5-7.

In the Hebrew Scriptures, the word ʼa·manʹ and other words closely related convey the sense of trustworthiness, faithfulness, steadiness, steadfastness, being firmly established, long-lasting. (Ex 17:12; De 28:59; 1Sa 2:35; 2Sa 7:16; Ps 37:3) One related noun (ʼemethʹ) usually denotes “truth,” but also “faithfulness” or “trustworthiness.” (2Ch 15:3, ftn; 2Sa 15:20; compare Ne 7:2, ftn.) The familiar term “Amen” (Heb., ʼa·menʹ) also comes from ʼa·manʹ.​—See AMEN.

Ancient Examples of Faith. Each one of the “so great a cloud of witnesses” mentioned by Paul (Heb 12:1) had a valid basis for faith. For example, Abel certainly knew about God’s promise concerning a “seed” that would bruise “the serpent” in the head. And he saw tangible evidences of the fulfillment of the sentence Jehovah pronounced upon his parents in Eden. Outside Eden, Adam and his family ate bread in the sweat of their face because the ground was cursed and, therefore, produced thorns and thistles. Likely Abel observed that Eve’s craving was for her husband and that Adam dominated his wife. Undoubtedly his mother commented about the pain attending her pregnancy. Then, too, the entrance to the garden of Eden was being guarded by cherubs and the flaming blade of a sword. (Ge 3:14-19, 24) All of this constituted an “evident demonstration,” giving Abel the assurance that deliverance would come through the ‘seed of promise.’ Therefore, prompted by faith, he “offered God a sacrifice,” one that proved to be of greater worth than that of Cain.​—Heb 11:1, 4.

Abraham had a firm basis for faith in a resurrection, for he and Sarah had experienced the miraculous restoration of their reproductive powers, which was, in a sense, comparable to a resurrection, allowing Abraham’s family line to continue through Sarah. Isaac was born as the result of this miracle. When told to offer up Isaac, Abraham had faith that God would resurrect his son. He based such faith on God’s promise: “It is by means of Isaac that what will be called your seed will be.”​—Ge 21:12; Heb 11:11, 12, 17-19.

Evidence for genuine conviction was also involved in the case of those who came to or who were brought to Jesus to be healed. Even if not eyewitnesses personally, they at least had heard about Jesus’ powerful works. Then, on the basis of what they saw or heard, they concluded that Jesus could heal them also. Moreover, they were acquainted with God’s Word and thus were familiar with the miracles performed by the prophets in times past. Upon hearing Jesus, some concluded that he was “The Prophet,” and others that he was “the Christ.” In view of this, it was most fitting for Jesus on occasion to say to those who were healed, “Your faith has made you well.” Had those persons not exercised faith in Jesus, they would not have approached him in the first place and, therefore, would not have received healing for themselves.​—Joh 7:40, 41; Mt 9:22; Lu 17:19.

Likewise, the great faith of the army officer who entreated Jesus in behalf of his manservant rested on evidence, on the basis of which he concluded that Jesus’ merely ‘saying the word’ would result in the healing of his manservant. (Mt 8:5-10, 13) However, we note that Jesus healed all who came to him, not requiring faith greater or less according to their disease, nor failing to heal any of these with the excuse that he could not do it because their faith was not strong enough. Jesus performed these healings as a witness, to establish faith. In his home territory, where much unfaithfulness was expressed, he chose not to perform many powerful works, not because of inability, but because the people refused to listen and were unworthy.​—Mt 13:58.

Christian Faith. To be acceptable to God, it is now necessary for one to exercise faith in Jesus Christ, and this makes possible a righteous standing with God. (Ga 2:16) Those lacking such faith are rejected by Jehovah.​—Joh 3:36; compare Heb 11:6.

Faith is not the possession of all persons, as it is a fruit of God’s spirit. (2Th 3:2; Ga 5:22) And a Christian’s faith is not static, but it grows. (2Th 1:3) Hence, the request of Jesus’ disciples, “Give us more faith,” was very appropriate, and he did provide them the foundation for increased faith. He supplied them with greater evidence and understanding on which to base their faith.​—Lu 17:5.

The entire life course of a Christian is actually governed by faith, enabling him to overcome mountainlike obstacles that would hinder his service to God. (2Co 5:7; Mt 21:21, 22) Additionally, there must be works consistent with and in display of faith, but works of the Mosaic Law are not required. (Jas 2:21-26; Ro 3:20) Trials can strengthen faith. Faith serves as a protective shield in the Christian’s spiritual warfare, helping him to overcome the Devil and be a conqueror of the world.​—1Pe 1:6, 7; Eph 6:16; 1Pe 5:9; 1Jo 5:4.

But faith cannot be taken for granted, because lack of faith is ‘the sin that so easily entangles one.’ To maintain a firm faith requires putting up a hard fight for it, resisting men who could plunge one into immorality, combating the works of the flesh, avoiding the snare of materialism, shunning faith-destroying philosophies and traditions of men, and, above all, looking “intently at the Chief Agent and Perfecter of our faith, Jesus.”​—Heb 12:1, 2; Jude 3, 4; Ga 5:19-21; 1Ti 6:9, 10; Col 2:8.

When answering the apostles’ question concerning his future presence and the conclusion of the existing system of things, Jesus Christ included a parable, or illustration, dealing with a “faithful and discreet slave.” The faithful slave’s master appointed him over his domestics, or household servants, to provide them their food. If approved at his master’s coming (evidently from some trip), the slave would be rewarded by being placed over all the master’s belongings.​—Mt 24:3, 45-51.

In the parallel illustration at Luke 12:42-48, the slave is called a steward, that is, a house manager or administrator, one placed over servants, though he is himself a servant. Such a position was often filled in ancient times by a faithful slave. (Compare Ge 24:2; also the case of Joseph at Ge 39:1-6.) In Jesus’ illustration the steward is first assigned only to the supervision and timely dispensation of the food supplies to the master’s body of attendants, or servants, and later, because of his faithful and discreet handling of this ministry, his assignment is widened out to embrace supervision of all the master’s holdings. Regarding the identification of the “master” (Gr., kyʹri·os, also rendered “lord”), Jesus had already shown that he himself occupied such a position toward his disciples, and they addressed him as such on occasion. (Mt 10:24, 25; 18:21; 24:42; Joh 13:6, 13) The question remains concerning the application of the figure of the faithful and discreet slave, or steward, and what his dispensing food to the domestics represents.

“Slave” is in the singular. This, however, does not require that the “slave” prefigure only one particular person who would be so privileged. The Scriptures contain examples of the use of a singular noun to refer to a collective group, such as when Jehovah addressed the collective group of the Israelite nation and told them: “You are my witnesses [plural], . . . even my servant [singular] whom I have chosen.” (Isa 43:10) The “antichrist” is shown to be a collective group made up of individual antichrists. (1Jo 2:​18; 2Jo 7) Similarly, the “slave” is composite. It was to be appointed in the time of the end as a channel to give out spiritual “food at the proper time.” (Mt 24:​3, 45; Lu 12:42) In the first century, Jesus set a pattern for how spiritual food would be dispensed in the Christian congregation. Just as he had distributed literal food to the crowds through the hands of a few disciples, spiritual food was to be provided through the hands of a few. (Mt 14:19; Mk 6:​41; Lu 9:​16) Jesus trained the apostles for the role they would have after Pentecost 33 C.E. as a channel in dispensing spiritual food. They were later joined by other elders to serve as a governing body in order to settle issues and to direct the preaching and teaching of the Kingdom good news. (Ac 2:​42; 8:​14; 15:1, 2, 6-​29) After the death of the apostles, a great apostasy set in. But in the time of the end​—in keeping with the pattern he set in the first century of feeding many through the hands of a few​—Jesus selected a small group of spirit-anointed men to serve as “the faithful and discreet slave,” to prepare and dispense spiritual food during his presence.

The domestics are all those who belong to the Christian congregation, both the anointed and the “other sheep,” who are fed spiritual food. (Joh 10:16) This includes the individual members making up “the faithful and discreet slave,” since they too are recipients of the food dispensed. Those who make up the faithful slave will receive expanded responsibility if they are found faithful at the master’s promised coming. When they receive their heavenly reward and become corulers with Christ, he will appoint them over “all his belongings.” Along with the rest of the 144,000, they will share Christ’s vast heavenly authority.​—Mt 24:46, 47; Lu 12:43, 44.

[Heb., nets].

Modern lexicographers believe the Hebrew term nets applies to falcons, though some consider it to embrace also hawks, which are very similar to the falcons though classified by ornithologists as in a separate “family” grouping. As a predator, eating snakes, lizards, small mammals, and other birds, “the falcon according to its kind” (“the hawk in its several species,” AT) was among those birds decreed “unclean” in the Mosaic Law.​—Le 11:16; De 14:15.

Some falcons vie with the swift as the fastest fliers of the bird family, observers crediting one falcon with a diving speed of 290 km/​hr (180 mph). Among the falcons found in Palestine is the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), a fairly common passage migrant. There are also the somewhat larger lanner falcons (Falco biarmicus), once abundant in the cliffs and rocky gorges from Mount Hermon to the Dead Sea area. Saker falcons (Falco cherrug) are occasionally seen in the western Negev.

The smaller common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), about 36 cm (14 in.) long, is also a member of the same genus as the falcon. It is abundant the year round throughout Palestine’s agricultural settlements and gardens; it even nests on larger buildings in the cities.

Job 39:26 describes the falcon’s ‘soaring up and spreading its wings to the south wind,’ and this is understood by some to refer to a southward migration (“spreads his wings to travel south,” JB), which would be true of the lesser kestrel of the falcon family and, to some extent, of the peregrine falcon. Others, however, believe that the text describes the bird as turning into the oncoming wind and, by the power of its wings, flying into it, ascending higher and higher. Falcons are said to “rise to a great height, always endeavoring to outsoar any bird of which they may be in pursuit” in order to be able to plummet down with fierce velocity upon the prey below, and in doing so they often “avail themselves of the wind, and by flying against it are borne aloft like a kite.” (Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Encyclopedia, 1931, Vol. XI, pp. 329, 330) Similarly the kestrel is sometimes called the windhover “because it hovers (stays in one place) in the air while it hunts. This bird faces into the wind and beats its wings while watching the ground for prey.”​—The World Book Encyclopedia, 1987, Vol. 11, p. 237.

The falcon held a very prominent place in the religion of Egypt. It became the symbol of Horus, the falcon-headed god of Egypt, who, together with Isis and Osiris, formed the principal trinity or “holy family” among Egypt’s gods and goddesses. The falcon symbol was always used in writing the title of the Pharaohs, and in some cases, these rulers were considered to be incarnations of Horus. Of the hundreds of mummified birds found in Egypt, the falcon, particularly the kestrel, is among the most numerous. Herodotus said that anyone killing a falcon in Egypt, even though accidentally, was put to death.

See PROPHET.

The Hebrew term mish·pa·chahʹ (family), in addition to referring to a household, also means, by extension, a tribe, people, or nation. The Greek word pa·tri·aʹ also is broad in its scope. Jehovah God is the originator of the family arrangement. He is the Father of his heavenly family and the one to whom ‘all the families on earth owe their name.’ (Eph 3:14, 15) This is so because Jehovah established the first human family, and by this means he purposed that the earth be filled. Additionally, He permitted Adam, though a sinner, to have a family and have children “in his likeness, in his image.” (Ge 5:3) In the Bible, Jehovah has since made clear that He accords great importance to the divinely granted power of procreation, the means by which a man can carry on his name and family line in the earth.​—Ge 38:8-10; De 25:5, 6, 11, 12.

Structure and Conservation of Family. In ancient Hebrew society the family was the basic unit. The family was a small government; the father as head was responsible to God, and the mother was the subordinate manager over the children in the household. (Ac 2:29; Heb 7:4) The family was, in a small way, a reflection of the grand family of God. God is represented in the Bible as a husband, with the “Jerusalem above” as the mother of his children.​—Ga 4:26; compare Isa 54:5.

The family in patriarchal times may be compared in some respects to the modern corporation. There were some things owned by family members as personal. But, for the most part, the property was held in common, with the father managing its disposal. A wrong committed by a member of the family was considered as a wrong against the family itself, especially its head. It brought reproach on him, and he was responsible, as the judge of the household, to take the necessary action on the matter.​—Ge 31:32, 34; Le 21:9; De 22:21; Jos 7:16-25.

Monogamy was the original standard Jehovah set for the family. Although polygamy was later practiced, polygamy was always against the original principle that God laid down. However, he tolerated it until his due time to restore his original standard, which he has done in the Christian congregation. (1Ti 3:2; Ro 7:2, 3) Under the Law covenant he recognized the existence of polygamy and regulated it so that the family unit was still kept intact and operative. But it was Jehovah himself who said: “That is why a man will leave his father and his mother and he must stick to his wife and they must become one flesh.” And it was his Son who quoted these words and went on to say: “So that they are no longer two, but one flesh. Therefore, what God has yoked together let no man put apart.” (Ge 2:24; Mt 19:4-6) The record indicates that Adam had only one wife, who became “the mother of everyone living.” (Ge 3:20) Noah’s three sons, who began the repopulation of the earth after the global Flood, were all sons of one father and one mother, and each son passed through the Flood with but one wife.​—Ge 8:18; 9:1; 1Pe 3:20.

Under the Law Covenant. In giving the Ten Commandments to Israel, God gave attention to the integrity of the family unit. “Honor your father and your mother” is the fifth commandment, the first commandment with a promise. (De 5:16; Eph 6:2) A child rebellious against his parents was as one rebellious against the governmental arrangement established by God as well as against God himself. If he struck or cursed his father or mother, or if he proved to be incorrigibly unmanageable, he was to be put to death. (Ex 21:15, 17; Le 20:9; De 21:18-21) Children were to have proper fear of their parents, and a child who treated his father or mother with contempt was cursed.​—Le 19:3; De 27:16.

The seventh commandment, “You must not commit adultery,” outlawed any sexual union of a married person with another outside the marriage bond. (Ex 20:14) All children were to be family born. An illegitimate son was not recognized, nor were his descendants allowed to become members of the congregation of Israel even to the tenth generation.​—De 23:2.

While the seventh commandment, in forbidding adultery, served to safeguard the family unit, the tenth commandment, by forbidding wrong desires, further protected the integrity of one’s own family as well as the other man’s house and family. The things most common to family life were protected by this commandment, namely, house, wife, servants, animals, and other property.​—Ex 20:17.

Under the Law a careful record of genealogies was kept. Family integrity was even more greatly emphasized by the matter of ancestral land inheritance. Genealogies were especially important in the family line of Judah and, later on, in the lineage of Judah’s descendant David. Because of the promise that the Messiah the King would come through these families, the record of family relationship was zealously guarded. And even though polygamy was not abolished by the Law, the family integrity was protected and its genealogy was kept intact by strict laws governing polygamy. In no way was looseness or promiscuity legally tolerated. Sons born of polygamy or concubinage were legitimate, full-fledged sons of the father.​—See CONCUBINE.

The Law specifically prohibited marriage alliances with the seven Canaanite nations that were to be ousted from the land. (De 7:1-4) Because of failing to observe this command, the nation of Israel was ensnared in the worship of false gods and finally brought into captivity by their enemies. Solomon is an outstanding example of one who sinned in this respect. (Ne 13:26) Ezra and Nehemiah undertook energetic reforms among those of the repatriated Israelites who were contaminating their families and Israel itself by marriage to foreign wives.​—Ezr 9:1, 2; 10:11; Ne 13:23-27.

When God sent his only-begotten Son to earth he caused him to be born into a human family. He provided that he have a God-fearing adoptive father and a loving mother. Jesus as a child was subject to his parents and respected and obeyed them. (Lu 2:40, 51) Even when he was dying on the torture stake he showed respect and loving care for his mother, who was apparently then a widow, when he said to her: “Woman, see! Your son!” and to the disciple whom he loved: “See! Your mother!” thereby evidently directing this disciple to care for her in his own home.​—Joh 19:26, 27.

How does the Bible indicate the importance of the family in the Christian congregation?

In the Christian congregation the family is recognized as the basic unit of Christian society. Much space is devoted in the Christian Greek Scriptures to instructions regarding family relationship. Again the man is dignified with the headship of the family, the wife being in subjection to her husband, managing the household under his general oversight. (1Co 11:3; 1Ti 2:11-15; 5:14) Likening Jesus to the husband and family head over his congregational ‘wife,’ Paul admonishes husbands to exercise headship in love, and he counsels wives to respect and subject themselves to their husbands. (Eph 5:21-33) Children are commanded to obey their parents, and fathers particularly are charged with the responsibility of bringing up the children in the discipline and mental-regulating of Jehovah.​—Eph 6:1-4.

The man used as an overseer in the Christian congregation, if married, must exhibit high standards as a family head, presiding properly and having his children in subjection, these not being unruly or charged with debauchery, for, asks Paul: “If indeed any man does not know how to preside over his own household, how will he take care of God’s congregation?” the congregation being similar to a family. (1Ti 3:2-5; Tit 1:6) Wives are exhorted to love their husbands and children, to be workers at home, and to subject themselves to their own husbands.​—Tit 2:4, 5.

Jesus foretold that opposition to God’s truth would split families. (Mt 10:32-37; Lu 12:51-53) But the apostle Paul strongly admonished believers against breaking up the marriage relationship, appealing on the basis of the welfare of the unbelieving mate as well as of the children. He stressed the great value of the family relationship when he pointed out that God views the young children as holy, even though the unbelieving mate has not been cleansed from his sins by faith in Christ. The unbeliever may, in fact, be practicing some of the same things that Paul says some Christians had practiced before accepting the good news about the Christ. (1Co 7:10-16; 6:9-11) The apostle also guards the unity of the Christian family by giving instructions to husbands and wives regarding the rendering of marriage dues.​—1Co 7:3-5.

Association in family relationships proved to be a blessing to many in connection with Christianity, “for, wife, how do you know but that you will save your husband? Or, husband, how do you know but that you will save your wife?” (1Co 7:16) This is also evidenced by the contents of the apostle Paul’s greetings to several households. Some believers were privileged to use the family home as a place for the congregation to meet. (Ro 16:1-15) The Christian missionary Philip was a family man, having four faithful Christian daughters. He was blessed by being able to entertain the apostle Paul and his fellow workers for a time in his home in Caesarea. (Ac 21:8-10) The Christian congregation itself is termed “God’s household.” Its principal member and head is Jesus Christ, and this “household” recognizes him as the Seed by means of whom all the families of the earth will bless themselves.​—1Ti 3:15; Eph 2:19; Col 1:17, 18; Ge 22:18; 28:14.

The inspired Scriptures have foretold a vicious attack on the family institution with a consequent breaking down of morality and of human society outside the Christian congregation. Paul classifies among demon-inspired doctrines in “later periods of time” that of “forbidding to marry.” He foretells for “the last days” a condition in which disobedience to parents, disloyalty, and absence of “natural affection” would be rife, even among those “having a form of godly devotion.” He warns Christians to turn away from such ones.​—1Ti 4:1-3; 2Ti 3:1-5.

Babylon the Great, the enemy of God’s “woman” (Ge 3:15; Ga 4:27) and of Christ’s “bride” (Re 21:9), is a great “harlot” organization, committing fornication with the kings of the earth. Being “the mother of the harlots and of the disgusting things of the earth” indicates that her “daughters” are harlots, also that she causes great disregard for Jehovah God’s institutions and commandments, including his requirements that contribute to family integrity. (Re 17:1-6) She has made efforts to induce others to harlotry and has succeeded in producing many ‘harlot’ daughters, with attempts being made to prevent Christ from having a clean “bride.” Nevertheless, his “bride” comes through victorious, clean, righteous, worthy of being in Jehovah’s “family” as the “wife” of Jesus Christ, to the blessing and rejoicing of all the universe.​—2Co 11:2, 3; Re 19:2, 6-8; see MARRIAGE and other family relationships under their respective names.

An extreme food shortage; also, a scarcity of hearing the words of Jehovah, that is, a spiritual famine. (Am 8:11) Famine is one of the plagues to come upon symbolic Babylon the Great.​—Re 18:8.

Causes and Effects of Famines. Drought, destructive hailstorms (Ex 9:23-25), pests, scorching and mildew of crops, as well as war, were among the common causes of famine in Bible times. (Am 4:7-10; Hag 2:17) Locusts, sometimes coming in huge hordes, were especially devastating to crops. (Ex 10:15) Sometimes the problem was not lack of rain, but rain at the wrong season, as during the wheat or barley harvest.​—Compare Le 26:4; 1Sa 12:17, 18.

Temporary hunger is a natural sensation, but prolonged hunger, as by famine, is very detrimental to mental and physical health. Marked lethargy sets in, the emotions are dulled, and there is mental apathy. The mind is dominated by a desire for food. (Compare Ex 16:3.) Moral standards fall. (Compare Isa 8:21.) Actual starvation may have a dehumanizing effect, resulting in theft, murder, and even cannibalism. Famine is often accompanied by sickness and epidemics because of the weakened condition of those affected.​—Compare De 32:24.

Ancient Famines. The first truly historical famine is the one that forced Abram (Abraham) to leave Canaan and take up alien residence in Egypt. (Ge 12:10) In Isaac’s day another famine occurred, but Jehovah told him not to go to Egypt. (Ge 26:1, 2) The seven-year famine that came upon Egypt while Joseph served as prime minister and food administrator evidently reached far beyond the boundaries of Egypt, for “people of all the earth came to Egypt to buy [food] from Joseph.”​—Ge 41:54-57.

While the Egyptian inscriptions scrupulously avoid any reference to Israel’s sojourn in Egypt, there are ancient Egyptian texts that describe periods of famine due to insufficient rising of the Nile River. One text describes a period of seven years of low Nile risings and the resulting famine. According to the account, certain portions of land were granted to the priesthood when relief from the famine came. Although the question is raised as to whether the document is “a priestly forgery of some late period, justifying their claim to territorial privileges,” at least we see reflected a tradition of a period of seven lean years.​—Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 31.

Before Israel entered the Promised Land, Jehovah, through Moses, assured them that they would have an abundance of food if they continued serving Him in faithfulness. (De 28:11, 12) However, famine would be one of the fearful results to come upon Israel for unfaithfulness. (De 28:23, 38-42) A famine in the days of the Judges prompted Naomi’s husband Elimelech of Bethlehem to reside with his family as an alien in Moab. (Ru 1:1, 2) Jehovah brought a three-year famine upon the land of Israel in David’s day because of bloodguilt resting on the house of Saul in connection with the Gibeonites. (2Sa 21:1-6) A three-and-a-half-year drought resulting in severe famine came upon unfaithful Israel in answer to Elijah’s prayer. (Jas 5:17; 1Ki 17) In addition to general famines in Elisha’s day, there was the famine produced by the Syrian siege of Samaria, during which one case of cannibalism was reported.​—2Ki 4:38; 8:1; 6:24-29.

Although God’s prophets warned that apostasy would bring death by famine, pestilence, and the sword, the unfaithful Judeans preferred to listen to their false prophets, who assured them that no such calamity would come. (Jer 14:11-18; Eze 5:12-17) Yet the words of God’s prophets proved true. So severe was the famine in Jerusalem during the siege by the Babylonians (609-607 B.C.E.) that women boiled and ate their own children.​—La 4:1-10; 5:10; 2Ki 25:1-3; Jer 52:4-6; compare De 28:51-53.

Through the prophet Joel, Jehovah forewarned Israel of a tremendous plague of insects that would devastate the land and bring about severe famine prior to the coming of “the day of Jehovah.”​—Joe 1.

Centuries later, food shortages were foretold by Jesus as being among the characteristics marking the conclusion of “the system of things.” (Mt 24:3, 7; compare Re 6:5, 6.) As announced in advance by Agabus, a Christian prophet, a great famine did occur in the time of Emperor Claudius (41-54 C.E.). (Ac 11:28) A few years earlier, in the year 42 C.E., a severe famine had hit Egypt, where many Jews resided. And “great necessity” came on Judea and Jerusalem when the Roman armies under General Titus besieged Jerusalem and finally destroyed it in 70 C.E. (Lu 21:23) Josephus recounts the terrible starvation conditions in the city, in which people resorted to the eating of leather, grass, and hay, and in one instance, a mother even roasted and ate her son. (The Jewish War, VI, 193-213 [iii, 3, 4]) When foretelling such food shortages, however, Jesus indicated that he had in mind not only events preceding Jerusalem’s destruction but also what would occur when the time arrived for the Son of man to return in the glory of his Kingdom.​—Lu 21:11, 27, 31; compare Re 6:5, 6.

Freedom From Famine. Christ Jesus gives assurance that the prayer of faithful servants for their daily bread would be answered by God and that those putting God’s Kingdom first would be cared for. (Mt 6:11, 33; compare Ps 33:19; 37:19, 25.) However, because of opposition and persecution, Jesus showed that his servants might suffer hunger at times. (Mt 25:35, 37, 40) The apostle Paul in particular recounts his suffering both hunger and thirst many times while engaged in the ministry under difficult circumstances. (1Co 4:11-13; 2Co 11:27; Php 4:12) Yet he expressed confidence that physical hunger would never be able to separate God’s faithful servants from the sustaining strength of God’s love.​—Ro 8:35, 38, 39; contrast Lu 6:25.

Those who have a proper hunger and thirst for righteousness and truth will always be spiritually filled. (Mt 5:6; Joh 6:35) This includes those of the “great crowd” who have hope of surviving “the great tribulation” and of whom it is written that “they will hunger no more nor thirst anymore.” (Re 7:9, 13-17) And under the rule of God’s Kingdom there will also come to be an abundance to satisfy the physical hunger of all mankind.​—Ps 72:16; Isa 25:6.

See AGRICULTURE.

Although the Bible mentions various agricultural operations, the implements that were used to cultivate the land are not described in detail. However, the pictures of farm implements on Egyptian monuments as well as actual specimens found in Egypt and Palestine supplement the Bible record to some extent. Moreover, there is great similarity between the simple farming implements still used in parts of Egypt and Palestine.

Forks used for winnowing (Isa 30:24; Jer 15:7), as in more recent times, were probably made of wood and had several curved prongs.

The harrow is not referred to in the Bible, but the agricultural operation of harrowing is mentioned as being distinct from plowing. (Job 39:10; Isa 28:24; Ho 10:11) Pulverizing and smoothing the soil constitute the chief function of the modern harrow, though it is also used for mulching, covering seed, and removing weeds. Anciently, perhaps a weighted-down board or a rough log was dragged over the plowed soil to break up the clods and level the ground.

Hoes were employed for clearing land of weeds and probably also for breaking up clods of earth. Certain prophetic passages specifically mention the use of hoes in the vineyard.​—Isa 5:5, 6; 7:23-25.

Mattocks were probably used for grubbing and for loosening the soil. They were among the tools that the Israelites in Saul’s day had to take to the Philistines to get sharpened. (1Sa 13:20, 21) Bronze and iron mattocks, somewhat resembling the modern grub hoe, have been found.

The simple wooden plow still used in some parts of the Bible lands has undergone little change over the centuries, as a comparison of representations of plows on ancient monuments and even clay tablets clearly shows. The plow was neither equipped with wheels nor designed to turn a furrow; it merely scratched the surface of the soil to a depth of about 8 or 10 cm (3 or 4 in.). Except for the metal plowshare, it was made of wood. (Compare 1Sa 13:20; 1Ki 19:19, 21; Isa 2:4.) A stick, to which the plowshare was attached, constituted the larger part of the plow. The copper and bronze plowshares (actually plowpoints) that have been found in excavations in Israel are generally dented considerably from use.​—See PLOWING.

Pruning shears are specifically mentioned in the Bible with reference to pruning the vine. (Isa 18:5) Since the Scriptures refer to converting spears into pruning shears and, by contrast, pruning shears into lances, this tool perhaps consisted of a sharp knifelike blade fastened to a handle and may have been similar to a sickle.​—Isa 2:4; Joe 3:10.

Sickles were used mainly for reaping standing grain, though the Bible also speaks of thrusting in the sickle to harvest the vine. (Joe 3:13; Re 14:18) The sickles that have been found in Israel are slightly curved. Some specimens consist of notched flint chips that were pieced together and set with bitumen into a frame of either wood or bone. Iron sickle blades have also been found, and these were fastened to a handle by means of rivets, a tang, or a socket.

The threshing sledge was designed to separate the kernels from the ears of grain. The implement used in ancient times likely resembled the two types still employed in some parts of the Bible lands today. One consists of wooden planks joined together and bent back at the front. Its underside is equipped with sharp stones or knives. (Compare 1Ch 21:23; Job 41:30; Isa 41:15.) The driver stands on the sledge to weight it down. The other type has a seat for the driver and consists of a low-built, four-cornered wagon frame. Two or three parallel revolving rollers equipped with iron strips are fitted into this frame.​—Compare Isa 28:27, 28.

Winnowing shovels, probably made of wood, were used for tossing threshed grain into the air so that the wind would blow the straw and chaff away.​—Mt 3:12.

Abstinence from all food for a limited period. Rightly motivated fasts were to show godly sorrow and repentance concerning past sins. (1Sa 7:6; Joe 2:12-15; Jon 3:5) They were also fitting in the face of great danger, when in sore need of divine guidance, while enduring tests and meeting temptations, or when studying, meditating, or concentrating on God’s purposes. (2Ch 20:3; Ezr 8:21; Es 4:3, 16; Mt 4:1, 2) Fasting was, not a self-inflicted form of punishment, but a humbling of oneself before Jehovah. (Ezr 8:21; 9:5; compare 1Ki 21:27-29.) Jesus fasted 40 days, as did Moses and Elijah, both of whom appeared in a visionary way with Jesus at his transfiguration.​—Mt 17:1-9; Ex 34:28; De 9:9; 1Ki 19:7, 8.

The Mosaic Law does not use the term “fast,” but in connection with the Day of Atonement it does command, “You must afflict your souls.” (Le 16:29-31; 23:27; Nu 29:7) This is generally understood to mean fasting, and this view is supported by Isaiah 58:3, 5 and Psalm 35:13.

Isaiah chapter 58 deals with a time when the sins of the Jews were heavy; yet they did not sincerely repent, though they made a pretense of worshiping Jehovah, giving him lip service and performing religious acts or practices for show. Fasting was one such practice, and they thought it should gain them divine notice and favor. This failing, they asked in apparent bewilderment: “For what reason did we fast and you did not see, and did we afflict our soul and you would take no note?” Jehovah told them why. Even during the fast, while asking for his righteous judgments and acting as if they carried on righteousness itself, they were pursuing their own pleasure and business, indulging in strife, oppression, and violence; they showed none of the godly sorrow and repentance associated with sincere fasts. Their fast was not such as to make their voice heard in heaven, though their showy wailings were noisy indeed. Jehovah denounced the hypocritical act they put on: “Should the fast that I choose become like this, as a day for earthling man to afflict his soul? For bowing down his head just like a rush, and that he should spread out mere sackcloth and ashes as his couch? Is it this that you call a fast and a day acceptable to Jehovah?”​—Isa 58:1-5.

To be acceptable, the fast must be accompanied by a correction of past sins. Through his prophet Isaiah, Jehovah made known what he considered to be a real fast, saying: “Is not this the fast that I choose? To loosen the fetters of wickedness, to release the bands of the yoke bar, and to send away the crushed ones free, and that you people should tear in two every yoke bar? Is it not the dividing of your bread out to the hungry one, and that you should bring the afflicted, homeless people into your house? That, in case you should see someone naked, you must cover him, and that you should not hide yourself from your own flesh?”​—Isa 58:6, 7.

Four Annual Fasts of the Jews. The Jews established many fasts, and at one time had four annual ones, evidently to mark the calamitous events associated with Jerusalem’s siege and desolation in the seventh century B.C.E. (Zec 8:19) The four annual fasts were: (1) “The fast of the fourth month” apparently commemorated the breaching of Jerusalem’s walls by the Babylonians on Tammuz 9, 607 B.C.E. (2Ki 25:2-4; Jer 52:5-7) (2) It was in the fifth Jewish month Ab that the temple was destroyed, and evidently “the fast of the fifth month” was held as a reminder of this event. (2Ki 25:8, 9; Jer 52:12, 13) (3) “The fast of the seventh month” was apparently held as a sad remembrance of Gedaliah’s death or of the complete desolation of the land following Gedaliah’s assassination when the remaining Jews, out of fear of the Babylonians, went down into Egypt. (2Ki 25:22-26) (4) “The fast of the tenth month” may have been associated with the exiled Jews already in Babylon receiving the sad news that Jerusalem had fallen (compare Eze 33:21), or it may have commemorated the commencement of Nebuchadnezzar’s successful siege against Jerusalem on the tenth day of that month, in 609 B.C.E.​—2Ki 25:1; Jer 39:1; 52:4.

When certain Jews asked: “Shall I weep in the fifth month, practicing an abstinence, the way I have done these O how many years?” by means of Zechariah, Jehovah answered: “When you fasted . . . for seventy years, did you really fast to me, even me?” God showed that a real fast to him would have been accompanied by obedience and that what he required was truthfulness, judgment, peace, and a sincere heart. Then, instead of fasting mournfully and looking back into the past, they would be able to exult and rejoice in festal seasons with the blessings of restoration of true worship and ingathering of others to Jehovah’s service.​—Zec 7:3-7; 8:16, 19, 23.

Christian Counsel on Fasting. When Jesus was on earth he gave instruction to his disciples: “When you are fasting, stop becoming sad-faced like the hypocrites, for they disfigure their faces that they may appear to men to be fasting. Truly I say to you, They are having their reward in full. But you, when fasting, grease your head and wash your face, that you may appear to be fasting, not to men, but to your Father who is in secrecy; then your Father who is looking on in secrecy will repay you.” (Mt 6:16-18) He alluded here to the insincere fasting of the Pharisees, which he mentioned in an illustration on another occasion. (Lu 18:9-14) It was customary for the Pharisees to fast twice a week, on the second and fifth days of the week.​—Lu 18:12.

A person’s merely abstaining from food in a formalistic manner is described by Paul as subjecting oneself to decrees, “Do not handle, nor taste, nor touch,” and he says that “those very things are, indeed, possessed of an appearance of wisdom in a self-imposed form of worship and mock humility, a severe treatment of the body; but they are of no value in combating the satisfying of the flesh.”​—Col 2:20-23.

Fasting has been enjoined on their members by some religious sects of Christendom, but the Bible itself gives no command to Christians to fast. When Jesus was talking to his disciples about fasting, as above (Mt 6:16-18), he and his disciples were still under the Mosaic Law and observed the Day of Atonement and its fast.

The text about fasting at Matthew 17:21, appearing in the King James Version, is not contained in some of the most important ancient manuscripts. Likewise, although the King James Version mentions fasting at Mark 9:29, Acts 10:30, and 1 Corinthians 7:5, according to such manuscripts these texts do not contain any references to fasting.

Some have taken Matthew 9:15 as a command for Christians to fast. In reality, Jesus was merely making a statement of what was going to happen when he died. While Jesus was with his disciples on earth, it was not appropriate for them to fast. When he died, they did mourn and fast. But they had no cause for mournful fasting after his resurrection and especially after the marvelous outpouring of holy spirit. (Mr 2:18-20; Lu 5:33-35) Certainly Christians were not under obligation to fast on the anniversary of the Lord’s death, for the apostle Paul, correcting abuses in connection with the eating of supper at the congregation’s meeting place before the observance of the Lord’s Evening Meal, said: “Certainly you do have houses for eating and drinking, do you not? . . . Consequently, my brothers, when you come together to eat it [the Lord’s Evening Meal], wait for one another. If anyone is hungry, let him eat at home, that you may not come together for judgment.”​—1Co 11:22, 33, 34.

While not fasting as a religious requirement, the early Christians did fast on special occasions. When Barnabas and Paul were sent on a special missionary assignment into Asia Minor, there was fasting as well as praying. Also, there was the offering of prayer “with fastings” when elders were appointed in a new congregation. (Ac 13:2, 3; 14:23) Hence, Christians are neither under command to fast nor prohibited from doing so.​—Ro 14:5, 6.

The English word “fat” is used to translate various Hebrew words that describe not only the substance called fat but also that which is full-fleshed and plump. These terms may also be used in a figurative sense to express that which is rich or fertile (just as in the English expression “fat of the land”) or to convey the idea of insensibility or dullness of mind and heart.

Cheʹlev is ordinarily used to refer to the substance “fat,” either of animals (Le 3:3) or of men (Jg 3:22). The “suet,” or hard fat about the kidneys or loins, in the burnt offerings is also expressed by another word, peʹdher. (Le 1:8, 12; 8:20) Cheʹlev first appears at Genesis 4:4 in connection with Abel’s sacrifice to Jehovah of “fatty pieces” from the firstlings of his flock. Most references to cheʹlev thereafter simply relate to sacrificing. Cheʹlev is also used metaphorically for the best or richest part of anything. For instance, at Genesis 45:18, Pharaoh tells Joseph that his family is welcome to eat “the fat part of the land.” Thus, too, Numbers 18:12 reads: “All the best [cheʹlev] of the oil and all the best [cheʹlev] of the new wine and the grain . . . I have given them to you.”​—See Ps 81:16; 147:14.

The Law Regarding Fat. In the third chapter of Leviticus, Jehovah gave the Israelites instructions concerning the use of fat in communion sacrifices. When offering cattle or goats, they were to make the fat around the loins and intestines and that over the kidneys, as well as the fatty appendage upon the liver, smoke upon the altar. In the case of sheep, the entire fatty tail likewise was to be offered. (The sheep of Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and Egypt have fat tails, often weighing 5 kg [11 lbs] or more.) The Law specifically said, “All the fat belongs to Jehovah . . . You must not eat any fat or any blood at all.”​—Le 3:3-17.

Fat would burn fiercely and would be quite thoroughly consumed upon the altar. Any fat offered on the altar was not to be left over until the next morning; it was likely to corrupt and become offensive, something very unseemly for any part of the sacred offerings.​—Ex 23:18.

Not incumbent on Christians. After the Flood, when permission was given to Noah and his family to add flesh to their diet, nothing was stated regarding fat. (Ge 9:3, 4) However, the eating of blood was prohibited. This was more than 850 years before the Law covenant, with its prohibitions against the eating of both blood and fat, was made with Israel. In the first century C.E. the governing body of the Christian congregation confirmed the prohibition against blood as remaining in force for Christians. (Ac 15:20, 28, 29) As in the case with Noah and his family, however, nothing was stated concerning the eating of fat by Christians. Thus, the law against eating fat was given only to the nation of Israel.

Reason for the law. Under the Law covenant, both the blood and fat were looked upon as exclusively Jehovah’s. The blood contains the life, which only Jehovah can give; therefore it belongs to him. (Le 17:11, 14) The fat was viewed as the richest part of the flesh of the animal. The offering of the fat of the animal would evidently be in recognition of the fact that the best parts belong to Jehovah, who provides abundantly, and it would demonstrate the desire of the worshiper to offer the best to God. Because it was symbolic of the Israelites’ devotion of their best to Jehovah, it was said to smoke upon the altar as “food” and for “a restful odor” to him. (Le 3:11, 16) To eat fat, therefore, was an illegal appropriation of what was sanctified to God, an invasion of the rights of Jehovah. Eating fat would incur the death penalty. Unlike blood, however, fat could be used for other purposes, at least in the case of an animal that died of itself or was killed by another beast.​—Le 7:23-25.

Extent of the law’s application. Because of this latter text, many commentators have sought to limit the prohibition of Leviticus 3:17 only to the fat of those kinds of animals that were acceptable for offering in sacrifice, such as bulls, sheep, and goats. Rabbinic Jewish teaching is divided on this subject. However, the injunction on fat at Leviticus 3:17 is linked with the one regarding the eating of blood, a law that clearly included the blood of all animals. (Compare Le 17:13; De 12:15, 16.) It seems more consistent, therefore, that the law on fat should also have embraced the fat of all animals, including those killed for the Israelites’ common use.

The view that the prohibition applied to all fat is not controverted by the text at Deuteronomy 32:14, which speaks of Jehovah as giving Israel “fat of rams” to eat. This is a figurative expression referring to the best of the flock, or as The Jerusalem Bible renders the phrase, “rich food of the pastures.” (See also Da ftn and Kx.) This poetic sense is indicated by later portions of the same verse referring to “the kidney fat of wheat” and “the blood of the grape.” So, too, with Nehemiah 8:10, where the people are commanded, “Go, eat the fatty things,” we are not to conclude that they literally consumed whole fat. “Fatty things” refers to rich portions, things not skinny or dry, but luscious, including tasty items prepared with vegetable oils. Thus, Knox’ translation here reads “regale yourselves with rich meat,” while Moffatt’s translation says “eat the dainty pieces.”

The Mosaic Law restriction did not prevent the feeding or fattening of sheep or cattle for the table. We read of the “fattened young bull” slaughtered for the prodigal son. (Lu 15:23) Solomon’s food included “fattened cuckoos” and cattle. (1Ki 4:23) The Hebrew ʽe·ghel-mar·beqʹ, translated “fattened calf,” occurs at 1 Samuel 28:24; meʹach and meriʼʹ refer to a ‘well-fed animal’ or a ‘fatling.’ (Isa 5:17; Eze 39:18) However, this does not mean that this ‘fattening’ was for the purpose of producing suet or layers of fat; rather, the sense again is that the animals became full-fleshed (“beefy”), not skinny.​—Compare Ge 41:18, 19.

Other Hebrew Terms. Among the Hebrew terms used to describe anything in a “fat” condition are those derived from the root verb sha·menʹ. While meaning “grow fat” (De 32:15; Jer 5:28), it also conveys the thought of being “robust.” Sha·menʹ appears at Isaiah 6:10, where the King James Version reads “make the heart of this people fat,” that is, unresponsive and dull, as if their hearts were enveloped in fat. Judges 3:29 describes certain Moabites as “every one robust [sha·menʹ, literally, “fat”] and every one a valiant man.” The related sheʹmen is usually translated “oil.”

‘Thriving’ may be the thought behind the verb da·shenʹ, also used literally to mean “grow fat.” If that is the case, da·shenʹ (and the related deʹshen) would imply prosperity, fertility, or abundance. Jehovah told Israel that he would bring them to a land “which flows with milk and honey, and they will certainly eat and be satisfied and grow fat [wedha·shenʹ].” (De 31:20) We are told that those who are generous, diligent, and reliant on Jehovah “will be made fat,” that is, prosper abundantly. (Pr 11:25; 13:4; 28:25) At Proverbs 15:30 good news is said to ‘make the bones fat,’ or fill them with marrow​—in other words, the whole body is invigorated. The noun deʹshen also reflects this idea of affluence, as at Psalm 36:8, where the sons of men are said to “drink their fill of the fatness [mid·deʹshen; “abundance,” RS]” of God’s house.​—Compare Jer 31:14.

The noun deʹshen is also rendered “ashes” by many translators, as when referring to the wastes from the tabernacle’s altar of sacrifice. (Le 1:16; 4:12; 6:10, 11, KJ, JB, RS) To other scholars, however, “ashes” does not fully reflect the original-language root. They, therefore, prefer such terms as “fat-ashes” (Ro), or “fatty ashes” (NW), reasoning that the term indicates that the hot fat from the sacrifices soaked the burnt firewood below.

The idea of being well fed and healthy is expressed by the word ba·riʼʹ. It is translated “plump” (Eze 34:3, 20) and “healthful” (Hab 1:16), though it may also be rendered as “fat” in describing men, cattle, and grain.​—Ge 41:2, 7; Jg 3:17.

The Hebrew word ʼav, translated “father,” is a mimetic (imitative) word taken from the first and simplest sounds of infant lips. The Hebrew ʼav and the Greek pa·terʹ are both used in various senses: as begetter, or progenitor, of an individual (Pr 23:22; Zec 13:3; Lu 1:67), the head of a household or ancestral family (Ge 24:40; Ex 6:14), an ancestor (Ge 28:13; Joh 8:53), a founder of a nation (Mt 3:9), a founder of a class or profession (Ge 4:20, 21), a protector (Job 29:16; Ps 68:5), the source of something (Job 38:28), and a term of respect (2Ki 5:13; Ac 7:2).

Jehovah God as Creator is called Father. (Isa 64:8; compare Ac 17:28, 29.) He is also the Father of spirit-begotten Christians, the Aramaic term ʼAb·baʼʹ being used as an expression of respect and of close filial relationship. (Ro 8:15; see ABBA.) All who express faith with a hope of everlasting life can address God as Father. (Mt 6:9) Jesus Christ, the Messiah, because of being God’s Chief Agent of life, was prophetically called Eternal Father. (Isa 9:6) Also, anyone who has imitators and followers, or those who exhibit his qualities, is regarded as a father to them. (Mt 5:44, 45; Ro 4:11, 12) In this sense the Devil is spoken of as a father.​—Joh 8:44; compare Ge 3:15.

Applying “father” to men as a formalistic or religious title was forbidden by Jesus. (Mt 23:9) Because of Paul’s bringing the good news to certain Christians and nourishing them spiritually he was like a father to them, but in no scripture is “father” applied to him as a religious title. (1Co 4:14, 15) Paul likened himself to both a father and a mother in his relation to the Thessalonian Christians. (1Th 2:7, 11) Whereas reference is made at Luke 16:24, 30 to “father Abraham,” this is basically in the sense of fleshly ancestry.

Father’s Authority and Responsibilities. As described in the Bible, the father was the head of the household, being guardian, protector, the one making final decisions, and the judge of the family group. (1Co 11:3; Ge 31:32) Among the patriarchs and in Israel before the selection of the Levitical priesthood, the father took the lead in representing his family in worship as a priest. (Ge 12:8; Job 1:5; Ex 19:22) The father had authority over his household until his death. If the son married and set up an independent household, then he became head over it, although due respect was still shown toward the father. When a daughter married, she came under the headship of her husband. (Nu 30:3-8) In Bible times the father usually arranged for the marriage of his children. If he came into dire financial straits, he could sell his daughter into slavery, with certain restrictions for her protection.​—Ex 21:7.

Fatherly Concern for the Family Members. As God’s representative, the father is responsible to see that God’s principles are taught to his household. (Ge 18:19; Eph 6:4; De 6:6, 7) His teaching and disciplinary duties also include personal instructions and commands, which the mother assists in carrying out. (Pr 1:8; 6:20) The God-fearing father has great love for his children and exhorts and consoles them with great tenderness. (1Th 2:11; Ho 11:3) So that they might walk in the right way, he disciplines, corrects, and reproves them. (Heb 12:9; Pr 3:12) He finds pleasure in his sons, and especially does he rejoice when they display wisdom. (Pr 10:1) On the other hand, he is deeply grieved and vexed by a course of stupidity on the part of his children. (Pr 17:21, 25) He is to be compassionate and merciful. (Mal 3:17; Ps 103:13) He is to be considerate of their needs and requests. (Mt 7:9-11) A pattern for human fathers is provided in the many descriptions of God’s love and care for his people.

Genealogical Use of Father’s Name. Ancestry of a man was customarily traced back through the father, not through the mother. Thus, whereas there seems to be sound reason for believing that Luke presents Jesus’ genealogy through his mother (an exception to the general rule), Luke does not list her. Apparently he lists her husband Joseph as the son of Heli, evidently Mary’s father. This would not be improper in the least, since Joseph would be Heli’s son-in-law.​—See GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST.

In the absence of family names (surnames), a man was regularly distinguished by being referred to as the son of “So-and-so.” For example, Isaac was called “the son of Abraham.” (Ge 25:19) Many Hebrew names included the Hebrew ben or Aramaic bar, “son,” followed by the name of the father as a surname, such as “Ben-hur” (1Ki 4:8, RS; “the son of Hur,” NW) and “Simon Bar-jonah,” or “Simon son of Jonah.”​—Mt 16:17, KJ, NW.

In the Hebrew Scriptures, the word cham designates the husband’s father (Ge 38:13, 25; 1Sa 4:19, 21), and its feminine form, cha·mohthʹ, the husband’s mother (the wife’s mother-in-law).​—Ru 1:14; Mic 7:6.

The Hebrew verb cha·thanʹ means “form a marriage alliance.” (De 7:3; 1Sa 18:20-27; 1Ki 3:1; 2Ch 18:1) The father-in-law on the bride’s side, the wife’s father, is designated by a masculine participial form of cha·thanʹ. Its feminine participial form refers to mother-in-law.​—De 27:23.

Because an engaged couple were considered as bound although the couple had not yet come together in marriage, the woman was spoken of as the man’s wife. (Jg 14:20) Therefore, the man was called “son-in-law” (a noun drawn from cha·thanʹ being used) regardless of whether the marriage alliance had been fully consummated (Jg 19:5; 1Sa 22:14; Ne 6:18; 13:28) or was only contemplated, as in the case of Lot’s “sons-in-law.” (Ge 19:12, 14; compare Jg 15:6.) Lot’s daughters were only betrothed; otherwise they would most likely have been with their husbands and not living in their father’s house. That the two men were only prospective, not actual, sons-in-law (engaged to Lot’s daughters but not as yet married to them) is indicated by the Hebrew, which allows for the rendering: “[Lot’s] sons-in-law who were to take [or, were intending to take] his daughters.”​—Ge 19:14, NW; Ro; compare JB; Mo; RS.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures, pen·the·rosʹ is translated “father-in-law” (Joh 18:13); the feminine form, pen·the·raʹ, is rendered “mother-in-law.”​—Mt 8:14; 10:35; Mr 1:30; Lu 4:38; 12:53; see DAUGHTER-IN-LAW.

With no man in the house to support them and to protect their interests, the fatherless boy, or orphan, and the widow might more easily become subject to oppression and difficulties. Their welfare was, therefore, provided for under the Law, which ensured justice for the fatherless boy, the widow, and the alien resident and also included provisions for their sustenance. (Ex 22:22-24; De 24:17) Gleanings left in the field, on the olive tree, and in the vineyard were available to these poor ones. (De 24:19-21) A special invitation was extended to them to participate in the bounteous yearly Festival of Ingathering (Festival of Booths), during which they could enjoy the feasting that accompanied the celebration. (De 16:9-14) Every third year the special tithe that the Israelites normally ate at Jerusalem was deposited within the gates of their home cities. From this tithe the fatherless boy was legally entitled to a portion.​—De 14:28, 29; 26:12, 13.

How important is loving concern for orphans among God’s servants?

Since it was easy to lose sight of these bereaved and defenseless ones, Jehovah used the expression “fatherless boy” in describing the degree of Israel’s righteousness or of its deviation therefrom. When the nation was enjoying good spiritual health, the fatherless boy was cared for. When justice became perverted in the land, the fatherless boy was sure to be neglected, and this was a symptom of national decay. (Ps 82:3; 94:6; Isa 1:17, 23; Jer 7:5-7; 22:3; Eze 22:7; Zec 7:9-11; Mal 3:5) Jehovah’s curse was on those who oppressed the fatherless boy. (De 27:19; Isa 10:1, 2) Jehovah describes himself as the Redeemer (Pr 23:10, 11), Helper (Ps 10:14), and Father (Ps 68:5) of such ones. He is the One executing judgment in their behalf (De 10:17, 18), showing them mercy (Ho 14:3), giving them relief (Ps 146:9), and preserving them alive.​—Jer 49:11.

One of the identifying marks of real Christianity is its consideration for those bereaved by loss of husband or parents. The disciple James writes to Christians: “The form of worship that is clean and undefiled from the standpoint of our God and Father is this: to look after orphans and widows in their tribulation, and to keep oneself without spot from the world.”​—Jas 1:27.

The Greek word for orphan (or·pha·nosʹ) is used in a figurative sense in John 14:18 and is variously rendered “desolate” (AS), “forlorn” (Mo), “friendless” (AT), and “bereaved” (NW; Yg).

The Hebrew expression behth ʼav (plural, behth ʼa·vohthʹ) could refer (1) to a dwelling place (De 22:21); (2) to the household of one’s father at his place of dwelling (Ge 31:30; 38:11); (3) to those making up the household itself, even in a location away from the ancestral home (Ge 46:31; Jg 9:18); or (4), as variously translated, to a “father’s house,” “chief house,” “ancestral house,” “paternal house,” which, in some cases, took in several families. For example, at the time of numbering the Israelites in the wilderness, four families were regarded as making up the paternal house of Kohath. (Nu 3:19, 30; see also Ex 6:14; Nu 26:20-22; Jos 7:17.) Several paternal houses constituted a tribe (such as the tribe of Levi, made up of the paternal houses of Gershon, Kohath, and Merari).

The terms “paternal house,” or “fathers’ house,” “house of our father,” and so forth, were not always limited to the above usages, however. (For a broader use of “paternal house” see Nu 17:2, 6, where a paternal house is a tribe.)

As the population of Israel increased and as various areas of the Promised Land became settled, paternal houses also increased in number. The priests were organized by David into 24 divisions of service according to their paternal houses, 16 divisions for Eleazar and 8 for Ithamar. The 24 headmen were called “heads for their paternal houses.” (1Ch 24:4-6) The rest of the Levites were selected for certain duties by lot, without regard to any priority of age of the heads of their paternal houses.​—1Ch 24:20-31.

Each Israelite paternal house was represented by its hereditary head in connection with official tribal business and the administration of justice. (Ne 7:70, 71; 11:13) At the celebration of the Passover in Jerusalem in King Josiah’s time, the people apparently entered the court of the temple by their paternal houses to offer their sacrifices. The Levites, by their divisions based on paternal houses, received the sacrifices of the people and prepared them.​—2Ch 35:4, 5, 12.

Jesus Christ promised his followers that he was going his way to prepare a place for them in his ‘Father’s house,’ by which he had reference to the heavenly dwelling place of Jehovah.​—Joh 14:2; see FAMILY.

A unit for measuring the depth of water. The fathom is commonly viewed as being four cubits (c. 1.8 m; 6 ft) and approximately corresponds to the distance between the fingertips of a man’s two hands when his arms are stretched in opposite directions. Appropriately, the Greek word for “fathom” (or·gui·aʹ) comes from a root meaning “stretch out; reach.”​—Ac 27:28, ftn.

A fault is a neglect, failing, defect, an error, imperfection; it can mean failure to do what is right; also, responsibility for failure or for wrongdoing. (Ex 5:16; Ps 50:20; Mt 18:15) Biblically, a fault often refers to an occasion of blame or a particular cause for disapproval.

Faultfinding. The expression “find fault” occurs in both the Hebrew and Christian Greek Scriptures. In Hebrew it renders the verb riv, meaning “contend” in a physical, verbal, or legal-judicial sense. Thus, it is rendered ‘quarrel,’ ‘contend,’ and ‘conduct a legal case’ (Ge 26:20; De 33:7; 1Sa 24:15), as well as “find fault.”​—Ne 5:7; 13:11, 17, 25; Ps 103:9; see QUARREL.

The Greek word ai·tiʹa, occurring in the expression “find fault,” is also translated “cause,” “charge,” and “ground.” (Ac 13:28; 25:18; Mt 19:3) Pilate, after examining Jesus Christ on the charges brought by the Jews, found no evidence of guilt and announced to the Jews three times: “I find no fault in him.” (Joh 18:38; 19:4, 6) “Find fault” also renders the Greek memʹpho·mai, meaning “blame; lay blame.”​—Ro 9:19; Heb 8:8.

Jehovah’s Dealings With Faulty Mankind. That which Jehovah God makes is perfect, faultless (Heb., ta·mimʹ, referring to something sound, perfect, faultless), as are all his words and acts. (De 32:4, ftn) For this reason and because of his almightiness, he can say, as in correcting Job: “Should there be any contending of a faultfinder [literally, one who chastises, corrects, disciplines] with the Almighty?” (Job 40:1, 2) The apostle Paul points out that God has the right to deal with his creatures as He pleases, just as a potter makes the kinds of vessels he desires to produce. God tolerates “vessels of wrath” for a purpose, just as he did Pharaoh, while he has mercy on “vessels of mercy,” and we cannot rightly question God’s action in this.​—Ro 9:14-24.

On the other hand, man’s ways and productions are often faulty. Sin and error are the legacy all men have inherited from Adam. (Ro 5:12; Ps 51:5) But Jehovah, himself faultless, “well knows the formation of us, remembering that we are dust,” and is merciful. (Ps 103:13, 14) He regarded faithful, obedient Noah as “faultless among his contemporaries.” (Ge 6:9) He commanded Abraham, “Walk before me and prove yourself faultless.” (Ge 17:1) Although both these men were imperfect and died, they were viewed as faultless by Jehovah, who “sees what the heart is.” (1Sa 16:7; compare 2Ki 20:3; 2Ch 16:9.) He commanded Israel: “You should prove yourself faultless with Jehovah your God.” (De 18:13; 2Sa 22:24) He provided his faultless Son (Heb 7:26) as a ransom sacrifice, and on this basis He can call those exercising faith and obedience “righteous,” or faultless, while at the same time maintaining his position as the righteous and faultless Judge.​—Ro 3:25, 26; see INTEGRITY; PERFECTION.

The Law Covenant. The apostle Paul says that the Law is “spiritual” and “fine” (Ro 7:14; 1Ti 1:8) and, after discussing its tenth commandment, states that “the Law is holy, and the commandment is holy and righteous and good.” (Ro 7:7-12) Why, then, does he also say: “If that first covenant had been faultless [or, blameless], no place would have been sought for a second”? (Heb 8:7) Paul goes on to explain: “He [Jehovah, through Jeremiah] does find fault with [or, blame] the people.” (Heb 8:8, 9; compare Jer 31:31, 32.) In another place he shows that there was an incapability on the part of the Law, while it was “weak through the flesh.” (Ro 8:3) Also, he logically demonstrates that perfection could not come through the Levitical priesthood, which, along with the law by which it operated, had to be changed; that “the Law made nothing perfect”; and that its gifts and sacrifices were “not able to make the man doing sacred service perfect as respects his conscience.”​—Heb 7:11, 12, 19; 9:9.

Dealing With One Another’s Faults. The Bible counsels us to “continue putting up with one another and forgiving one another freely if anyone has a cause for complaint against another.” (Col 3:13) If all our faults were held against us, we would all be condemned. Many faults can be overlooked; surely a Christian should not be anxious to make public the faults of his brothers. The Scriptures say of a wicked person: “You sit and speak against your own brother, against the son of your mother you give away a fault.”​—Ps 50:16, 20.

However, Jesus Christ instructed his disciples what to do in the case of certain serious sins. As the first step, he counseled: “If your brother commits a sin, go lay bare his fault [literally, “reprove him”] between you and him alone. If he listens to you, you have gained your brother.” Jesus then proceeds to outline the steps to take if this first effort fails.​—Mt 18:15-17; see also Ga 6:1.

A Faultless Ministry. The apostle Paul, highly grateful and appreciative of the glorious treasure of the ministry, exercised care to glorify this ministry by watching closely every feature of his life and conduct. He said in his letter to the congregation at Corinth: “In no way are we giving any cause for stumbling, that our ministry might not be found fault with.” (2Co 6:3) Men who were challenging Paul’s apostleship had associated with the congregation there and had indulged in much faultfinding and slander against Paul in order to belittle him and to destroy his apostolic authority over the congregation. Realizing this and knowing also the danger of faultfinding and trouble where money matters are concerned, he assured the congregation that he was sending Titus and another trustworthy brother appointed by the congregations to handle the contributions. “Thus,” wrote Paul, “we are avoiding having any man find fault with us in connection with this liberal contribution to be administered by us.”​—2Co 8:16-21.

As commonly used, fear means an expectation of harm or pain, generally a painful emotion characterized by alarm, dread, disquiet. However, fear may also mean a calm recognition or consideration of whatever may injure or damage, such recognition causing one to exercise reasoned caution and intelligent foresight.

What is the fear of Jehovah that we should have?

The Bible shows that there is a proper fear and an improper fear. Thus, fear may be wholesome and cause the individual to proceed with due caution in the face of danger, thereby averting disaster, or it may be morbid, destroying hope and weakening a person’s nervous stamina, even to the point of bringing about death. The fear of God is healthful; it is an awe and a profound reverence for the Creator and a wholesome dread of displeasing him. This fear of incurring his displeasure is a result of appreciation of his loving-kindness and goodness together with the realization that he is the Supreme Judge and the Almighty, who has the power to inflict punishment or death upon those who disobey him.​—See AWE; DREAD.

The proper fear of Jehovah God is essential to those who would serve him. This profound fear of Jehovah is “the beginning of wisdom” (Ps 111:10), “the start of wisdom.” (Pr 9:10) It is not a morbid fear that tears down; “the fear of Jehovah is pure.” (Ps 19:9) This fear is defined thus at Proverbs 8:13: “The fear of Jehovah means the hating of bad.” It will prevent one from following a bad course, for “in the fear of Jehovah one turns away from bad.”​—Pr 16:6.

Adam and Eve failed to exercise a proper, healthful fear of God and therefore they disobeyed him. This produced in them a painful fear or terror, which caused them to hide from God’s presence. Adam said: “Your voice I heard in the garden, but I was afraid.” (Ge 3:10) Adam’s son Cain felt a similar fear after murdering his brother Abel, and this fear may have been a contributing factor in his deciding to build a city.​—Ge 4:13-17.

At Hebrews 12:28 Christians are instructed to have godly fear: “Let us continue to have undeserved kindness, through which we may acceptably render God sacred service with godly fear and awe.” An angel in midheaven, having everlasting good news to declare, opened his declaration with the words: “Fear God and give him glory.” (Re 14:6, 7) Jesus contrasted the wholesome fear of God with fear of man, saying, as recorded at Matthew 10:28: “Do not become fearful of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; but rather be in fear of him that can destroy both soul and body in Gehenna.” At Revelation 2:10 he also counsels Christians: “Do not be afraid of the things you are about to suffer.” Real love for Jehovah expels the cowardly fear of man that leads to compromise.

Proper fear does, however, include due respect for secular authority, because the Christian knows that just punishment from the authority for a crime would be an indirect expression of God’s anger.​—Ro 13:3-7.

Jesus predicted that at “the conclusion of the system of things” a climate of fear would cover the earth. He said that there would be “fearful sights” and that men would “become faint out of fear and expectation of the things coming upon the inhabited earth.” (Lu 21:11, 26) While people in general would be affected in this way, servants of God should follow the principle expressed at Isaiah 8:12: “The object of their fear you men must not fear.” The apostle Paul explains: “For God gave us not a spirit of cowardice, but that of power and of love and of soundness of mind.”​—2Ti 1:7.

The wise man, after making a careful study of mankind as well as man’s occupations and calamitous experiences, said: “The conclusion of the matter, everything having been heard, is: Fear the true God and keep his commandments. For this is the whole obligation of man.”​—Ec 12:13.

Animals Toward Humans. At Genesis 9:2 the word “fear” is used in connection with the animal creation. God told Noah and his sons: “A fear of you and a terror of you will continue upon every living creature of the earth.” During the year that Noah and his family were inside the ark, the animals and birds penned up therein had a fear of these humans that helped to restrain them. Accordingly, when they emerged from the ark after the Flood, Jehovah gave Noah assurance that this fear would continue. This is supported by human experience. Dr. George G. Goodwin, Associate Curator of Mammals, The American Museum of Natural History, said: “Normally, a leopard will not attack a man. If provoked or wounded, however, the animal will turn on human beings and fight.” Similarly, if given the opportunity, poisonous snakes known for aggressiveness, such as the mamba and king cobra, prefer, as a rule, cautiously to glide away from the presence of man rather than attack. Though man has mistreated and turned some animals into vicious creatures, it is generally true that this restraining fear still applies. This is in harmony with God’s statement at Genesis 1:26-28, that the animal creation was to be subject to man from the time of his creation.

See FESTIVAL; MEAL.

(Feʹlix) [from Lat., Happy].

The procurator of the Roman province of Judea who held Paul prisoner for two years after Paul’s last visit to Jerusalem, in about 56 C.E. Tacitus indicates that Felix served jointly with Cumanus in the office of procurator for a number of years and thereafter as the sole procurator of Judea. (The Annals, XII, LIV) Josephus makes no mention of Felix’s serving concurrently with Cumanus, and for that reason most scholars say that Felix began to serve as procurator in 52 C.E. (Jewish Antiquities, XX, 137 [vii, 1]; The Jewish War, II, 247, 248 [xii, 8]) Nevertheless, on the basis of Felix’s years of service, Paul could say to him: “This nation has had you as judge for many years.”​—Ac 24:10.

Secular historians say that Felix was once a slave, that his given name was Antonius, that Emperor Claudius granted him and his brother Pallas their freedom, and that he was a cruel and immoral official. Tacitus described him as one who “practised every kind of cruelty and lust, wielding the power of king with all the instincts of a slave.” (The Histories, V, IX) He is reported to have engineered the killing of High Priest Jonathan. Suetonius says that Felix became the husband of three queens. (The Lives of the Caesars, Claudius, XXVIII) Such description agrees with what we learn of Felix in the Bible.

Following Paul’s arrest, Claudius Lysias, the Roman military commander, fearing for the safety of his prisoner if allowed to remain in Jerusalem, hustled the apostle down to Caesarea under heavy guard, “commanding the accusers to speak against him” before Felix. (Ac 23:23-30) Five days later High Priest Ananias, a certain Tertullus, and others came down from Jerusalem with preposterous charges against Paul. Felix presided at the trial, deferring judgment. He ordered that Paul be kept, but with some relaxation of custody, and that none of Paul’s people be forbidden to wait upon him.​—Ac 24:1-23.

Felix later “sent for Paul and listened to him on the belief in Christ Jesus.” It was on this occasion, possibly with Felix’s wife Drusilla present, that Paul “talked about righteousness and self-control and the judgment to come.” On hearing these things “Felix became frightened” and told the apostle: “For the present go your way, but when I get an opportune time I shall send for you again.” Frequently, during a two-year period, Felix sent for and conversed with Paul, futilely hoping that the apostle would give him money as a bribe for his release.​—Ac 24:24-27.

The administration by Felix was highly resented by the Jews. Perhaps in 58 C.E. “Felix was succeeded by Porcius Festus; and because Felix desired to gain favor with the Jews, he left Paul bound.” (Ac 24:27) However, this gesture on the part of Felix did not soothe the wounds he had inflicted on the Jews; nor did it prevent them from sending a delegation to Rome to press their case against him. His escaping punishment after recall to Rome is accredited only to the favored position and influence his brother Pallas had with Nero.

See LEAVEN.

Festivals formed an integral part of the true worship of God, being prescribed by Jehovah for his chosen people Israel by the hand of Moses. The Hebrew word chagh, which is translated “festival,” possibly comes from a verb that denotes circularity of motion or form, dancing around in circles, and hence, celebrating a periodic festival or feast. Moh·ʽedhʹ, also rendered “festival,” basically refers to a set time or place of assembly.​—1Sa 20:35; 2Sa 20:5.

The festivals, and similar special days, might be outlined as follows:

FESTIVALS IN ISRAEL

BEFORE THE EXILE

ANNUAL FESTIVALS

1. Passover, Abib (Nisan) 14

2. Unfermented Cakes, Abib (Nisan) 15-21

3. Weeks, or Pentecost, Sivan 6

4. Trumpet Blast, Ethanim (Tishri) 1

5. Day of Atonement, Ethanim (Tishri) 10

6. Booths, Ethanim (Tishri) 15-21, with a solemn assembly on the 22nd

PERIODIC FESTIVALS

1. Weekly Sabbath

2. New Moon

3. Sabbath year (every 7th year)

4. Jubilee year (every 50th year)

AFTER THE EXILE

1. Festival of Dedication, Chislev 25

2. Festival of Purim, Adar 14, 15

The Three Great Festivals. The three primary “seasonal festivals,” sometimes called pilgrimage festivals because of the assembling of all males at Jerusalem, occurred at appointed times and were designated by the Hebrew word moh·ʽedhʹ. (Le 23:2, 4) But the word often used when referring exclusively to the three great festivals is chagh, which connotes not only a periodic occurrence but also a time of great rejoicing. These three great festivals are:

(1) The Festival of Unfermented Cakes (Ex 23:15). This festival began the day after the Passover and ran from Abib (Nisan) 15th through the 21st. Passover was on Nisan 14 and was really a day of observance to itself, but since it was so closely connected in time with the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, the two were often spoken of together as the Passover.​—Mt 26:17; Mr 14:12; Lu 22:7.

(2) The Festival of Weeks or (as called later) Pentecost, celebrated on the 50th day from Nisan 16, that is, on Sivan 6.​—Ex 23:16a; 34:22a.

(3) The Festival of Booths (Tabernacles) or Ingathering. This took place in the seventh month, Ethanim (Tishri) 15th through the 21st, with a solemn assembly on the 22nd.​—Le 23:34-36.

The time, the place, and the way they were to be conducted were all fixed by Jehovah. As the expression “seasonal festivals of Jehovah” implies, they were associated with various seasons of the sacred calendar year​—the early spring, the late spring, and the fall. How significant this was, because at these times the firstfruits of the field and vineyards brought great joy and happiness to the inhabitants of the Promised Land, and recognition was thereby given to Jehovah as the generous Provider of all good things!

Observances Common to These Festivals. The Law covenant required that all males appear “before Jehovah your God in the place that he will choose” every year, during each of the three great annual festivals. (De 16:16) The place eventually chosen for a festival center was Jerusalem. No specific penalty for individual nonattendance was stated, with the exception of the Passover; failure to attend it brought the penalty of death. (Nu 9:9-13) Nonetheless, neglect of any of God’s laws, including his festivals and sabbaths, would bring national judgment and distress. (De 28:58-62) The Passover itself had to be observed on Nisan 14 or, in certain circumstances, one month later.

Although women were not under obligation, as were the males, to make the annual festival journeys, yet there are examples of festival attendance by women such as Hannah the mother of Samuel (1Sa 1:7) and Mary the mother of Jesus. (Lu 2:41) Israelite women who loved Jehovah attended such festivals whenever possible. In fact, not only did Jesus’ parents attend regularly but their relatives and acquaintances went along with them.​—Lu 2:44.

Jehovah promised, “Nobody will desire your land while you are going up to see the face of Jehovah your God three times in the year.” (Ex 34:24) Even though no men were left to guard the cities and the land, it proved true that no foreign nation ever came up to take the land of the Jews during their festivals prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. However, in 66 C.E., which was after the rejection of Christ by the Jewish nation, Cestius Gallus slew 50 persons at Lydda during the Festival of Tabernacles.

None of the male attenders were to come empty-handed; they were to bring a gift “in proportion to the blessing of Jehovah your God that he has given you.” (De 16:16, 17) Also, at Jerusalem the ‘second’ tenth part (in contrast with that given to maintain the Levites [Nu 18:26, 27]) of the current year’s grain, wine, and oil, as well as the firstborn of the herd and the flock were to be eaten; these were to be shared with the Levites. However, in case the journey to the festival place was too far, the Law provided that such goods could be turned into money; then this money could be used to buy food and drink for use while at the sanctuary. (De 14:22-27) These occasions were opportunities for demonstrating allegiance to Jehovah and were to be celebrated with joy; the alien resident, the fatherless boy, and the widow were to be included. (De 16:11, 14) This was providing, of course, that the males among such alien residents were circumcised worshipers of Jehovah. (Ex 12:48, 49) Special sacrifices were always offered in addition to the daily offerings, and while the burnt offerings and the communion sacrifices were made, trumpets were blown.​—Nu 10:10.

Just before the building of the temple the priesthood was reorganized by King David, who arranged for the immense staff of hundreds of Aaronic priests to be divided into 24 divisions, along with Levitical assistants. (1Ch 24) Each division of trained workers later served twice each year at the temple, a week at a time, the necessary arrangements being made by the head of the paternal house. Second Chronicles 5:11 indicates that the 24 divisions of priests all served together at the dedication of the temple, which took place during the Festival of Booths, or Tabernacles. (1Ki 8:2; Le 23:34) Alfred Edersheim says that on festival days any priest was welcome to come up and assist in the temple service, but during the Festival of Tabernacles (Booths) all 24 divisions were required to be in attendance.​—The Temple, 1874, p. 66.

During these festival occasions a tremendous amount of work fell to the priests, the Levites, and the Nethinim serving with them. An example of the work they did is indicated in the description of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes held by King Hezekiah after he had cleansed the temple, which celebration, on this occasion, was extended for another seven days. The account states that Hezekiah himself contributed for sacrifice 1,000 bulls and 7,000 sheep and that the princes contributed 1,000 bulls and 10,000 sheep.​—2Ch 30:21-24.

Certain days of these festivals were solemn assemblies or holy conventions; these were sabbaths, and similar to the weekly Sabbaths, they required a complete cessation of ordinary business. No secular work at all was to be done. An exception to the regular Sabbath arrangement was that work such as the preparing of food, unlawful on the weekly Sabbath days, was permitted in connection with the preparation for the festival observances. (Ex 12:16) A distinction exists in this respect between “holy conventions” of the festivals and the regular weekly Sabbaths (and the Sabbath on the tenth day of the seventh month, the Day of Atonement, a time of fasting), on which days no work whatsoever was allowed, not even the lighting of a fire “in any of your dwelling places.”​—Compare Leviticus 23:3, 26-32 with verses 7, 8, 21, 24, 25, 35, 36 and with Exodus 35:2, 3.

Importance of Festivals in Life of Israel. Festivals played a very important part in the national life of the Israelites. While they were still in Egyptian bondage, Moses told Pharaoh that the reason for demanding that the Israelites and their livestock be allowed to leave Egypt was that “we have a festival to Jehovah.” (Ex 10:9) The Law covenant incorporated many detailed instructions regarding the observance of festivals. (Ex 34:18-24; Le 23:1-44; De 16:1-17) In keeping with God’s commands, the festivals helped all the attenders to keep their minds on the word of God and not to become so involved in their personal affairs that they would forget the more important spiritual aspect of their daily life. These festivals also reminded them that they were a people for Jehovah’s name. Traveling to and from the festive gatherings would naturally give much opportunity to talk about the goodness of their God and the blessings they were daily and seasonally enjoying. The festivals afforded time and opportunity for meditation, association, and the discussion of Jehovah’s law. They broadened knowledge of the God-given land, increased understanding and neighbor love among the Israelites, and promoted unity and clean worship. The festivals were occasions of happiness. The minds of the attenders were filled with God’s thoughts and ways, and all who participated in sincerity received a rich spiritual blessing. Consider, for example, the blessing to thousands who attended the Festival of Pentecost at Jerusalem in 33 C.E.​—Ac 2:1-47.

The festivals symbolized happiness to the Jews. Before the exile in Babylon, by which time the nation in general had lost sight of the true spiritual purpose of the festivals, the prophets Hosea and Amos linked the coming foretold desolation of Jerusalem with the cessation of these joyous and happy observances, or the turning of them into occasions of mourning. (Ho 2:11; Am 8:10) After Jerusalem’s fall Jeremiah lamented that “the ways of Zion are mourning, because there are none coming to the festival.” Festival and Sabbath were now “forgotten.” (La 1:4; 2:6) Isaiah described in advance the happy condition of the returned exiles from Babylon in 537 B.C.E., saying: “You people will come to have a song like that in the night that one sanctifies oneself for a festival.” (Isa 30:29) However, it was not long after their restoration to their God-given land that they again corrupted Jehovah’s festivals, so that, through the prophet Malachi, God warned the priests that the dung of their festivals would be scattered upon their faces.​—Mal 2:1-3.

The writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures make several references and allusions to the festivals, sometimes giving them a happy, symbolic, and prophetic application to Christians. However, the keeping of these festivals in a literal way was not enjoined upon Christians.​—Col 2:16, 17; see the festivals under individual names.

Known also as the Festival of Tabernacles, or of Ingathering, or it is called “the festival of Jehovah” at Leviticus 23:39. The instructions on its observance are found at Leviticus 23:34-43, Numbers 29:12-38, and Deuteronomy 16:13-15. The festival occupied the days of Ethanim 15-21, with a solemn assembly on the 22nd. Ethanim (Tishri; September-October) was originally the first month of the Jewish calendar, but after the Exodus from Egypt it became the seventh month of the sacred year, since Abib (Nisan; March-April), formerly the seventh month, was made the first month. (Ex 12:2) The Festival of Booths celebrated the ingathering of the fruits of the ground, “the produce of the land,” which included grain, oil, and wine. (Le 23:39) It is referred to as “the festival of ingathering at the turn of the year.” The holy convention on the eighth day marked a solemn close to the year’s cycle of festivals.​—Ex 34:22; Le 23:34-38.

The Festival of Booths actually marked the end of the major part of the agricultural year for Israel. It was, therefore, a time of rejoicing and thanksgiving for all the blessings Jehovah had given in the fruitage of all their crops. Also, since the Day of Atonement had been observed just five days earlier, the people would have a sense of peace with Jehovah. While only the males were obligated to attend, whole families came. They were required to dwell in booths (Heb., suk·kohthʹ) for the seven days of the festival. Usually each family occupied one booth. (Ex 34:23; Le 23:42) These were erected in the courts of the houses, on the roofs of the dwellings, in the courts of the temple, in the public squares, and on roads within a Sabbath-day’s journey of the city. The Israelites were to use “the fruit of splendid trees,” palm fronds, boughs of branchy trees and of poplars. (Le 23:40) In the days of Ezra, olive and oil-tree leaves, myrtle (very fragrant), and palm leaves, as well as the branches of other trees, were used to build these temporary structures. The fact that all, rich and poor alike, would dwell in booths, even eating their meals in them during the seven days, and that the booths were all made of the same materials, which had been taken from the hills and valleys of the country, would emphasize the equality of all in relation to the festival.​—Ne 8:14-16.

On the day before the festival, Ethanim 14, most of the celebrators, if not all of them, had arrived in Jerusalem. The 14th was the day of preparation, unless that day happened to be a weekly Sabbath day, in which case preparations could be made earlier. Everyone was busily occupied in constructing the booths, in purification, in caring for the offerings each one had brought, as well as in joyful fellowship. The city of Jerusalem and its surroundings provided a unique and picturesque appearance, with the booths located all over the town and in the roads and gardens around Jerusalem. Adding to the festive atmosphere was the colorful beauty of the fruits and the leaves, along with the fragrance of the myrtles. Everyone was in anticipation, awaiting the sound of the trumpet blast from the elevated location of the temple in the early autumn evening, announcing the advent of the festival.

During this festival the number of sacrifices offered was greater than at any other festival of the year. The national sacrifice, starting with 13 bulls on the first day and diminishing one each day, totaled 70 bulls sacrificed, besides 119 lambs, rams, and goats, in addition to the grain and wine offerings. During the week, thousands of individual offerings would also be made by the attenders. (Nu 29:12-34, 39) On the eighth day, on which no laborious work could be done, a bull, a ram, and seven male lambs a year old were presented as a burnt offering, along with grain and drink offerings, as well as a goat as a sin offering.​—Nu 29:35-38.

In Sabbath years the Law was read to all the people during the festival. (De 31:10-13) It is likely that the first of the 24 divisions of priests established by David began to serve at the temple after the Festival of Booths, inasmuch as the temple built by Solomon was inaugurated at the time of this festival in 1026 B.C.E.​—1Ki 6:37, 38; 1Ch 24:1-18; 2Ch 5:3; 7:7-10.

The distinguishing mark of the Festival of Booths, the primary nature of it, was joyful thanksgiving. Jehovah’s desire was that his people should rejoice in him. “You must rejoice before Jehovah your God.” (Le 23:40) It was a festival of thanksgiving for the ingathering​—not only for the grain but also for the oil and the wine, which contributed much to the enjoyment of life. During this festival, the Israelites could meditate in their hearts upon the fact that their prosperity and the abundance of fine things did not come through their own power. No, it was the care of Jehovah their God for them that brought them into this prosperity. They were to think deeply upon these things, for fear, as Moses had said, that “your heart may indeed be lifted up and you may indeed forget Jehovah your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slaves.” Moses also declared: “And you must remember Jehovah your God, because he is the giver of power to you to make wealth; in order to carry out his covenant that he swore to your forefathers, as at this day.”​—De 8:14, 18.

Israel was commanded to live for one week in booths, “in order that your generations may know that it was in the booths that I made the sons of Israel to dwell when I was bringing them out of the land of Egypt. I am Jehovah your God.” (Le 23:42, 43) They could recall with joy and thankfulness God’s care for them in the wilderness when they were provided shelter by Jehovah, ‘who caused them to walk through the great and fear-inspiring wilderness, with poisonous serpents and scorpions and with thirsty ground that has no water; who brought forth water for them out of the flinty rock; who fed them with manna in the wilderness, which their fathers had not known.’ (De 8:15, 16) This would give them reason to rejoice over God’s continually increasing care and bounty toward them.

Features Added Later. A custom that came to be practiced later, possibly alluded to in the Christian Greek Scriptures (Joh 7:37, 38) but not in the Hebrew Scriptures, was the drawing of water from the Pool of Siloam and pouring it, along with wine, on the altar at the time of the morning sacrifice. According to most scholars, this occurred on seven days of the festival but not on the eighth. The priest would go to the Pool of Siloam with a golden pitcher (except on the opening day of the festival, a sabbath, when the water was taken from a golden vessel in the temple, to which it had been carried from Siloam on the preceding day). He would time himself so as to return from Siloam with the water just as the priests in the temple were ready to lay the pieces of the sacrifice on the altar. As he entered the Court of the Priests by the temple Water Gate he was announced by a threefold blast from the priests’ trumpets. The water was then poured out into a basin leading to the base of the altar, at the same time that wine was being poured into a basin. Then the temple music accompanied the singing of the Hallel (Psalms 113-118), during which time the worshipers waved their palm branches toward the altar. This ceremony may have reminded the joyful celebrators of Isaiah’s prophetic words: “With exultation you people will be certain to draw water out of the springs of salvation.”​—Isa 12:3.

Another ceremony somewhat similar was that each day of the seven days of the festival the priests, in procession, would walk around the altar, singing, “Ah, now, Jehovah, do save, please! Ah, now, Jehovah, do grant success, please!” (Ps 118:25) On the seventh day, however, they made the circuit seven times.

According to rabbinic sources, there was also another outstanding feature of this festival that, like the bringing in of the water of Siloam, was carried out in the time when Jesus was on earth. This ceremony began at the close of the 15th of Tishri, the first day of the festival, actually in the beginning of the 16th, the festival’s second day, and was carried on for the five succeeding nights. Preparations were made in the Court of Women. Four great golden lampstands stood in the court, each having four golden bowls. Four youths of priestly descent would climb ladders with large pitchers of oil, filling the 16 bowls. The old clothing of the priests was used as wicks for the lamps. Jewish writers say these lamps made a brilliant light that could be seen at a considerable distance, lighting up the courts of the houses in Jerusalem. Certain men, including some of the elders, danced with flaming torches in their hands and sang songs of praise, accompanied by musical instruments.

An interesting sidelight is that Jeroboam, who broke away from Solomon’s son Rehoboam and became king over the ten northern tribes, carried on (in the eighth month, not the seventh) an imitation of the Festival of Booths, apparently to hold the tribes away from Jerusalem. But, of course, the sacrifices were made to the golden calves that he had set up contrary to Jehovah’s command.​—1Ki 12:31-33.

Jesus probably alluded to the spiritual significance of the Festival of Booths and perhaps to the ceremony with the water of Siloam when “on the last day, the great day of the festival, Jesus was standing up and he cried out, saying: ‘If anyone is thirsty, let him come to me and drink. He that puts faith in me, just as the Scripture has said, “Out from his inmost part streams of living water will flow.”’” (Joh 7:37, 38) Also, he may have alluded to the lighting up of Jerusalem by the lamps and torches in the temple area at the festival when he said a little later to the Jews: “I am the light of the world. He that follows me will by no means walk in darkness, but will possess the light of life.” (Joh 8:12) Shortly after his discussion with the Jews, Jesus may have connected Siloam with the festival and its lights when he encountered a man who had been born blind. After stating to his disciples, “I am the world’s light,” he spit on the ground and made a clay with the saliva, put this clay upon the man’s eyes and said to him: “Go wash in the pool of Siloam.”​—Joh 9:1-7.

The waving of palm branches by the people at this festival reminds us also of the crowds that waved palm branches during Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem just before his death, although this did not occur at the time of the Festival of Booths, but, rather, prior to the Passover. (Joh 12:12, 13) Again, the apostle John, who saw in vision 144,000 of God’s slaves sealed in their foreheads, tells us: “After these things I saw, and look! a great crowd, which no man was able to number, out of all nations and tribes and peoples and tongues, standing before the throne and before the Lamb, dressed in white robes; and there were palm branches in their hands. And they keep on crying with a loud voice, saying: ‘Salvation we owe to our God, who is seated on the throne, and to the Lamb.’”​—Re 7:1-10.

Certainly the Festival of Booths was a fitting conclusion to the major part of the agricultural year and to the cycle of festivals for the year. Everything connected with it breathes joy, bountiful blessings from Jehovah’s hand, refreshment, and life.

The observance of the Festival of Dedication (Heb., chanuk·kahʹ) commemorates the recovery of Jewish independence from Syro-Grecian domination and the rededication to Jehovah of the temple at Jerusalem, which had been desecrated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who called himself The·osʹ E·pi·pha·nesʹ (“God Manifest”). He built an altar on top of the great altar on which the daily burnt offering had formerly been presented. (1 Maccabees 1:54-59, AT) On this occasion (Chislev 25, 168 B.C.E.), to show his hatred and contempt for Jehovah, the God of the Jews, and to defile His temple to the utmost, Antiochus sacrificed swine on the altar and had the broth he had made from some of its flesh sprinkled all over the temple. He also burned the temple gates, pulled down the priests’ chambers, and carried away the golden altar as well as the table of showbread and the golden lampstand. The temple of Zerubbabel was rededicated to the pagan god Zeus of Olympus.

Two years later Judas Maccabaeus recaptured the city and the temple. The sanctuary was desolate; weeds were growing in the temple courts. Judas tore down the old defiled altar and built a new altar of unhewn stones. Judas had temple vessels made and he brought the altar of incense, the table of showbread, and the lampstand into the temple. After the temple was purged of defilement the rededication took place on Chislev 25, 165 B.C.E., exactly three years to the day after Antiochus had made his sacrifice on the altar in worship of the pagan god. The daily or continual burnt offerings were renewed.​—1 Maccabees 4:36-54; 2 Maccabees 10:1-9, AT.

Festival Customs. The very nature of the festival made it a time of great rejoicing. There is some resemblance to the Festival of Booths in the manner of its observance. The celebration lasted eight days from Chislev 25 onward. (1 Maccabees 4:59) There was a great blaze of light in the courts of the temple, and all private dwellings were lighted up with decorative lamps. The Talmud refers to it as the “Feast of Illumination.” Later on, some had the practice of displaying eight lamps on the first night and reducing the number on each night by one, others starting with one and increasing to eight. The lamps were placed near doors leading to the street not only so that they would illuminate the house within but also so that all on the outside would see the light. Accompanying the lighting of the lamps was the singing of songs extolling God the Deliverer of Israel. Josephus says about the initiation of the festival: “So much pleasure did they find in the renewal of their customs and in unexpectedly obtaining the right to have their own service after so long a time, that they made a law that their descendants should celebrate the restoration of the temple service for eight days. And from that time to the present we observe this festival, which we call the festival of Lights, giving this name to it, I think, from the fact that the right to worship appeared to us at a time when we hardly dared hope for it.” (Jewish Antiquities, XII, 324, 325 [vii, 7]) Laborious work was allowed, as it was not considered a sabbath.

There were two former temple dedications, that of the first temple by Solomon and of the second built by Zerubbabel, that were solemnly celebrated after the building work was completed. But there was no anniversary festival in commemoration afterward, as there was of this rededication of the second temple by Judas Maccabaeus. Unlike the three great festivals, which all males were obligated to attend at Jerusalem, the Festival of Dedication could be celebrated in their various cities, as was the case with the Festival of Purim. (Ex 23:14-17; Es 9:18-32) Throughout the land they assembled in their synagogues with singing and jubilation, carrying branches of trees, while the synagogues and the private homes were illuminated by the many lights. The Jews celebrate this festival to the present day.

Significance for Christians. Jesus visited the temple at the time of the Festival of Dedication during the last winter of his ministry, in 32 C.E. The account reads: “At that time the festival of dedication took place in Jerusalem. It was wintertime, and Jesus was walking in the temple in the colonnade of Solomon.” (Joh 10:22, 23) Chislev, the ninth month, corresponds to November-December. It was, of course, common knowledge among the Jews that this festival occurred during wintertime. Consequently, the mention of winter here may have reference to the state of the weather rather than the season as a reason for Jesus’ choice of a sheltered place for his teaching, in “the colonnade of Solomon.” This covered colonnade was on the E side of the outer court of the Gentiles, where many people would gather.​—Ac 3:11; 5:12.

There is no direct statement in the inspired Scriptures that Jehovah gave Judas victory and directed his repair of the temple, its refurnishing, the making of utensils, and finally its rededication. Yet, for the prophecies regarding Jesus and his ministry to be fulfilled and for the Levitical sacrifices to continue until the great sacrifice of God’s Son would be accomplished, the temple had to be standing and its services in operation at the time of the Messiah’s appearance. (Joh 2:17; Da 9:27) Jehovah had used men of foreign nations, such as Cyrus, to carry out certain purposes as regards His worship. (Isa 45:1) How much more readily might he use a man of his dedicated people, the Jews.

Whatever may be the case, the temple services were observed during the ministry of Jesus Christ. Zerubbabel’s temple had been rebuilt (replaced) more elaborately by Herod. For this reason and because of their dislike of Herod, the Jews usually make mention of only two temples, Solomon’s and Zerubbabel’s. Neither in the words of Jesus nor in any of the writings of his disciples do we find any condemnation of the Festival of Dedication. It is not, however, enjoined on Christians in the new covenant.​—Col 2:16; Ga 4:10, 11; Heb 8:6.

God’s command to Israel was that at each new moon, which marked the beginning of the lunar months of the Jewish calendar, trumpets were to be blown over their burnt offerings and communion sacrifices. (Nu 10:10) Special sacrifices were to be offered on these days besides the continual daily sacrifice. The new-moon offering was to consist of a burnt offering of two bulls, one ram, and seven year-old male lambs, with corresponding grain and wine offerings, as well as one kid of the goats for a sin offering.​—Nu 28:11-15.

This is all that was commanded concerning its observance in the Pentateuch, but the new-moon observance grew in time to become an important national festival. At Isaiah 1:13, 14 it is placed alongside Sabbaths and festal seasons. In the time of the later prophets, at least, on new-moon days the people did not engage in commercial enterprise, as is indicated at Amos 8:5. This was more than the Scriptures required for new-moon days. Even so, as the last two cited scriptures show, the Jews’ observance of the new moon had by that time become a mere formalism, hated in Jehovah’s eyes.

The day of the new moon was a day specially regarded for gathering together and feasting. This is seen from Saul’s reasoning when David did not appear at Saul’s table on the day of the new moon. Saul said to himself: “Something has happened so that he is not clean, for he has not been cleansed.” (1Sa 20:5, 18, 24, 26) While certain forms of work could be done on this day that could not be done on the Sabbath, it was viewed as a day for the consideration of spiritual matters. The people would gather in convention (Isa 1:13; 66:23; Ps 81:3; Eze 46:3) or visit the prophets or men of God.​—2Ki 4:23.

The observance of the day of the new moon did not involve worship of the moon, as was practiced by some pagan nations, nor did it have any connection with astrology.​—Jg 8:21; 2Ki 23:5; Job 31:26-28.

Isaiah wrote about a future time when all flesh would gather to bow down before Jehovah on new-moon days. (Isa 66:23) In Ezekiel’s prophecy, during the time of exile in Babylon, when he was given a vision of a temple, Jehovah said to him: “As regards the gate of the inner courtyard that is facing east, it should continue shut for the six workdays, and on the sabbath day it should be opened, and on the day of the new moon it should be opened. And the people of the land must bow down at the entrance of that gate on the sabbaths and on the new moons, before Jehovah.”​—Eze 46:1, 3.

The Jews today celebrate the new moon with many detailed ceremonies and give it much importance. Christians, however, are shown that they are under no obligation to observe a new moon or a sabbath, which are only part of a shadow of the things to come, the reality being found in Jesus Christ. The festivals of natural Israel have a symbolic significance and a fulfillment in many blessings through God’s Son.​—Col 2:16, 17.

See SABBATH DAY.

This festival occurred on the first day (or the new moon) of the seventh month, Ethanim (Tishri). It was the beginning of the secular year for the Jews. It stood apart from the Festival of the New Moon in the other 11 months as being more important. The command states additionally concerning the Festival of Trumpet Blast that it should be set aside as a day of holy convention, on which no sort of laborious work was to be done.

The festival receives its name from the command: “There should occur for you a complete rest, a memorial by the trumpet blast.” “It should prove to be a day of the trumpet blast for you.” On this day the sacrifices of one young bull, one ram, and seven sound male lambs a year old, together with a grain offering of fine flour moistened with oil, as well as one male kid of the goats as a sin offering were presented. This was in addition to the constant daily offerings as well as the sacrifices that were specially given on new-moon days.​—Le 23:24; Nu 29:1-6.

This festival, of course, would be an important one, not only because the month it initiated saw the beginning of a new agricultural and labor year but also because the Day of Atonement fell on the 10th day of this month and the Festival of Booths began on the 15th. The completion of the major part of the ingathering of crops of the outgoing year would take place in this month. The crops gathered during this month would include grapes for wine, which makes the heart of man rejoice, and olives, which, among other things, supplied food as well as oil for light and for use in connection with many of the grain offerings. (Ps 104:15) Truly this festival marked the start of a month for thankfulness to Jehovah.

This festival began Nisan 15, the day after Passover, and continued for seven days through Nisan 21. (See PASSOVER.) Its name is derived from the unfermented cakes (Heb., mats·tsohthʹ), the only bread allowed during the seven days of the festival. Unleavened bread is kneaded with water but without yeast. It has to be hurriedly prepared if fermentation is to be prevented.

The first day of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes was a solemn assembly, also a sabbath. On the second day, Nisan 16, a sheaf of the firstfruits of the barley harvest, the first crop to ripen in Palestine, was brought to the priest. Prior to this festival no new grain, bread, or roasted grain from the new harvest could be eaten. The priest offered such firstfruits to Jehovah symbolically by waving a sheaf of the grain to and fro, while a sound ram in its first year was offered as a burnt offering along with a grain offering moistened with oil and a drink offering. (Le 23:6-14) There was no command to burn any of the grain or its flour on the altar, as was practiced later by the priests. Not only was there a public or national firstfruit offering but provision was also made for each family and every individual who had a possession in Israel to offer thanksgiving sacrifices during this festive occasion.​—Ex 23:19; De 26:1, 2; see FIRSTFRUITS.

Significance. The eating of unfermented cakes at this time was in harmony with the instructions Moses received from Jehovah, as recorded at Exodus 12:14-20, which includes the strict injunction, at verse 19: “Seven days no sourdough is to be found in your houses.” In Deuteronomy 16:3 the unfermented cakes are called “the bread of affliction,” and they were a yearly reminder to the Jews of their hurried departure from the land of Egypt (when they did not have time to leaven their dough [Ex 12:34]). They thus recalled the state of affliction and bondage from which Israel had been delivered, even as Jehovah himself said, “that you may remember the day of your coming out of the land of Egypt all the days of your life.” The realization of their present freedom as a nation and their acknowledgment of Jehovah as their Deliverer set a fitting background for the first of the three great annual festivals of the Israelites.​—De 16:16.

Preexilic Observances. There are three accounts recorded in the Scriptures of the keeping of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes following the Israelites’ entry into the Promised Land and prior to their Babylonian exile. But the fact that no other observances are mentioned should not be taken to mean that such were not held. Rather, in the first account, there is a general reference to all the festivals and Solomon’s arrangements to observe them.​—2Ch 8:12, 13.

In the other two instances the circumstances are outstanding. One is the revival of the observance of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, after a time of neglect. This revival was during the first year of faithful King Hezekiah’s reign. Interestingly, in this case there was not enough time to prepare for the annual festival on Nisan 15, because the work of cleaning and repairing the temple took until Nisan 16. So, advantage was taken of the Law to celebrate the festival during the second month. (2Ch 29:17; 30:13, 21, 22; Nu 9:10, 11) It was such a joyous occasion and resulted in such a religious revival that the celebration of seven days proved to be just too short, and so another seven days were set aside. King Hezekiah and his princes contributed generously, giving 2,000 bulls and 17,000 sheep to supply food for the multitudes attending.​—2Ch 30:23, 24.

The festival observance was the start of a great campaign against false religion, and in many cities this was carried out before the worshipers returned to their homes. (2Ch 31:1) The keeping of this Festival of Unfermented Cakes brought about Jehovah’s blessing as well as freedom from demon worship, and it is a fine example of the beneficial effects that the keeping of these festivals had upon the Israelites.

The last recorded account of preexilic observance of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes was its celebration during the reign of King Josiah when he made a courageous effort to restore the pure worship of Jehovah in Judah.​—2Ch 35:1-19.

Although these are the only observances specifically mentioned, prior to the kings the faithful judges and priests of Israel were doubtless concerned with keeping the festivals. Later, both David and Solomon made extensive arrangements to keep the priesthood functioning properly, and other kings of Judah must have seen to it that the festivals were regularly observed. Also, the Festival of Unfermented Cakes was kept quite regularly in postexilic times.

Postexilic Observance. Following the Jews’ release from Babylon and their return to the Promised Land, the temple at Jerusalem was rebuilt and completed under the vigorous encouragement given by Jehovah’s prophets Haggai and Zechariah. (Ezr 5:1, 2) In 515 B.C.E. the rebuilt house of Jehovah was inaugurated with great joy and with all the appropriate sacrifices attending the Festival of Unfermented Cakes. The record at Ezra 6:22 states: “And they went on to hold the festival of unfermented cakes seven days with rejoicing.”

The book of Malachi shows that in time, notwithstanding the zealous start toward restoration of true worship when the exiles returned from Babylon, the priests became careless, proud, and self-righteous. The temple service became a mockery, even though the festivals were kept in a formalistic way. (Mal 1:6-8, 12-14; 2:1-3; 3:8-10) Jesus found the scribes and Pharisees scrupulously keeping the details of the Law, besides their added traditions. They zealously observed the festivals, including the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, but Jesus condemned them, for, because of their hypocrisy, they had lost sight of the real significance of these fine arrangements of Jehovah for their blessing.​—Mt 15:1-9; 23:23, 24; Lu 19:45, 46.

Prophetic Significance. Jesus Christ gave the interpretation as to the symbolic significance of ferment, or leaven, as recorded at Matthew 16:6, 11, 12, when he warned his disciples: “Keep your eyes open and watch out for the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” When his disciples reasoned incorrectly among themselves as to what he meant, he spoke plainly: “‘How is it you do not discern that I did not talk to you about loaves? But watch out for the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees.’ Then they grasped that he said to watch out . . . for the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees.” Also, Luke reports that Jesus stated specifically on another occasion: “Watch out for the leaven of the Pharisees, which is hypocrisy.”​—Lu 12:1.

The apostle Paul applies a similar significance to leaven in connection with the Festival of Unfermented Cakes when he describes the course that Christians should take. At 1 Corinthians 5:6-8, he gives this counsel to his Christian brothers: “Do you not know that a little leaven ferments the whole lump? Clear away the old leaven, that you may be a new lump, according as you are free from ferment. For, indeed, Christ our passover has been sacrificed. Consequently let us keep the festival, not with old leaven, neither with leaven of badness and wickedness, but with unfermented cakes of sincerity and truth.”

On Nisan 16, the second day of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes, the high priest waved the firstfruits of the barley harvest, which was the first crop of the year, or what might be called the first of the firstfruits of the land. (Le 23:10, 11) It is significant that Jesus Christ was resurrected on this very day, Nisan 16, in the year 33 C.E. The apostle compares Christ with others who are resurrected, saying: “However, now Christ has been raised up from the dead, the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep in death. . . . But each one in his own rank: Christ the firstfruits, afterward those who belong to the Christ during his presence.” Christ is also called “the firstborn among many brothers.”​—1Co 15:20-23; Ro 8:29.

See PENTECOST.

(Fesʹtus) [from Lat., Festal; Joyful].

Governor of the Roman province of Judea after the recall of Felix to Rome. (Ac 24:27) The year of this change in governors is not definitely known; the only sources of information are the Bible and Josephus, and neither sheds light on the appointment by Nero. There are two schools of critics, one arguing for the arrival of Porcius Festus in Judea as early as 54 C.E., the other as late as 61. Historians tend to favor a time between 58 and 61 C.E. The year 58 C.E., as given by Young’s Analytical Concordance to the Bible (p. 342), seems to be the most likely date of Festus’ accession as governor of Judea.

Three days after Festus arrived in Caesarea he journeyed to Jerusalem, evidently to familiarize himself with the problems of the people he was to govern. Paul was in Caesarea, left over as a prisoner from the administration of Felix. The Jewish chief priests and principal men wasted no time in requesting that he be brought to Jerusalem, as they hoped to ambush him and kill him on the way. Instead, Festus decided on a retrial for Paul and ordered the accusers to appear before his judgment seat in Caesarea. After the “trial” Festus was convinced of Paul’s innocence and later confessed to King Agrippa II: “I perceived he had committed nothing deserving of death.” (Ac 25:25) Earlier, “desiring to gain favor with the Jews,” Festus had asked if Paul would volunteer to go to Jerusalem for trial. (Ac 25:9) Paul, however, replied: “No man can hand me over to them as a favor. I appeal to Caesar!”​—Ac 25:11.

Now Festus was faced with a new problem. In explaining to Agrippa that he had this prisoner to send to Rome, yet had no charges to lay against him, Festus observed: “It seems unreasonable to me to send a prisoner and not also to signify the charges against him.” (Ac 25:27) Agrippa offered to hear Paul himself with a view to resolving the problem. In his defense, Paul made such an eloquent and stirring speech that Festus was moved to exclaim: “You are going mad, Paul! Great learning is driving you into madness!” (Ac 26:24) Paul then turned to Agrippa with a strong appeal, eliciting Agrippa’s remark: “In a short time you would persuade me to become a Christian.” (Ac 26:28) Later Agrippa said to Festus: “This man could have been released if he had not appealed to Caesar.” This decision was entirely providential, for the Lord beforehand had disclosed to Paul: “Be of good courage! . . . you must also bear witness in Rome.”​—Ac 23:11; 26:32.

In comparison with the oppressive administration of Felix, that of Festus is rated as being generally favorable. He suppressed the terrorist bandits known as the Assassins, or Sicarii (dagger men), and in other ways tried to uphold Roman law. One ruling of Festus, however, was reversed on appeal to Rome. Agrippa built his dining room overlooking the sacred temple area, whereupon the Jews constructed a wall to obstruct the view. Festus ordered that the wall be removed on the grounds that it blocked out the view of the soldiers, but when the case was appealed to Rome the wall was allowed to stand. Festus died in office and was succeeded by Albinus.

See BOND.

An abnormal elevation in the temperature of the body. Fever can be an indicator of the presence of disease. Though high fever may result in loss of weight, body fluids, and salt, accompanied by headaches and other discomfort, the fever itself is frequently part of the body’s fight against infection. However, when an outstanding symptom of a disease is a high fever, the name of the disease may indicate this, as in the case of scarlet fever, yellow fever, and dengue fever.

Malaria is one of the most common febrile diseases (that is, diseases accompanied by fever) in the Middle East. Dysentery is another febrile disease, one specifically mentioned in the Bible. (Ac 28:8) This ailment is characterized by severe inflammation of the colon, at times producing evacuation of blood and mucus. At Leviticus 26:16 the Hebrew word qad·daʹchath is translated “burning fever”; at Matthew 8:14 the Greek verb py·resʹso means “be sick with fever,” or, literally, “burn with fever.”

While the Law with its provisions was primarily for Israel’s spiritual benefit and to maintain its separateness from the pagan nations, an examination of the dietary and sanitary regulations of the Law reveals that it had a beneficial secondary effect in protecting the nation against the causes and spread of many diseases, including certain infectious febrile diseases.

(1) The diet of the Hebrews did not normally include a great deal of meat, but when a family wanted to slaughter a domestic animal for meat, they took the animal to the sanctuary (unless, after they entered the Promised Land, the family lived too far away). (Le 17:3-5; De 12:20-27) They ate the meat after the priest offered some of it on the altar and received his portion. Some communion sacrifices were to be eaten on the same day. Others could not be eaten after the second day, but the flesh was to be burned with fire. Considering Palestine’s warm climate and the lack of refrigeration, these requirements safeguarded the Israelites against febrile illnesses that can result from toxins that are produced when certain organisms multiply rapidly on meat that is not kept under refrigeration, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella. (2) The flesh of certain prohibited animals, such as pigs, hares, carrion-eating animals and birds, rodents, and certain water animals and fish, is known to be a possible contributory factor in various diseases that are often accompanied by fever. (Le 11:1-31) (3) The sanitary regulations helped safeguard the cooking utensils and also the drinking-water supply from contamination, a source of typhoid and other febrile diseases. (Le 11:32-38) (4) Anyone either touching the body of an animal that died of itself or eating some of it had to cleanse himself, thus safeguarding against the spread of organisms identified with certain febrile diseases. (Le 11:39, 40) (5) The laws commanding the covering of fecal waste by each individual, also the covering of blood with dust, protected against febrile diseases such as hepatitis. (Le 17:13; De 23:12, 13) (6) The moral laws would practically eliminate all sexually transmitted disease, which disease can affect all organs of the body and is frequently accompanied by fever. (Le 18:20, 22, 23) (7) The quarantine laws worked to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.​—Le 13; Nu 19:11, 12, 16; 31:19.

Jehovah warned Israel that if they went contrary to his commandments, they would undergo exhaustion from hunger, a contributory factor in many febrile diseases; they would be afflicted with tuberculosis and burning fever, inflammation and feverish heat; they would suffer boils, skin eruptions (sicknesses that are often accompanied by fever), and blindness. (Le 26:14-16; De 28:22, 27) All of this came to fulfillment after Israel’s repeated rebellions against Jehovah and their violations of his laws.​—Eze 4:16, 17; 33:10.

When Jesus Christ was on earth many persons sick with fevers were healed by him. One case was that of the mother-in-law of the apostle Simon Peter. (Mt 8:14, 15; Mr 1:29-31) Luke, apparently because he was a physician, draws attention to the degree of fever in that case, classifying it as “a high fever.” (Lu 4:38) On one occasion Jesus, in Cana, healed the son of an attendant to King Herod Antipas, although the feverish boy who was dying was about 26 km (16 mi) away in Capernaum. As a result, the man and his entire household became believers.​—Joh 4:46-54.

The apostle Paul used the God-given power of healing, one of the miraculous gifts through Jesus Christ to certain members of the early Christian congregation (1Co 12:7-9, 11, 30), to cure the father of Publius, the principal man and a landowner of the island of Malta, who was distressed with fever and dysentery. On learning of this, the island’s natives came to Paul, and he healed many of their various sicknesses.​—Ac 28:7-9.

The Hebrew word sa·dhehʹ, which is most frequently rendered “field,” may denote a hunting ground, a tract of land used for pasturage or farming, an uncultivated wooded area, a mountaintop, or even a region occupied by a certain people, for example, “the field of Moab”; the term is also used in contrast with “city.” (Ge 27:5; 31:4; 37:5-7; Jg 9:32, 36; 1Sa 14:25; Nu 21:20; De 28:3) The Greek term a·grosʹ refers to a cultivated “field” (Mt 13:24), the “country” as opposed to the city (Mr 16:12), and, in the plural, the “countryside” (Mr 5:14).

Moreover, the combined tracts of several individual owners might be viewed jointly as “the field,” as is seen from the account of Ruth. In going out to “the field,” Ruth by chance “lighted on the tract of the field belonging to Boaz,” indicating that Boaz owned only a section of the area. (Ru 2:2, 3) While vineyards and gardens were apparently enclosed, the indications are that fields were not. (Nu 22:24; Ca 4:12) The Law commanded that no one move the boundary marks of his fellowman, indicating that this was relatively easy to do. (De 19:14) According to the Law, unwalled settlements were accounted as part of the field of the country.​—Le 25:31.

Fires could easily spread from one field to another, and care had to be exercised to keep domestic animals in check so that they would not wander into someone else’s field. (Ex 22:5, 6) At Isaiah 28:25 spelt is said to be sown as a boundary. Perhaps by planting this inferior grade of wheat around the outer edges of their fields, farmers could, to some extent, protect their more valuable crops, such as wheat and barley, from cattle that might enter the edges of the field.

Likely it was possible to go through the field by means of footpaths, and these could also have served to separate one tract of land from another, for it is most improbable that Jesus and his disciples would have walked right through a field of grain, trampling some of the grain as they went along. If they had done this, the Pharisees undoubtedly would have taken issue on this point also. (Lu 6:1-5) It may have been with reference to such paths that Jesus, in his illustration about the sower, mentioned the seeds that fell alongside the road.​—Mt 13:4.

See AKELDAMA.

The Hebrew noun sa·raphʹ, in its plural form, is translated “seraphs” in Isaiah 6:2, 6 and literally means “fiery one,” or “burning one.” It is also used in conjunction with the general Hebrew term for serpent (na·chashʹ) and has been translated “poisonous,” perhaps referring to the burning and inflaming effect of the venom. (De 8:15) It is first mentioned at the time of God’s inflicting punishment on the rebellious Israelites by sending “poisonous serpents [han·necha·shimʹ has·sera·phimʹ]” among them. After Moses’ intercession, Jehovah instructed him to make “a fiery snake” and place it on a signal pole. If those bitten would look at it, they would be healed and would live. Moses formed the snake of copper. (Nu 21:6-9; 1Co 10:9) Jesus gave prophetic significance to this by stating: “Just as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, so the Son of man must be lifted up, that everyone believing in him may have everlasting life.”​—Joh 3:14, 15.

At Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 “a flying fiery snake” is mentioned in God’s judgment against Philistia and in the description of the wilderness area to the S of Judah. The expression “flying” is considered by some to refer to the rapid darting or lightninglike striking through the air done by venomous snakes when attacking.

[Heb., teʼe·nahʹ; Gr., sy·keʹ, syʹkon].

Along with the olive and the vine, the fig tree (Ficus carica) is one of the most prominent plants of the Bible, receiving mention in more than 50 texts. (Jg 9:8-13; Hab 3:17) The fig is native to SW Asia, Israel, Syria, and Egypt and is noted for its remarkable longevity. While the tree will grow wild, to produce good fruitage it needs cultivation. (Lu 13:6-9) It is quite adaptable to various kinds of soil, even doing well in rocky soil. It may reach a height of about 9 m (30 ft), with a trunk diameter of about 0.6 m (2 ft), and it has wide-spreading branches. While it is primarily appreciated for its fruit, it is also highly valued for its good shade. (Joh 1:48-50) The leaves are large, measuring as much as 20 cm (8 in.) or more in width. The first mention of the fig is in regard to the sewing together of its leaves for use as loin coverings by Adam and Eve. (Ge 3:7) In some parts of the Middle East, fig leaves are still sewed together and used for wrapping fruit and for other purposes.​—See SYCAMORE.

Early and Late Crops. There are, basically, two crops of figs produced annually by the trees: the first ripe figs, or early figs (Heb., bik·ku·rahʹ), which mature in June or early July (Isa 28:4; Jer 24:2; Ho 9:10), and the later figs, which grow on the new wood and make up the main crop, generally maturing from August onward. The early figs may be easily shaken from the tree when ripe, and they are prized for their delicate flavor.​—Na 3:12.

About February, the first fruit buds appear on the branches from the previous season, and these precede the leaves by about two months, since the leaves do not usually appear until the final part of April or in May. (Mt 24:32) At Song of Solomon 2:13 the first signs of maturity in the new green figs (Heb., pagh) are mentioned in connection with the flowering of the grapevines, which flowering begins about April. Hence, by the time the tree is in full leaf it should also be bearing fruit. The fig tree that Jesus Christ cursed seems to have been abnormally early with its leaves, inasmuch as it was then Nisan 10 of the year 33 C.E. Its appearance gave basis for hoping it might also be unseasonably early in producing fruit suitable for eating, and the record at Mark 11:12-14 indicates that Jesus approached the tree with that thought in mind even though “it was not the season of figs,” that is, the time for the fruit to be gathered. The tree’s having nothing but leaves showed it was not going to produce any crop and was, therefore, deceptive in its appearance. Jesus cursed it as unproductive, causing it to wither.​—Compare Mt 7:19; 21:43; Lu 13:6-9.

Food and Medicinal Use. Figs were a staple source of food in Bible times and continue to be such in several Middle Eastern countries. They were formed into “cakes of pressed figs” (Heb., deve·limʹ), which were convenient for carrying. (1Sa 25:18; 30:12; 1Ch 12:40) Such a cake was used as a medicinal poultice for King Hezekiah’s boil, and cakes of this type are still employed in this manner today in the Middle East.​—2Ki 20:7.

Figurative and Prophetic Use. The fig and the vine are mentioned jointly in many texts, and Jesus’ words at Luke 13:6 show that fig trees were often planted in vineyards. (2Ki 18:31; Joe 2:22) The expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree’ symbolized peaceful, prosperous, secure conditions.​—1Ki 4:25; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10.

In view of this prominence of the fig tree in the life of the people, it is understandable why it was so frequently used in prophecy. Because of its importance to the nation’s food supply the utter failure of the fig crop would be calamitous. Thus, the fig tree received special mention when destruction, or ruination, was foretold for the land.​—Jer 5:17; 8:13; Ho 2:12; Joe 1:7, 12; Am 4:9; Hab 3:17.

The nation of Israel itself was likened by Jehovah to two kinds of figs. (Jer 24:1-10) To illustrate how false prophets could be recognized by their bad fruits, Jesus cited the impossibility of getting “figs from thistles.” (Mt 7:15, 16; compare Jas 3:12.) The fig tree’s ‘putting forth its leaves’ toward the middle of the spring season was used by Jesus as a well-known time indicator. (Mt 24:32-34) Finally, the ease with which the ‘unripe fig’ (Gr., oʹlyn·thos) is shaken to the ground by high winds is used as a simile by the writer of Revelation.​—Re 6:13.

[Gr., sy·ko·mo·reʹa].

When short-statured Zacchaeus wanted to get a better look at Christ Jesus he “climbed a fig-mulberry tree.” (Lu 19:4) The Greek name indicates a fig tree (Gr., sy·keʹ) with leaves like those of the mulberry (Gr., mo·reʹa). The two trees are of the same family, and the fig-mulberry mentioned in Luke 19:4 appears to be the same as “the sycamore” (Ficus sycomorus) of the Hebrew Scriptures.​—1Ki 10:27; see SYCAMORE.

The Hebrew expression mil·leʼʹ yadh, translated “consecrate” in many versions, literally means “fill the hand” and is used with reference to putting full power in the hands of those who are to serve in a priestly office. At their installation as priests of Jehovah, Aaron and his sons had their hands filled with power to serve in that capacity. (Ex 28:41; 29:9, 29, 33, 35; Le 8:33; 16:32; 21:10; Nu 3:3) To symbolize this, the ram of installation was killed and cut up, and parts of it together with certain baked items from the basket of unfermented cakes were put by Moses upon the palms of Aaron and his sons, who then waved the offering before Jehovah. Finally the things waved were made to smoke upon the altar on top of the burnt offering.​—Ex 29:19-25; Le 8:22-28; see ANOINTED, ANOINTING; INSTALLATION; PRIEST.

Others, too, filled the hands of their priests with power. Idolatrous Micah empowered first a son and then an unfaithful Levite to be priests for his “house of gods.” (Jg 17:5, 12) Later, King Jeroboam, in instituting calf worship in Israel, installed his own priests from the people in general; the Aaronic priests and the Levites remained loyal to Jehovah’s worship centered at Jerusalem and were, evidently for this reason, driven out of the ten-tribe kingdom.​—1Ki 12:31; 13:33; 2Ch 13:9.

As an instrument of the hand and arm, the finger has a great deal to do with the direction and finer details of the work done by an individual. Because they form part of the hand, in the Bible the fingers are sometimes used synonymously with “hand.” The two words, “fingers” and “hands,” are used in parallel statements in describing the making of idols.​—Isa 2:8.

Figuratively, God is spoken of as accomplishing work with his “finger(s),” such as writing the Ten Commandments on stone tablets (Ex 31:18; De 9:10), performing miracles (Ex 8:18, 19), and creating the heavens (Ps 8:3). That God’s “fingers” employed in creative activity have reference to his holy spirit, or active force, is indicated by the Genesis account of creation, where it is said that God’s active force (ruʹach, “spirit”) moved over the surface of the waters. (Ge 1:2) However, the Christian Greek Scriptures give the key to sure understanding of this symbolic usage, Matthew’s account explaining that Jesus expelled demons by ‘God’s holy spirit’ and Luke’s telling us that it was by “God’s finger.”​—Mt 12:28; Lu 11:20.

Gestures are particularly expressive among Orientals; a small motion often has weighty significance. The Bible portrays the good-for-nothing man as “making indications with his fingers.” (Pr 6:12, 13) Israelites would have to remove from their midst such things as “the poking out of the finger” (possibly in scorn or false accusation) along with the speaking of what was hurtful, if they would obtain God’s favor. (Isa 58:9-11) Because the fingers are prominently before a person’s eyes and are vital in carrying out one’s purposes, God’s people were figuratively to ‘tie his commandments upon their fingers’ as a constant reminder and guide in everything they did.​—Pr 7:2, 3; compare Ps 144:1.

When a delegation asked King Rehoboam for a lighter load of service than his father Solomon had laid upon them, the king was advised by his young attendants to respond that ‘his little finger would be thicker than his father’s hips’; this metaphor meant that he would put a much heavier burden on them. (1Ki 12:4, 10, 11) The Hebrew word used here for “little finger” comes from a root meaning “be small, little, least.”

Jesus Christ used a similar figure of speech in illustrating the harsh, arrogant domination the scribes and Pharisees exercised. Showing the complete unwillingness of these religious leaders to help the burdened people in the least, Jesus said that ‘they bound heavy loads on men’s shoulders but were themselves not willing to budge them with their finger.’ (Mt 23:2-4) In another metaphor Jesus depicted “the rich man” as desiring to get Lazarus to do even the least thing for him (bring only water on “the tip of his finger”), this request being designed to get Lazarus away from his favored position with Abraham.​—Lu 16:22, 24.

One of the Rephaim who fought against Israel was a man of extraordinary size, a genetic freak, having his fingers and toes in sixes, 24 in all.​—2Sa 21:20; 1Ch 20:6; see also THUMB.

A linear measurement, the smallest mentioned in the Bible. A fingerbreadth equaled 1⁄4 handbreadth or 1⁄24 cubit (1.85 cm; 0.72 in.). At Jeremiah 52:21 the thickness of the copper used for the pillars Jachin and Boaz is given as four fingerbreadths (7.4 cm; 2.9 in.).​—1Ki 7:15, 21.

As today, so also in Bible times fire played an important role in man’s life. The refining, forging, and casting of metals, along with the preparing of food and the heating of homes, as well as the offering of sacrifices and the burning of incense, are among the things specifically mentioned in the Bible as requiring the use of fire. However, because of the destructiveness of uncontrolled fire, it is described as one of the four things that have not said: “Enough!” (Pr 30:15, 16) For the same reason James compared the tongue when used wrongly to a fire.​—Jas 3:5-8; compare Pr 16:27.

The first man and woman were acquainted with fire, for Jehovah, upon expelling them from the garden of Eden, posted at the E of the garden “the cherubs and the flaming blade of a sword that was turning itself continually.” (Ge 3:24) Cain and Abel may have brought their offerings to Jehovah before the cherubs and, though it is not directly stated in the Scriptures, likely they used fire in presenting them, or they may have expected fire to come from the cherubs to consume the sacrifices. (Ge 4:3, 4) Tubal-cain, in forging tools of copper and iron, must have employed the heat of intense fires, especially since the melting of iron requires a temperature of 1,535° C. (2,795° F.). (Ge 4:22) After the Flood, bricks were baked with “a burning process,” although some were merely sun dried. (Ge 11:3) In view of the difficulty faced in kindling a fire anew, it was evidently a frequent practice to transfer fire from one place to another.​—Ge 22:6; Isa 30:14.

In Connection With God’s Purposes. Jehovah’s angel appeared to Moses in a flame of fire in a burning thornbush that was not consumed. (Ex 3:2) A pillar of fire by night guided the Israelites through the wilderness, which pillar later rested over the tabernacle, signifying Jehovah’s presence. (Ex 13:21; 40:38) The manifestation of Jehovah’s glory in fire at the giving of the Law to Israel caused Mount Sinai to smoke.​—Ex 19:18; 24:17.

As relates to the tabernacle and the temple. Fire figured in the worship carried on at the tabernacle and then later at the temple. Each morning and between the two evenings, the high priest was to burn incense on the altar of incense. (Ex 30:7, 8) God’s law required that the fire on the altar of burnt offering be kept burning continually. (Le 6:12, 13) The traditional Jewish view that the altar fire was originally kindled miraculously by God, though widely accepted, is not actually supported by the Scriptures. According to Jehovah’s initial instructions to Moses, the sons of Aaron were to “put fire on the altar and set wood in order on the fire” before placing the sacrifice on the altar. (Le 1:7, 8) It was after the installation of the Aaronic priesthood, and therefore after the installation sacrifices had been offered, that fire from Jehovah, probably proceeding from the cloud over the tabernacle, consumed the offering then upon the altar. In view of this, the miraculous fire manifested itself, not in kindling the wood on the altar, but in “consuming the burnt offering and the fatty pieces upon the altar.” The fire that then continued to burn on the altar, of course, was likely a result of the mixture of the fire from God and the fire already on the altar. (Le 8:14–9:24) Likewise, miraculous fire from Jehovah consumed the sacrifices right after Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the temple.​—2Ch 7:1; see also Jg 6:21; 1Ki 18:21-39; 1Ch 21:26 for other examples of Jehovah’s use of miraculous fire when accepting the offerings of his servants.

Legal provisions, and use in executions. The Mosaic Law prohibited lighting a fire on the Sabbath. (Ex 35:3) According to the Law, if a fire got out of hand and caused a conflagration in the field of another, the one starting the fire had to make compensation. (Ex 22:6) Garments or articles of skin in which a plague of leprosy developed and persisted were to be burned. (Le 13:53-58) In the case of certain violations of God’s law, the individuals were stoned to death and then their bodies were burned with fire. (Le 20:14; 21:9; Jos 7:15, 25) If an Israelite city turned to apostasy, its inhabitants were to be struck down with the sword, and the city and its spoil were to be burned in the fire.​—De 13:12-16.

In carrying out war operations against their enemies, the Israelites consigned certain cities to the fire. (Nu 31:10; Jos 6:24; 11:11-13) Also, the graven images and sacred poles were burned. (De 7:5, 25; 12:3) In taking spoil, the Israelites passed metals through the fire, in effect sterilizing them.​—Nu 31:22, 23.

On numerous occasions Jehovah used literal fire in executing his judgments against wrongdoers. (Nu 11:1; 16:35; 2Ki 1:10-12; Jude 7) At the destruction of apostate Judah and Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 607 B.C.E., Jehovah’s anger was figuratively poured out “just like fire.” This expression of anger was accompanied by literal fire. (2Ki 25:9; La 2:3, 4) John the Baptizer warned the religious leaders of his day of a baptism with fire, which came upon Jerusalem in 70 C.E., when the Roman armies destroyed the city and burned its temple.​—Mt 3:7-12.

Use by Opposers of God’s Will. Fire was also used by opposers of God’s will in threats, cruel executions, and sacrifices. Angered Ephraimites threatened Jephthah: “Your very house we shall burn over you with fire.” Similarly, Samson’s 30 Philistine groomsmen threatened to burn his betrothed and her father’s house if she did not get Samson to tell her the solution to a riddle and then advise them accordingly. After Samson sent 300 foxes with lighted torches into the standing grain of the pagan Philistines, the Philistines did burn her and her father with fire. (Jg 12:1; 14:15; 15:4-6) Satan the Devil employed fire “from the heavens” by God’s permission in the special test allowed on Job.​—Job 1:12, 16.

The nations residing in Canaan actually burned their children in the fire as an offering to their false gods. Although specifically commanded by Jehovah not to do this, a violation of this command calling for the death penalty, apostate Israelites sacrificed their own children in the Valley of Hinnom. (Le 20:2-5; De 12:31; 2Ch 28:1-3; Jer 7:31; 19:5) However, faithful King Josiah put an end to this gruesome practice by making Topheth in the Valley of Hinnom unfit for worship.​—2Ki 23:10; see MOLECH.

Figurative Usage. Fire or expressions having the thought of burning, or flaming, are figuratively associated with love (Ca 8:6), passion (Ro 1:27; 1Co 7:9), anger and judgment (Zep 2:2; Mal 4:1), or strong emotion (Lu 24:32; 2Co 11:29). When Jeremiah wanted to refrain from speaking Jehovah’s word, he found this impossible, for it proved to be like a burning fire shut up in his bones. (Jer 20:9) The Scriptures refer to Jehovah as a consuming fire because of his cleanness, purity, and insistence on exclusive devotion, as well as the fact that he annihilates those who set themselves in opposition to him. (De 4:24; 9:3) His ardor and rage burn like fire, and his “tongue” and word are like a fire. (Ps 79:5; 89:46; Isa 30:27; Jer 23:29) Moreover, Jehovah makes his angelic ministers a devouring fire, and by the fire of his zeal “the earth” will be devoured.​—Ps 104:1, 4; Zep 3:8; see also Da 7:9, 10.

Testing, refining, purging. “The messenger of the covenant” is compared to a refiner’s fire, a fire used in purifying gold and silver. Hence, Jehovah’s fiery testing of “the sons of Levi” by the messenger of the covenant brings about their cleansing. (Mal 3:1-3; see REFINE, REFINER.) A test by fire also reveals the quality of a material, as pointed out by the apostle Paul when emphasizing the importance of building on Jesus Christ with fire-resistant materials.​—1Co 3:10-15.

Fire and salt were associated with the sacrifices offered at the temple. (Le 2:9, 13; Eze 43:24) Salt represented freedom from corruption and was a symbol of enduring loyalty, as found in the expression “covenant of salt.” (2Ch 13:5) Of what, then, is the fire symbolic?

The apostle Peter refers to trials or sufferings as a “fire” that proves the quality of the Christian’s faith. (1Pe 1:6, 7) Later, he likens suffering for righteousness to a burning when he tells his fellow Christians: “Do not be puzzled at the burning among you, which is happening to you for a trial, . . . you are sharers in the sufferings of the Christ, that you may rejoice and be overjoyed also during the revelation of his glory.” (1Pe 4:12, 13) That such suffering for righteousness has a beneficial effect is pointed out by the apostle Paul when he says: “Tribulation produces endurance.” (Ro 5:3) A person who faithfully and successfully passes through a difficult “burning” trial is stronger and more solidly established as a result of his endurance.​—Ac 14:22; Ro 12:12.

Destruction. In Bible times the most thorough means of destruction in use was fire. (Jos 6:24; De 13:16) Hence Jesus at times used the term “fire” in an illustrative way to denote the complete destruction of the wicked. (Mt 13:40-42, 49, 50; compare Isa 66:24; Mt 25:41.) On one occasion Jesus warned his disciples against letting their hand, foot, or eye stumble them so that they would be pitched into Gehenna. Then he went on to say: “Everyone must be salted with fire.” He must have meant that “everyone” who did what he had just warned against would be salted with the “fire” of Gehenna, or eternal destruction.​—Mr 9:43-49; see GEHENNA.

Peter wrote that “the heavens and the earth that are now are stored up for fire.” From the context and in the light of other scriptures, it is evident that this is not a literal fire but signifies everlasting destruction. As the Flood of Noah’s day did not destroy the literal heavens and earth, but only the ungodly persons, so also the revelation of Jesus Christ with his powerful angels in a flaming fire will result in permanent destruction only for the ungodly and the wicked system of things of which they are a part.​—2Pe 3:5-7, 10-13; 2Th 1:6-10; compare Isa 66:15, 16, 22, 24.

Further examples of the use of fire to represent eternal destruction are found in Revelation and Ezekiel. There we are told that “the ten horns” and “the wild beast” will turn upon Babylon the Great and burn her with fire. (Re 17:16, 17) The attack of Gog and his hordes against God’s people arouses Jehovah’s anger, and fire and sulfur will rain down upon them. The remaining war implements of the attackers will be used to light fires for seven years. (Eze 38:19, 22; 39:6, 9, 10) Those nations who become rebellious when Satan is released at the end of the Thousand Year Reign of Christ will be devoured by fire, and the Devil and all those not written in the book of life will be cast into the lake of fire, representing the second death.​—Re 20:7-10, 15; 21:8; see HINNOM, VALLEY OF; LAKE OF FIRE.

Fire holders were used in various ways in connection with the service at the sanctuary. There were gold fire holders that apparently served as containers for holding the pieces of burnt lampwick removed from the lamps on the golden lampstand. (Ex 25:38; 37:23; Nu 4:9) The copper fire holders of the altar of burnt offering evidently served as ashpans or utensils for removing coals from the fire. (Ex 27:3; 38:3) Additionally, fire holders were used to burn incense. (Le 10:1) Each morning and between the two evenings, the high priest made perfumed incense smoke upon the golden altar of incense.​—Ex 30:7, 8.

The fire holders as well as the other utensils used with the lampstand and with the altar of burnt offering had to be covered when the Israelites broke camp and the tabernacle was transported to another location during their journeys.​—Nu 4:9, 14.

Solomon made fire holders of gold and silver for the temple, the plans of which had been given to David by inspiration. Possibly these were of more ornate form than those used in the tabernacle in the wilderness. (1Ki 7:48-50; 1Ch 28:11-19; 2Ch 4:19-22) Mention is made of genuine gold and silver fire holders being taken from the temple at the time of the Babylonian exile.​—2Ki 25:15; Jer 52:19.

At Hebrews 9:4 reference is made to an object that, along with the ark of the covenant, pertained to or was associated with the Most Holy. In Greek it is called thy·mi·a·teʹri·on. That word refers to something connected with the burning of incense. Was it the altar of incense? Some translations present the matter that way, and the use of the word by Philo and Josephus with reference to the altar of incense is cited in support. (NIV, NE, JB, RS) Of course, it is well known that the altar of incense was not actually in the Most Holy. (Ex 30:1, 6) But it was immediately outside the curtain, or “toward the innermost room,” as 1 Kings 6:22 puts it. (Compare Ex 40:3-5.) On the other hand, thy·mi·a·teʹri·on can properly be rendered “censer,” and a censer was actually taken into the Most Holy by the high priest on Atonement Day. (Le 16:12, 13) In the Greek Septuagint, the word thy·mi·a·teʹri·on is always used with reference to the censer (2Ch 26:19; Eze 8:11, LXX), though a different word is used at Leviticus 16:12 when describing events of Atonement Day. The Jewish Mishnah, however, indicates that a special golden censer came to be used on Atonement Day. (Yoma 4:4; 5:1; 7:4) So, with good reason, some translators prefer to render thy·mi·a·teʹri·on as “censer.”​—NW, CC, Dy, Yg, Da, Kx.

Misuses. Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu used their fire holders to offer illegitimate fire before Jehovah and lost their lives as a result. (Le 10:1, 2) Likewise the rebellious 250 men headed by Korah were consumed by fire when they presented their copper fire holders before Jehovah. (Nu 16:16-19, 35, 39) King Uzziah was smitten with leprosy while using a censer illegally. (2Ch 26:18, 19) The 70 older men of Israel seen in Ezekiel’s vision were using censers to offer incense to idols.​—Eze 8:10, 11; see INCENSE.

The firstborn is primarily the oldest son of a father (rather than the firstborn of the mother), the beginning of the father’s generative power (De 21:17); also, the initial male offspring of animals, at times designated as “firstlings.”​—Ge 4:4.

From earliest times the firstborn son held an honored position in the family and was the one who succeeded to the headship of the household. He inherited a double portion of the father’s property. (De 21:17) Reuben was seated by Joseph at a meal according to his right as firstborn. (Ge 43:33) But the Bible does not always honor the firstborn by listing sons according to birth. The first place is often given to the most prominent or faithful of the sons rather than to the firstborn.​—Ge 6:10; 1Ch 1:28; compare Ge 11:26, 32; 12:4; see BIRTHRIGHT; INHERITANCE.

The firstborn came into considerable prominence at the time that Jehovah delivered his people from slavery in Egypt. Among the Egyptians, the firstborn were dedicated as sacred to the sun-god Amon-Ra, the supposed preserver of all the firstborn. The tenth plague that Jehovah brought upon the Egyptians served to discredit this god and showed up his inability to protect the firstborn. By obeying God’s instructions concerning the slaying of a lamb and the splashing of its blood on the doorposts and upper part of the doorway of their houses, the Israelites did not lose their firstborn in death, whereas all the firstborn of the Egyptians, of both man and beast, were slain. (Ex 12:21-23, 28, 29) Evidently the firstborn son of each household is meant in most cases and not the head of the household, even though he may have been a firstborn. Pharaoh himself was probably a firstborn and yet his life was not taken. However, it may be that not every Egyptian household had a literal firstborn son (the married couple being childless or the firstborn son having already died), and in view of the statement at Exodus 12:30, “there was not a house where there was not one dead,” the destruction could have included the chief one in the house occupying the position of firstborn.

Since the firstborn sons among the Israelites were those in line to become the heads of the various households, they represented the entire nation. Jehovah, in fact, referred to the whole nation as his “firstborn,” it being his firstborn nation because of the Abrahamic covenant. (Ex 4:22) In view of his having preserved their lives, Jehovah commanded that “every male firstborn that opens each womb among the sons of Israel, among men and beasts,” be sanctified to him. (Ex 13:2) Thus, the firstborn sons were devoted to God.

Later Jehovah took the male Levites, evidently aside from the 300 Levite firstborn (compare Nu 3:21, 22, 27, 28, 33, 34 with 3:39), in place of the firstborn sons of Israel, from those one month old and upward. A ransom price of five shekels ($11) had to be paid to Aaron and his sons for each of the 273 in excess of the Levites. Also, Jehovah took the domestic animals of the Levites in place of the firstborn domestic animals of the other tribes. (Nu 3:40-48) From that time forward, a firstborn son was to be presented to Jehovah at the tabernacle or temple after the period of the mother’s uncleanness and be redeemed by the payment of the estimated value for those from a month up to five years old, “five silver shekels by the shekel of the holy place.”​—Le 12:1-3; 27:6; Nu 18:15, 16.

The firstborn males of clean animals, such as the bull, lamb, or goat, were not to be redeemed. Such a bull was not to be worked, nor was the lamb to be sheared. Instead, they were to be presented to Jehovah as a sacrifice at the tabernacle or temple on the eighth day after birth. (Ex 22:30; Nu 18:17; De 15:19, 20) If, however, the animal had a bad defect, it was not to be sacrificed to Jehovah but was to be eaten at one’s place of dwelling.​—De 15:21-23.

The firstborn of an ass, an unclean animal, could not be presented as a sacrifice and, therefore, was to be redeemed, or bought back, by substituting a sheep in its place. Otherwise, its neck was to be broken, since it belonged to Jehovah and was not to be used by man. (Ex 13:12, 13; 34:19, 20) However, Leviticus 27:27 reads: “If it is among the unclean beasts and he must redeem it according to the estimated value, he must then give a fifth of it in addition to it. But if it should not be bought back, it must then be sold according to the estimated value.” Some commentators view this text as a modification of the regulation concerning the redeeming of an ass. Apparently, though, Leviticus 27:27 deals with a different matter. Instead of referring to an unclean animal, such as an ass, the words “if it is among the unclean beasts” may denote an animal that was unclean in the sense of being unfit for sacrifice because of being blemished.

Why does Jehovah refer to “David my servant” as firstborn, when David was not a firstborn son?

In Psalm 89 Jehovah refers to “David my servant” and reviews the covenant for the kingdom that was made with him. In the midst of this is the statement: “I myself shall place him as firstborn, the most high of the kings of the earth.” (Ps 89:20, 27) David was not a firstborn son. (1Ch 2:13-15) So it seems that Jehovah was referring prophetically to the one foreshadowed by David, God’s own “firstborn” Son in heaven upon whom He confers kingship more exalted than that of any human ruler.​—Compare Eze 34:24, where Messiah is spoken of as “my servant David.”

Jesus Christ is shown to be “the firstborn of all creation” as well as “the firstborn from the dead”​—not merely most distinguished in relation to those created or those resurrected but the first one actually created and the first raised from the dead to endless life. (Col 1:15, 18; Re 1:5; 3:14) On earth he was the firstborn child of Mary and was presented at the temple in accordance with Jehovah’s law. (Lu 2:7, 22, 23) The apostle Paul speaks of the followers of Jesus Christ who have been enrolled in the heavens as “the congregation of the firstborn,” the first ones accepted by God as sons on the basis of their faith in Jesus’ sacrifice and the first of Christ’s followers to be resurrected with no need to die again.​—Heb 12:23.

At Job 18:13 the expression “firstborn of death” is used to denote the most deadly of diseases.

The earliest fruits of a season; the first results or products of anything. The Hebrew word reʼ·shithʹ (from a root meaning “head”) is used in the sense of first part, point of departure, or “beginning” (De 11:12; Ge 1:1; 10:10); the “best” (Ex 23:19, ftn); and “firstfruits” (Le 2:12). “First ripe fruits” is rendered from the Hebrew bik·ku·rimʹ, which is used especially with regard to grain and fruit. (Na 3:12) The Greek term for firstfruits (a·par·kheʹ) comes from a root having the basic meaning “primacy.”

Jehovah required of the nation of Israel that the firstfruits be offered to him, whether it be of man, animal, or the fruitage of the ground. (Ex 22:29, 30; 23:19; Pr 3:9) Devoting the firstfruits to Jehovah would be an evidence of the Israelites’ appreciation for Jehovah’s blessing and for their land and its harvest. It would be an expression of thankfulness to the Giver of “every good gift.”​—De 8:6-10; Jas 1:17.

Jehovah commanded the nation, representatively, to offer firstfruits to him, especially at the time of the Festival of Unfermented Cakes. Then, on Nisan 16, at the sanctuary the high priest waved before Jehovah some of the firstfruits of the grain harvest, a sheaf of barley, which was the first crop of the year based on the sacred calendar. (Le 23:5-12) Again, at Pentecost, on the 50th day after the sheaf of barley was waved, the firstfruits of the wheat harvest in the form of two leavened loaves made of fine flour were presented as a wave offering.​—Le 23:15-17; see FESTIVAL.

Besides these grain offerings by the high priest on behalf of the nation, the Israelites were required to bring the firstfruits of all their produce as offerings. Every firstborn male of man and beast was sanctified to Jehovah, being either offered or redeemed. (See FIRSTBORN, FIRSTLING.) The firstfruits of coarse meal were to be offered in the form of ring-shaped cakes. (Nu 15:20, 21) Fruitage of the soil was also put in baskets and taken by the Israelites to the sanctuary (De 26:1, 2), where they then recited certain words recorded at Deuteronomy 26:3-10. The words were actually an outline of the nation’s history from their entering into Egypt to their deliverance and their being brought into the Promised Land.

It is said that the custom arose whereby each locality would send a representative with the firstfruits contributed by the inhabitants of the district in order that not all would have to undergo the inconvenience of going up to Jerusalem each time that the firstfruits were ripe. The quantity of these firstfruits to be offered was not fixed by the Law; it apparently was left to the generosity and appreciative spirit of the giver. However, the choicest portions, the best of the firstfruits, were to be offered.​—Nu 18:12; Ex 23:19; 34:26.

In the case of a newly planted tree, for the first three years it was considered impure as though uncircumcised. In the fourth year all its fruit became holy to Jehovah. Then, in the fifth year, the owner could gather in its fruit for himself.​—Le 19:23-25.

Contributions of firstfruits to Jehovah by the 12 non-Levitical tribes of Israel were used by the priests and Levites, since they received no inheritance in the land. (Nu 18:8-13) The faithful offering of the firstfruits brought pleasure to Jehovah and a blessing to all parties involved. (Eze 44:30) A failure to bring them would be counted by God as robbing him of his due and would bring his displeasure. (Mal 3:8) In Israel’s history at times this practice was neglected, being restored in certain periods by rulers zealous for true worship. In King Hezekiah’s reformation work, he held an extended celebration of the Festival of the Unfermented Cakes, and on this occasion Hezekiah instructed the people to fulfill their duty with respect to the contribution of firstfruits and tithes. Cheerfully the people responded by bringing in great quantities of the firstfruits of the grain, new wine, oil, honey, and all the produce of the field, from the third month to the seventh. (2Ch 30:21, 23; 31:4-7) After the restoration from Babylon, Nehemiah led the people in taking an oath to walk in Jehovah’s law, including the bringing to him of firstfruits of every sort.​—Ne 10:29, 34-37; see OFFERINGS.

Figurative and Symbolic Use. Jesus Christ was spiritually begotten at the time of his baptism and was resurrected from the dead to life in the spirit on Nisan 16, 33 C.E., the day of the year on which the firstfruits of the first grain crop were presented before Jehovah at the sanctuary. He is, therefore, called the firstfruits, being actually the first firstfruits to God. (1Co 15:20, 23; 1Pe 3:18) The faithful followers of Jesus Christ, his spiritual brothers, are also a firstfruits to God, but not the primary firstfruits, being similar to the second grain crop, the wheat, which was presented to Jehovah on the day of Pentecost. They number 144,000 and are called the ones “bought from among mankind as firstfruits to God and to the Lamb” and “certain firstfruits of his creatures.”​—Re 14:1-4; Jas 1:18.

The apostle Paul also speaks of the faithful Jewish remnant who became the first Christians as being “firstfruits.” (Ro 11:16) The Christian Epaenetus is called “a firstfruits of Asia for Christ” (Ro 16:5), and the household of Stephanas “the firstfruits of Achaia.”​—1Co 16:15.

Since the anointed Christians are begotten by the spirit as sons of God with the hope of resurrection to immortality in the heavens, they are said during their lifetime on earth to “have the firstfruits, namely, the spirit . . . while we are earnestly waiting for adoption as sons, the release from our bodies by ransom.” (Ro 8:23, 24) Paul says that he and fellow Christians with hopes of life in the spirit have “the token of what is to come, that is, the spirit,” which he also says is “a token in advance of our inheritance.”​—2Co 5:5; Eph 1:13, 14.

These and other water animals were brought into existence by God on the fifth creative day. (Ge 1:20-23) Although not authorized to use fish for food until after the Flood, man was from the beginning to have these creatures in subjection. (Ge 1:28; 9:2, 3) But instead of exercising proper dominion over the animals, some men became “empty-headed” in their reasonings and came to venerate the creation. (Ro 1:20-23) For example, the Babylonian Ea, a god of the waters, was depicted as a man covered with a body that was part fish; the Syrian Atargatis was a fish goddess; and in Egypt certain kinds of fish were viewed as sacred and were even mummified. Such fish worship was, of course, prohibited in God’s law to Israel.​—De 4:15-18.

It was most appropriate that Jesus Christ, “the Son of man” (Mt 17:22), who was to have even the fish in subjection, on two occasions demonstrated his power by filling the nets of his apostles with miraculous catches of fish. (Ps 8:4-8; Heb 2:5-9; Lu 5:4-7; Joh 21:6) Faced with the paying of the temple tax, Jesus also exercised his dominion when he instructed Peter: “Go to the sea, cast a fishhook, and take the first fish coming up and, when you open its mouth, you will find a stater coin. Take that and give it to them for me and you.”​—Mt 17:24-27.

Fish as Food. Fish, a highly nutritious and easily digestible food, evidently was an important item in the diet of the Egyptians as well as of the enslaved Hebrews, for in the wilderness the mixed crowd and the sons of Israel longed for the fish they used to eat in Egypt. (Nu 11:5) The Egyptian economy therefore suffered heavily when the fish in the Nile died as a result of Jehovah’s turning Egypt’s waters into blood.​—Ex 7:20, 21.

Fish continued to be an important food to the Israelites once they were established in the Promised Land. One of the gates of Jerusalem was called the “Fish Gate,” suggesting that a fish market was located there or nearby. (2Ch 33:14) In a later period, as mentioned by Nehemiah, the Tyrians sold fish at Jerusalem even on the Sabbath.​—Ne 13:16.

Commonly prepared by broiling or salting and drying, fish was often eaten along with bread. Likely the fish used by Jesus in miraculously feeding 5,000 men and later 4,000 men, besides women and children, was dried and salted. (Mt 14:17-21; 15:34-38) After his resurrection Jesus ate some broiled fish to prove to his apostles that they were not seeing a spirit, and on another occasion he prepared a breakfast of bread and fish cooked over a charcoal fire.​—Lu 24:36-43; Joh 21:9-12.

Fish of Israel. Fish are plentiful in the inland waters of Palestine, with the exception of the Dead Sea. Among the varieties encountered there are bream, carp, perch, and the unusual mouth-breeding fish such as Chromis simonis. The male of Chromis simonis takes the eggs, about 200 in number, into his mouth, and the young remain there for several weeks after being hatched.

Certain kinds of fish live even in the salt springs near the Dead Sea, but these soon die if placed in water from the sea itself. The reason for this has been ascribed to the presence of a large percentage of magnesium chloride in the Dead Sea. The swift current of the Jordan, particularly at flood stage, sweeps many fish into the Dead Sea, where stupefied fish become food for birds of prey or where their dead bodies are washed up on the shore and eaten by carrion birds. In sharp contrast with this, the prophet Ezekiel, in vision, saw issuing forth from Jehovah’s temple a stream that healed the waters of the Dead Sea, giving rise to a flourishing fishing industry.​—Eze 47:1, 8-10.

Clean and Unclean. Although King Solomon’s wisdom embraced the field of natural history, including a knowledge of fish (1Ki 4:33), not once is a specific kind of fish named in the Scriptures. However, the Law did make a distinction between clean and unclean water animals. Only water animals having fins and scales were ceremonially clean for food; this ruled out such creatures as catfish, eels, lampreys, rays, sharks, and the crustacea, many of which live on sewage and decaying matter and often are contaminated by the bacteria that cause typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. (Le 11:9-12) Israelite fishermen therefore had to separate the fine fish from those unsuitable for food, a point highlighted in Jesus’ illustration of the dragnet.​—Mt 13:47, 48.

The Fish That Swallowed Jonah. In spite of the fact that the Son of God himself testified to the truthfulness of the account about Jonah’s being swallowed by a “huge fish,” this incident is frequently cited with a view to discrediting the reliability of the Scriptural record. (Mt 12:40) Of course, it should be remembered that the Bible simply states that “Jehovah appointed a great fish to swallow Jonah,” the kind of fish not being named. (Jon 1:17) There definitely are sea creatures capable of swallowing a man, among them being the white shark and the sperm whale.​—See Walker’s Mammals of the World, revised by R. Nowak and J. Paradiso, 1983, Vol. II, p. 901; Australian Zoological Handbook, The Fishes of Australia, by G. P. Whitley, Sydney, 1940, Part 1​—The Sharks, p. 125.

Figurative Usage. In the Scriptures men are at times likened to fish. The congregator compared men to fish from the standpoint of their “being ensnared at a calamitous time” like fish in a net. (Ec 9:12) Jesus Christ constituted his followers as fishers of men, and he likened righteous persons to fine fish and the wicked to unsuitable fish that are thrown away.​—Mr 1:17; Mt 13:47-50; see HUNTING AND FISHING.

See GATE, GATEWAY.

See HUNTING AND FISHING.

The act of pleasing by artful commendation; adulation; false, insincere, or excessive praise. It is usually done to gratify the self-love or vanity of the one flattered and is therefore damaging to him. Its motive is to gain favor or material benefits from another, to create a feeling of obligation toward the flatterer or to bring glory to him. Often it is designed to lead the other person into a trap. (Pr 29:5) The use of flattery is not evidence of the wisdom from above; it is of this world, being characterized by selfishness, the making of partial distinctions, and hypocrisy. (Jas 3:17) Insincerity, lying, adulating or glorifying men, and playing on the vanity of others are all displeasing to God.​—2Co 1:12; Ga 1:10; Eph 4:25; Col 3:9; Re 21:8.

A contrast of the Christian course with that of flattery is found in the apostle’s words at 1 Thessalonians 2:3-6: “For the exhortation we give does not arise from error or from uncleanness or with deceit, but, just as we have been proved by God as fit to be entrusted with the good news, so we speak, as pleasing, not men, but God, who makes proof of our hearts. In fact, at no time have we turned up either with flattering speech, (just as you know) or with a false front for covetousness, God is witness! Neither have we been seeking glory from men, no, either from you or from others, though we could be an expensive burden as apostles of Christ.”

While the use of flattery may appear to be the gainful course, the Bible points out that “he that is reproving a man will afterward find more favor than he will that is flattering with his tongue.” (Pr 28:23) When a person employs flattery to gain advantage over another person, it is the opposite of love. A hater may resort to flattery but will eventually have his deceptiveness roll back on him like a stone.​—Pr 26:24-28.

Flattery employs smooth talk in order to beguile its victim. The expressions “flattery,” “smooth tongue (lip, or words)” (Ps 5:9; 12:2, 3; Da 11:32), “smoothness” (Pr 7:21; Da 11:34, ftn), and “double-faced” (Eze 12:24, ftn) are translations of the Hebrew root word cha·laqʹ or related words. In every Bible instance cited, the motive of the smooth talker is bad.

An example of the disastrous result of accepting flattery and the praise of men is Herod Agrippa I, who was flatteringly praised by the crowd as speaking with “a god’s voice.” Because he accepted the flattery and did not give the glory to God, he was struck by God’s angel and died. (Ac 12:21-23) On the other hand, Barnabas and Paul quickly prevented a crowd from deifying them. (Ac 14:11-15) Also, when a Jewish ruler attempted application of the flattering title “Good Teacher” to Jesus Christ, Jesus instantly corrected him, saying: “Why do you call me good? Nobody is good, except one, God.”​—Lu 18:18, 19; compare Job 32:21, 22.

[Heb., peʹsheth, pish·tahʹ; Gr., liʹnon].

A plant that has been cultivated from ancient times, the fibers of which were, as now, commonly made into linen. Flax (Linum usitatissimum) may grow from 0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4 ft) in height. The slender stalk of the plant, with its pale-green linear leaves, branches out only at the top. Each branch or branchlet terminates in a deep- or pale-blue (rarely white), five-petal flower.​—PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 544.

When the flax had “flower buds” it was ready for harvesting (Ex 9:31), which was done by pulling or hoeing it up. The flax was then dried. Likely the stalks of flax on the roof of Rahab’s house at Jericho had been laid there for this purpose.​—Jos 2:6.

The method employed by the Hebrews in processing flax probably corresponded to the description given by Pliny the Elder of the first century C.E. in his Natural History (XIX, III, 17, 18) and to the ancient pictorial representation preserved at Beni Hasan in Egypt. After the seedpods had been removed, the stalks of flax were completely submerged in water and weighted down with stones to prevent them from floating. As the flax soaked in water, the woody part rotted, freeing the fibers. After the exterior part, or rind, of the stalks became loose, the stalks were taken out of the water and were repeatedly turned over in the sun until completely dry. The flax was thereafter beaten with mallets on stone slabs, and the fibers were separated and cleansed by combing. The inferior fibers next to the rind were used for lampwicks (see Isa 42:3; 43:17; Mt 12:20), whereas the interior fibers, whiter and of a finer quality, were made into yarn that was polished by striking it again and again on a hard stone.

Low ground and alluvial soil, so characteristic of Egypt, are said to be especially suited for the cultivation of flax. In the ancient world this country was famous for its fine linen. Thus the divinely sent plague of hail, which ruined the flax and the barley, was a severe blow to the economy of Egypt. (Ex 9:23, 31) Later, the pronouncement against Egypt, recorded by Isaiah (19:9), included “the workers in carded flax” among those who would become ashamed.​—See LINEN.

[Heb., par·ʽoshʹ].

A very small wingless parasitic insect. Fleas are usually reddish brown and have short front and middle legs but long hind legs. The flea’s strong and spiny legs as well as its flat sides enable it to move with ease and rapidity between the hairs or feathers of its host. The short rearward-pointing hairs covering this insect’s oval-shaped body not only permit the flea to move forward readily but also make it more difficult for the victim to remove it. The flea’s small head is equipped with a beak that is used to pierce the skin of its victim, causing the blood to flow. Its leaping ability is phenomenal. Although less than 0.3 cm (1⁄8 in.) long, the flea that lives on humans can jump more than 30 cm (1 ft) horizontally and nearly 20 cm (8 in.) vertically. The Biblical variety of flea is probably that called Pulex irritans.

In Scripture the flea is mentioned only twice. When David was being pursued by King Saul, he questioned the king: “After whom are you chasing? . . . After a single flea?” By comparing himself to a flea, David emphasized his littleness in comparison with Saul, thus showing that it was hardly worth while for the king to chase after him. (1Sa 24:14) First Samuel 26:20 conveys a similar thought, but in the Greek Septuagint the words “a single flea” read “my soul.”

The Hebrew ba·sarʹ and the Greek sarx primarily refer to the soft substance of a physical body, whether of man, beast, bird, or fish; more specifically, the parts composed chiefly of muscle and fat. The Bible points out that the flesh of the various kinds of living things differs. (1Co 15:39) This has been found to be the case by researchers; they have noted that the chemical composition and cellular structure of the flesh of mankind, beasts, birds, and fish vary greatly.

Jehovah God the Creator is responsible for the existence of all flesh and for its life. He is referred to in the Bible as “Jehovah the God of the spirits [including the life-force] of all sorts of flesh.” (Nu 27:16; compare Ge 6:17.) He states that the soul (life) of the fleshly creature is in the blood. (Le 17:11-14) Originally, vegetation and fruit, and not flesh, were given man as his diet. But after the Flood, God added animal flesh, commanding, however, that “flesh with its soul​—its blood—​you must not eat.”​—Ge 9:3, 4.

Eating human flesh was mentioned as a curse from God. The Israelites were repulsed by it, as it is naturally repugnant to the human mind. (De 28:45, 53-57; 2Ki 6:28-30) Neither could they eat the flesh of an animal torn by a wild beast, or one that died of itself. These would be detestable, besides not being properly drained of blood.​—Ex 22:31; Le 17:15, 16; De 14:21.

God commanded that, before eating the flesh of an animal, his people were to pour out its blood on the ground and cover it with dust, being careful not to eat the blood, on pain of death. (De 12:23-25; Le 7:27) The governing body of the early Christian congregation restated this prohibition, forbidding the eating of animals strangled or not drained of blood. They additionally forbade eating meat as part of a communion offering to idols, a common practice among pagans in those days. (Ac 15:19, 20, 28, 29) The eating of flesh by Christians is proper, but the apostle Paul pointed out that flesh is not absolutely essential to man as food when he said that if his eating of meat was a source of stumbling to other Christians, he would “never again eat flesh at all.”​—Ro 14:21; 1Co 8:13.

The fleshly body given to man was to be regarded as inviolate and not to be deliberately mistreated or mutilated, either by the person himself or by another.​—Le 19:28; De 14:1; Ex 21:12-27.

Kinship. Kinship is expressed by the term “flesh.” Eve bore the closest possible kinship to Adam in that she was, as he said, “bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh.” (Ge 2:23; see also Ge 29:14; 37:27; 2Sa 5:1.) The close relationship of man and wife is forcefully stated: “They must become one flesh.” (Ge 2:24; Mt 19:5, 6) Paul calls Jesus one “who sprang from the seed of David according to the flesh.”​—Ro 1:3; compare 9:3.

The Person, Humankind, Fleshly Creation. An extension of the idea that flesh composes the visible, tangible parts of the body is the use of the word “flesh” to refer in a general way to the whole body. (Le 17:14; 1Ki 21:27; 2Ki 4:34) It is also used to refer to the person, or individual, as a human of flesh. (Ro 7:18; Col 2:1, 5) All humankind, especially from the viewpoint of God the Spirit, are described as “flesh” (Ge 6:12; Isa 66:16; Lu 3:6), and at times the animal creation is included. (Ge 7:16, 21) The Bible often makes a contrast of flesh with God the Spirit, emphasizing particularly the relative insignificance of man. (Ge 6:3; 2Ch 32:8; Ps 56:4) Jehovah in his superior position nevertheless recognizes and accordingly takes this fact into account in dealing with mankind with surpassing loving-kindness and merciful long-suffering.​—Ps 78:39; compare Ps 103:13-15; 1Pe 1:24, 25.

The word “flesh” may also refer to a part of the body, particularly the male genital organ. Leviticus 15:2 states: “In case any man has a running discharge occur from his genital organ [literally, “his flesh”], his discharge is unclean.”​—Compare Ge 17:11; Ex 28:42; Eph 2:11; Col 2:13.

Spiritual Bodies. The apostle Paul declares that “if there is a physical body, there is also a spiritual one.” (1Co 15:44) This is corroborated by the apostle Peter when he tells persons of fleshly, human nature, called to be joint heirs with Christ, that they are to become partakers of “divine nature,” namely, spirit life in the invisible heavens. (2Pe 1:4) This requires a change in organism, for “flesh and blood cannot inherit God’s kingdom, neither does corruption inherit incorruption.”​—1Co 15:50-54.

Jesus Christ’s Fleshly Body. Jesus, who was “the Word” of God, “out of heaven,” divested himself of spirit nature and “became flesh.” (Joh 1:1; 1Co 15:47; Php 2:5-8; Joh 1:14; 1Ti 3:16) That in being born as a human he was no spirit and that he did not merely assume a fleshly body, as angels had done in the past (Ge 18:1-3; 19:1; Jos 5:13-15), is attested to by the apostle John, who says that one is antichrist who denies that Jesus Christ came “in the flesh.” (1Jo 4:2, 3) In order to provide the ransom for mankind and thereby to help those who would be his associates in the heavenly calling, the Word became flesh, being born all human, no incarnation. The Bible tells us this: “Since the ‘young children’ are sharers of blood and flesh, he also similarly partook of the same things.” (Heb 2:14-16) His earthly sojourn was spoken of as “the days of his flesh.” (Heb 5:7) “The bread that I shall give is my flesh in behalf of the life of the world,” Jesus said. He went on to state that those hoping to remain in union with him must ‘eat his flesh and drink his blood.’ Not appreciating the spiritual, symbolic significance of his words, some construed the statement as cannibalistic and were shocked.​—Joh 6:50-60.

During Jesus’ earthly ministry, although he knew that he would be put to death as the ransom sacrifice, his flesh ‘rested in hope.’ This was because of his knowledge that his Father would resurrect him, that his sacrifice would successfully serve the ransom purpose, and that his flesh would not see corruption. (Ac 2:26, 31) Jehovah God evidently disposed of Jesus’ fleshly body in his own way (possibly disintegrating it into the atoms of which it was constituted). (Lu 24:2, 3, 22, 23; Joh 20:2) Jesus did not take back his fleshly body and thereby cancel out the ransom for which it was given. The apostle Peter testifies that Christ went into heaven, the realm of spirits, not flesh, “he being put to death in the flesh, but being made alive in the spirit.” (1Pe 3:18) Before his ascension to heaven Christ, as a mighty, immortal spirit person, did materialize various fleshly bodies to suit the occasion, for the purpose of giving to his disciples visible, palpable evidence of his resurrection.​—Joh 20:13-17, 25-27; 21:1, 4; Lu 24:15, 16.

In Paul’s letter to the Hebrews the curtain in the sanctuary before the Most Holy, which represented heaven itself, is shown to have been symbolic, representing Jesus’ flesh, for before he sacrificed his fleshly body, the way to life in heaven was not open.​—Heb 9:24; 10:19, 20.

Man in His Imperfection. “Flesh” is often used in the Bible to represent man in his imperfect state, ‘conceived in sin’ as an offspring of rebellious Adam. (Ps 51:5; Ro 5:12; Eph 2:3) In humans who are trying to serve God, ‘the spirit [impelling force emanating from the figurative heart] is eager, but the flesh is weak.’ (Mt 26:41) Within these servants of God there is a constant conflict; God’s holy spirit is a force for righteousness, but the sinful flesh continually wars against the spirit’s influence and exerts pressure to induce the individual to perform the works of the flesh. (Ro 7:18-20; Ga 5:17) The works of sinful flesh are contrasted with the fruitage of the spirit, at Galatians 5:19-23.

The apostle Paul also tells us that the Law given through Moses to Israel was “weak through the flesh,” the imperfect flesh of those who were under the Law. The Law under which the Aaronic priesthood served was spiritual, from God, but by it fleshly persons “sold under sin” were condemned, instead of being pronounced righteous. (Ro 8:3; 7:14; Heb 7:28) The high priests of the fleshly line of Aaron assigned by the Law were not able to offer an adequate sacrifice for sin.​—Heb 7:11-14, 23; 10:1-4.

In saying that “flesh . . . is not under subjection to the law of God, nor, in fact, can it be,” the apostle Paul is not saying that flesh in itself must of necessity be corrupt. He tells us that Jesus Christ, although partaking of blood and flesh, becoming “like his ‘brothers,’” was “guileless, undefiled, separated from the sinners,” “tested in all respects like ourselves, but without sin.” (Ro 8:7; Heb 2:14, 17; 4:15; 7:26) Jehovah proved that human flesh can be sinless. “God, by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and concerning sin, condemned sin in the flesh.” (Ro 8:3) Eventually, through the provision of Christ’s sacrifice, all who exercise faith will become perfect, and God’s righteous laws will then be kept perfectly by mankind.​—Re 21:4.

One of the temptations that influenced Eve to sin was “the desire of the flesh.” The Devil used it against Christ but failed. (1Jo 2:16; Ge 3:6; Lu 4:1-4) Jesus’ followers, by permitting God’s spirit to operate freely in their lives and by Jehovah’s undeserved kindness, defeat the sinful flesh.​—Ga 5:16, 22-26; Ro 8:1-4.

No Fight With Those of Flesh. It is not fleshly reasoning, but Jehovah’s spirit, that reveals God’s purposes to men of faith and that guides them. (Mt 16:17; 1Co 2:9, 14; Eph 3:5) Accordingly, Christians do not carry on their Christian warfare “according to [the] flesh,” and they do not have a fight with persons of flesh and blood; neither do they use fleshly weapons against anyone. Their fight is against “wicked spirit forces in the heavenly places.” (2Co 10:3, 4; Eph 6:12) They trust, not in the ‘arm of flesh,’ but in Jehovah the Spirit. (Jer 17:5; 2Co 3:17) They are striving, with God’s help, to cleanse themselves of “every defilement of flesh and spirit,” and God views and judges them, not according to what they are in the flesh, as man often does, but according to what they are spiritually.​—1Co 4:3-5; 2Co 5:16, 17; 7:1; 1Pe 4:6; see DECLARE RIGHTEOUS; SOUL; SPIRIT.

An extremely hard stone, harder than steel, so hard that when two pieces are struck together a fire can be started from the spark. The Bible makes reference to flint when, in figures of speech, it emphasizes such qualities as hardness, durability, and resistance to opposition.​—Isa 5:28; 50:7; Eze 3:9.

Flint is found in limestone and chalk deposits in Israel and in the northern Sinai Peninsula. It is quite brittle and fractures with a glossy surface. Its chips have very sharp edges, a characteristic that man was quick to recognize and put to use. From very early times knives, axheads, chisels, spearheads, arrowheads, and other tools and weapons have been fashioned out of this rock. It was with a flint that the wife of Moses circumcised her son; when the nation of Israel reached Gilgal similar surgery was successfully performed by the use of knives made of flint. (Ex 4:25; Jos 4:19; 5:2, 3, 8, 9) Jehovah brought water out of flinty rock for his people in the wilderness.​—De 8:15; Ps 114:8.

See BEATING.

See DELUGE.

See MILL.

A musical instrument of the woodwind class. Although there is some dispute as to which modern musical instrument corresponds to the Hebrew cha·lilʹ and its Greek equivalent au·losʹ, many modern translations render the words as “flute,” in harmony with the identification given by lexicographers. (1Sa 10:5; 1Co 14:7, AT, JB, NW, RS) The Hebrew root word from which cha·lilʹ is believed to have been derived signifies “pierce” (Isa 51:9; 53:5), and it may refer to a process used to make a simple flute, namely, to drill out the center of a section of reed, cane, or even bone or ivory and then to perforate it at suitable intervals. Egyptian inscriptions indicate that a variety of flutelike instruments existed in that country. One type was held in an oblique position, with the mouth against the side of the instrument; they also developed a double flute, with the mouth at the end of the two pipes.

The Greek au·losʹ appears to have been used also as a general designation that included instruments of two types: those utilizing a reed in the mouthpiece, as well as simple flutelike pipes. Cha·lilʹ may also have come to be a general term for all woodwinds, but in modern Hebrew the name is applied only to the flute, and traditional Jewish belief is that the cha·lilʹ of Scripture was the flute.

The flute was one of the most popular of all musical instruments, being played at joyous times such as banquets and weddings (Isa 5:12; 30:29; 1Ki 1:40), a custom imitated by children in public places. (Mt 11:16, 17) It was also played at times of sadness. Professional mourners were often accompanied by flutists playing mournful tunes.​—Mt 9:23, 24.

[Heb., zevuvʹ, flies].

A two-winged insect of the genus Musca that usually lays its eggs in decayed or waste matter. The tiny hairs covering the fly’s body and legs as well as the pads of sticky hairs on each foot carry bacteria​—millions of them in the case of a single housefly.

“Dead flies are what cause the oil of the ointment maker to stink, to bubble forth,” wrote the congregator. The putrefaction of dead flies would cause the oil to give off an offensive odor as well as to ferment, ruining it, just as a little foolishness would damage the reputation of one known for his wisdom and glory.​—Ec 10:1.

Isaiah speaks of Jehovah’s whistling for the flies at the extremity of the Nile canals of Egypt and for the bees of the land of Assyria so that these might settle down upon the precipitous torrent valleys, the clefts of the crags, the thorn thickets, and all the watering places of Judah. This is evidently to be understood in a figurative sense, the flies denoting Egypt’s armies and the bees the armies of the Assyrians.​—Isa 7:18, 19.

The name of the god venerated by the Philistines at Ekron, “Baal-zebub,” means “Owner of the Flies.” This has given rise to the thought that his worshipers may have regarded him as being able to control these insects. Since the giving of oracles was associated with Baal-zebub, others have suggested that the name may denote that this god gave oracles by means of the flight or buzzing of a fly.​—2Ki 1:2, 6; see BAAL-ZEBUB; GADFLY.

See BIRDS.

Hebrew and Greek terms rendered “food” have various literal meanings, such as “thing eaten,” “nourishment,” “bread,” and “meat, or flesh.”

After creating Adam and Eve, God said: “Here I have given to you all vegetation bearing seed which is on the surface of the whole earth and every tree on which there is the fruit of a tree bearing seed. To you let it serve as food.” He further stated that to all the animal creation he had given “all green vegetation for food.” To Adam he also said: “From every tree of the garden you may eat to satisfaction,” adding a prohibition on one tree, the tree of the knowledge of good and bad.​—Ge 1:29, 30; 2:16, 17.

From that time until the Flood, the Bible gives no indication that man included the flesh of animals in his diet. True, a distinction was made between clean and unclean animals, but this evidently was with regard to animals used for sacrificial purposes.​—Ge 7:2.

When Noah was commanded to take the animals into the ark, Jehovah told him: “As for you, take for yourself every sort of food that is eaten; and you must gather it to yourself, and it must serve as food for you and for them,” again seemingly having reference to food from the vegetable kingdom for the humans and the animals taken into the ark. (Ge 6:21) After the Flood, Jehovah allowed man to add flesh to his diet, saying: “Every moving animal that is alive may serve as food for you. As in the case of green vegetation, I do give it all to you. Only flesh with its soul​—its blood—​you must not eat.”​—Ge 9:3, 4.

Cereals. Cereals constituted the basic food of the people of Bible lands, as is evident from the fact that in both Hebrew and Greek the expression “eat a meal” literally means “eat bread.” (Ge 43:31, 32) Barley and wheat were the chief cereals; other cereals mentioned are millet and spelt, a form of wheat. (Jg 7:13; Isa 28:25; Eze 4:9; Joh 6:9, 13) Besides being used for bread, ordinary flour was made into a sort of porridge. Grain was often eaten roasted, either by taking a bunch of the grain ears together and holding them over a fire or by roasting them in a pan. (Ru 2:14; 2Sa 17:28) It was made into bread, usually with the grain ground coarsely. However, in some of the bread and cakes a finer flour was used. (Ge 18:6; Ex 29:2) One method of baking was to spread the dough on hot rocks or on a flat surface of rocks on which a fire had been built. Ferment or leaven was often used, while some bread was baked unfermented. (Le 7:13; 1Ki 19:6) Ovens were also employed, in which the lumps of dough were flattened on a stone within. Cakes were sometimes prepared in a pan, on a griddle, or in a deep-fat kettle. The fat used was oil, probably olive oil.​—Le 2:4, 5, 7; 1Ch 9:31; see BAKE, BAKER.

Vegetables. Beans and lentils were included in the diet, being made into a stew such as the lentil stew that Jacob made and for which Esau sold his birthright. (Ge 25:34) Sometimes meat or oil was used with the stew. Flour might be made from beans or could be a mixture of grain cereals, beans, and lentils. (Eze 4:9) Cucumbers of a variety that is more tasty than the Western variety constituted a refreshing food. When water was scarce or bad, these could be eaten to provide a substitute for water. Cucumbers were eaten raw, with or without salt, and were sometimes stuffed and cooked. The Israelites looked back with longing for the cucumbers, the watermelons, the leeks, the onions, and the garlic that they ate in Egypt. (Nu 11:4, 5) These foods were also produced in Palestine.

Job mentions “marshmallow,” the juice of which he describes as tasteless. (Job 6:6) He also speaks of those in destitute circumstances as eating the salt herb and the roots of broom trees.​—Job 30:4.

The Mishnah (Pesahim 2:6) mentions endive and chicory as the bitter greens used at the Passover.​—Ex 12:8.

Fruits and Nuts. The olive was an outstanding article of food in Palestine. The tree may take ten years or longer to begin producing good harvests, but its great longevity makes it very fruitful. The fruits of the olive tree may have been eaten as today, after being soaked in brine. Olives also provided oil for cooking such items as stews and oiled cakes. The Bible mentions “well-oiled dishes.”​—Isa 25:6.

Figs were another important item of diet. (De 8:8) Once spotted on a tree, early figs were often eaten immediately. (Isa 28:4) Late figs were dried in the sun and pressed in molds, forming cakes of figs. (1Sa 25:18; 1Ch 12:40) Used as a poultice, they had healing properties. (Isa 38:21) Besides the common fig tree, a tree known as the sycamore (fig-mulberry) also produced edible figs. (1Ch 27:28; Am 7:14) Other fruits were the date, the pomegranate, and the apple.​—Ca 5:11; Joe 1:12; Hag 2:19; see APPLE.

Among the nuts eaten in Palestine, the Bible mentions almonds and pistachio nuts.​—Ge 43:11; Jer 1:11.

Grapes are one of the most abundant foods in Palestine. When the Israelites spied out the land of Canaan they brought back a great cluster of grapes, carried on a bar between two men. (Nu 13:23) Grapes were eaten in their natural state and also dried (Nu 6:3) and pressed into cakes. (1Sa 25:18; 1Ch 12:40) As today, undoubtedly the young leaves were eaten as a green vegetable; the older leaves were fed to sheep and goats.

The pods of the carob tree were usually fed to animals, although they may have been used for human consumption in time of need. The hungry prodigal son in Jesus’ illustration expressed the desire to feed on them.​—Lu 15:16; see CAROB POD.

Spices and Honey. Spices prominently used for seasoning were mint, dill, cumin, rue, and mustard leaves. (Mt 23:23; 13:31; Lu 11:42) Salt was the chief article of seasoning, also having preservative properties. Thus, “a covenant of salt” was a sure covenant, not to be violated. (Nu 18:19; 2Ch 13:5) Additionally, the Mishnah (Shabbat 6:5) mentions pepper. The caper berry was used as an appetizer.​—Ec 12:5.

Honey was considered a choice food that brightened the eyes with energy. (1Sa 14:27-29; Ps 19:10; Pr 16:24) The manna tasted like flat cakes with honey. (Ex 16:31) John the Baptizer ate honey along with insect locusts.​—Mt 3:4.

Flesh as Food. God told Noah after the Flood that, along with vegetation, he could use for food every moving animal that is alive. (Ge 9:3, 4) But under the Law, the Israelites were restricted to eating what were defined as clean animals. These are listed in Leviticus, chapter 11, and Deuteronomy, chapter 14. The common people did not ordinarily eat much meat. But occasionally a goat or a lamb would be slaughtered for a communion sacrifice or in honor of a guest. (Le 3:6, 7, 12; 2Sa 12:4; Lu 15:29, 30) Among the more well-to-do, beef cattle were slaughtered. (Ge 18:7; Pr 15:17; Lu 15:23) Some of the game animals, such as the stag, gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, antelope, wild bull, and chamois, were eaten, and the meat was roasted or boiled. (Ge 25:28; De 12:15; 14:4, 5) The eating of blood was strictly forbidden, as was the eating of fat.​—Le 7:25-27.

Fowl were also eaten. The Israelites were miraculously furnished with quail in the wilderness. (Nu 11:31-33) Pigeons, turtledoves, partridge, and sparrows were among the clean fowl. (1Sa 26:20; Mt 10:29) Additionally, eggs were an item of food.​—Isa 10:14; Lu 11:11, 12.

Among the edible insects was the locust, which, with honey, formed the food of John the Baptizer. (Mt 3:4) Today locusts are eaten by some Arabs. A favorite preparation is to remove the head, legs, and wings, and then to coat with meal and to fry in oil and butter.

Fish were obtainable from the Mediterranean and also from the Sea of Galilee. Several of the apostles of Jesus Christ were fishermen, and Jesus, on at least one occasion, after his resurrection, prepared some fish over a charcoal fire for his disciples. (Joh 21:9) Fish were also dried, providing convenient food for travelers. The fish of Jesus’ two miracles of feeding multitudes were probably dried fish. (Mt 15:34; Mr 6:38) One of the gates of Jerusalem was named the Fish Gate, probably indicating that there was a fish market at or near it. (Ne 3:3) In the days of Nehemiah, the Tyrians carried on a fish trade in Jerusalem.​—Ne 13:16.

Dairy Products and Beverages. Also important as food were milk and milk products, using milk of cows, goats, or sheep. (1Sa 17:18) Milk was normally kept in skin bottles. (Jg 4:19) It would sour quickly. The Hebrew word chem·ʼahʹ, translated “butter,” can also mean “curdled milk.” Cheese was also a well-known item. In fact, the Tyropoeon (Cheesemakers’) Valley ran along the W side of the very early city of Jerusalem.​—Jg 5:25; 2Sa 17:29; Job 10:10; see CHEESE.

The making of wine was one of the principal uses of the grape. Wine was sometimes spiced and also mixed. (Pr 9:2, 5; Ca 8:2; Isa 5:22) The grape gathering took place in the fall. In a warm climate the juice would not long be free from ferment. Several months intervened between grape harvest and Passover time. At Passover it became the custom for family groups to drink several cups of wine, which, by that time, would be fermented. Hence, in celebrating the Passover of 33 C.E., Jesus drank real red wine, some of which he offered to his disciples in introducing the Lord’s Evening Meal. (Mr 14:23-25) It was also fermented wine that Jesus produced at a wedding feast. (Joh 2:9, 10) Wine was used for medicinal purposes as well. (1Ti 5:23) Vinegar derived from grape wine, pure or mixed with spices or fruit juices, was also used. (Nu 6:3; Ru 2:14) Another drink was wheat beer, and a refreshing drink was made from pomegranate juice.​—Ca 8:2; Isa 1:22; Ho 4:18.

Manna. Manna was the basic food for the Israelites in the wilderness. It is described at Numbers 11:7, 8 as being like coriander seed, having the appearance of bdellium gum. It was ground in hand mills or pounded in a mortar and boiled or made into cakes tasting like an oiled sweet cake. It is spoken of as “the very bread of powerful ones.”​—Ps 78:24, 25; see MANNA.

Eating Together. In Bible times the eating of food together indicated a bond of fellowship. (Ge 31:54; 2Sa 9:7, 10, 11, 13; see MEAL.) To refuse to eat food with someone was an indication of anger or other contrary feeling or attitude. (1Sa 20:34; Ac 11:2, 3; Ga 2:11, 12) Food was often used as a gift, to gain or to ensure the goodwill of another, since the acceptance of a gift was considered to obligate the receiver to observe peaceful relations.​—Ge 33:8-16; 1Sa 9:6-8; 25:18, 19; 1Ki 14:1-3.

Christian Viewpoint. Christians are not under the restriction of the Law as to clean and unclean foods. They are required to abstain from blood and things that are strangled, that is, things from which the blood has not properly been drained. (Ac 15:19, 20, 28, 29) But aside from this Bible injunction, they are not to make the eating or the abstaining from certain kinds of food an issue or try to govern another person’s conscience by their own conscience as regards the eating of food. They are warned, however, against eating food as an offering to idols and against stumbling another person by insisting on exercising their Christian freedom in the matter of eating food. (1Co 8; 10:23-33) Christians should not put the matter of food or its handling ahead of the Kingdom and its spiritual interests.​—Ro 14:17; Heb 13:9.

Spiritual Food. Jesus delighted to do the will of his Father and spoke of it as food to him. (Joh 4:32, 34) He foretold that he would appoint “the faithful and discreet slave” to give (spiritual) food at the proper time to his disciples. (Mt 24:44-47; see FAITHFUL AND DISCREET SLAVE.) Just as Moses had told the Israelites: “Not by bread alone does man live but by every expression of Jehovah’s mouth does man live” (De 8:3), Jesus encouraged his followers to seek, not the material food, but the food that remains for life everlasting. (Joh 6:26, 27; compare Hab 3:17, 18.) He said not to be anxious about food and drink, for “the soul is worth more than food.”​—Mt 6:25; Lu 12:22, 23.

The apostle Paul spoke of the elementary things of Christian doctrine as being “milk” and the deeper knowledge as being “solid food.” (Heb 5:12-14; 6:1, 2; 1Co 3:1-3) Peter, too, spoke of nourishing spiritual growth with “unadulterated milk belonging to the word.” (1Pe 2:2) Jesus called himself “the bread of life,” superior to the manna provided in the wilderness, and he pointed out that he had a supply that would prevent the eater from ever getting hungry. (Joh 6:32-35) He shocked some of his followers who lacked spiritual-mindedness when he likened his flesh and blood to food and drink (upon which they could “feed” by faith in his ransom sacrifice) for everlasting life.​—Joh 6:54-60.

Jehovah promises a time when he will provide an abundance of both spiritual and material food for his faithful people earth wide, with no famine to threaten them.​—Ps 72:16; 85:12; Isa 25:6; see COOKING, COOKING UTENSILS; FAMINE; and items of food under their individual headings.

A bag, usually made of leather, carried over the shoulder by travelers, shepherds, farmers, and others. It was used for food, clothing, and other provisions, but it was not the same as the smaller girdle purse used for gold, silver, and copper coins. (Mt 10:9; Mr 6:8) David’s “shepherds’ bag” was doubtless such a food pouch. (1Sa 17:40) Jesus Christ, when sending out first the 12 apostles and then the 70 disciples to preach in Israel, told them not to carry food pouches. (Mt 10:5, 9, 10; Lu 9:3; 10:1, 4) Jehovah would care for their needs through the hands of fellow Israelites, among whom hospitality was a custom. Just before his death Jesus indicated that circumstances would change as a result of official opposition, so he told his disciples to take along both purse and food pouch. Nevertheless, they were to seek first God’s Kingdom instead of being anxious about material needs; thus they would give evidence that they depended upon Jehovah God to care for them in the ministry.​—Lu 22:35, 36; Mt 6:25-34.

Rather than denoting a person who is lacking in mental ability, the word “fool,” as used in the Bible, generally refers to an individual who spurns reason and follows a morally insensible course out of harmony with God’s righteous standards. Various Hebrew terms denoting such a one are kesilʹ (‘stupid one’; Pr 1:22), ʼewilʹ (“foolish one”; Pr 12:15), na·valʹ (‘senseless one’; Pr 17:7), and lets (“ridiculer”; Pr 13:1). The Greek aʹphron refers to an “unreasonable one” (Lu 12:20), a·noʹe·tos to one “senseless” (Ga 3:1), and mo·rosʹ to a ‘fool’ or “foolish” one (Mt 23:17; 25:2).

The course of the man Nabal illustrates the way of a fool (1Sa 25) as does that of people who know the true God and then worship created things. (Ro 1:20-25) Isaiah said a fool, or senseless person, will speak “mere senselessness, and his very heart will work at what is hurtful, to work at apostasy and to speak against Jehovah what is wayward, to cause the soul of the hungry one to go empty, and he causes even the thirsty one to go without drink itself.” (Isa 32:6) The fool despises wisdom and discipline. (Pr 1:7) Instead of heeding counsel, the fool continues walking in a way he considers “right in his own eyes.” (Pr 12:15) He is quick to take offense and bursts out in disputing. (Ec 7:9; Pr 20:3) He says in his heart (his actions indicating what his lips may not say in so many words): “There is no Jehovah.”​—Ps 14:1.

Jesus Christ rightly referred to the scribes and Pharisees as “fools and blind ones,” that is, persons lacking wisdom and being morally worthless, for they had distorted the truth by man-made traditions and followed a hypocritical course. Moreover, Jesus backed up the correctness of this designation by illustrating their lack of discernment. (Mt 23:15-22; 15:3) However, the individual wrongly calling a brother a “despicable fool,” judging and condemning his brother as being morally worthless, would make himself liable to Gehenna.​—Mt 5:22; Ro 14:10-12; Mt 7:1, 2.

The foolish man who built his house upon the sand and the rich man whose land was producing well, and who therefore planned to expand his storage facilities and then really enjoy life, are examples of Jesus’ fine illustrations from daily life highlighting the foolishness of neglecting spiritual things and thereby missing out on the real blessing. Moreover, failing to “keep on the watch” in a spiritual way is folly, as is emphasized by Jesus’ illustration of the five foolish virgins who, in going out to meet the bridegroom, took no oil with them for their lamps.​—Mt 7:24-27; Lu 12:16-21; Mt 25:1-13.

To become truly wise, a person must become a fool in the eyes of the world, “for the wisdom of this world is foolishness with God.” It is not the worldly wise but those looked down upon as persons without knowledge, fools, whom Jehovah has chosen to represent him. This has resulted in making the foolishness of this world even more apparent. Furthermore, this removes all reason for boasting on the part of the favored individual. Instead, all glory goes rightfully to the Source of wisdom, Jehovah.​—1Co 3:18, 19; 1:18-31.

Answering a fool in harmony with or “according to his foolishness” in the sense of resorting to his degrading methods of argument puts the one so doing in agreement with the fool’s unsound reasonings or ways. In order not to become like the fool in this respect, we are counseled by the proverb: “Do not answer anyone stupid according to his foolishness.” On the other hand, Proverbs 26:4, 5 shows that answering him “according to his foolishness” in the sense of analyzing his contentions, exposing them as being ridiculous, and showing that his own arguments lead to entirely different conclusions from those he has drawn can be beneficial.

The Hebrew reʹghel and the Greek pous basically refer to the lowest part of the leg, the body part upon which a person or an animal stands. Both terms are used literally and figuratively.

In ancient times, as in many parts of the earth today, the feet were the main means of transportation. Some of the common people went barefoot, but sandals consisting of little more than a sole were commonly worn. (See SANDAL.) On entering a house, a person removed his sandals. An essential, virtually obligatory mark of hospitality was to wash the feet of a guest; the service was performed either by the householder or by a servant, or at least water was provided for the purpose.​—Ge 18:4; 24:32; 1Sa 25:41; Lu 7:37, 38, 44.

Since the sandals were removed when one was on holy ground, the priests when performing duties in the tabernacle or the temple undoubtedly served barefoot. (Ex 3:5; Jos 5:15) No sandals were included in the instructions for making the priests’ garments.​—Ex chap 28; see ATTITUDES AND GESTURES.

Christ Washes Disciples’ Feet. Jesus Christ gave his disciples a lesson in humility and service to one another when he, their Master, washed their feet. (Joh 13:5-14; compare 1Ti 5:9, 10.) On this occasion Jesus said: “He that has bathed does not need to have more than his feet washed, but is wholly clean,” doubtless referring to the fact that even if a person was bathed, his feet would get dusty even in a short walk and would frequently need washing. In the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry, the priests and Levites on guard duty at the temple, after immersing themselves early in the morning, were not required to bathe again that day, except to wash their hands and feet. (See also Ex 30:19-21.) By saying, “you men are clean, but not all [referring to Judas],” Jesus apparently gave his actions on this occasion an additional spiritual significance. (Joh 13:10, 11) At Ephesians 5:25, 26 Jesus is shown as cleansing the Christian congregation with “the bath of water by means of the word” of truth. Logically, Jesus’ faithful followers were likewise to show humble concern not only for the physical needs of their brothers but even more so for their spiritual needs. Thereby they would help one another to keep clean from the daily temptations and entanglements that might contaminate a Christian while walking in this world.​—Heb 10:22; Ga 6:1; Heb 12:13; see WASHING OF FEET.

“Walking.” The words “foot” and “feet” are frequently used to denote a person’s inclination or the course he takes, good or bad. (Ps 119:59, 101; Pr 1:16; 4:26; 5:5; 19:2; Ro 3:15) The word “walk” is used with similar significance, as in the statement, “Noah walked with the true God,” meaning that he took a course in harmony with God’s will and commandments. (Ge 6:9; compare Eph 2:1, 2.) God directs the feet of his faithful servants in the right path, figuratively, showing them the way to go so as not to stumble to a spiritual fall or be ensnared in evil, and sometimes even safeguarding them against capture by the enemy. (1Sa 2:9; Ps 25:15; 119:105; 121:3; Lu 1:78, 79) On the other hand, he will cause the wicked to lose their footing and go down in defeat. (De 32:35; Ps 9:15) Jehovah warns against associating in a course with bad persons, or going in a bad path. (Pr 1:10, 15; 4:27) He advises a person to guard his feet when going to the house of God. The person should draw near with a sincere heart to hear and to learn.​—Ec 5:1.

Other Figurative Uses. Other figurative expressions are ‘resting-place for the sole of the foot,’ that is, a place of residence or possession (Ge 8:9; De 28:65); “a footbreadth,” to indicate the smallest parcel of land one could possess (Ac 7:5; De 2:5; compare Jos 1:3); ‘lift up the foot,’ to take or initiate a course of action (Ge 41:44); “make your foot rare at the house of your fellowman,” not taking undue advantage of his hospitality (Pr 25:17); ‘walking barefoot,’ in humiliation or mourning (captives often being led barefoot) (Isa 20:2); ‘laying something at the feet of’ a person, as a gift or offering (Ac 5:1, 2); ‘falling at one’s feet,’ in obeisance (Mr 5:22); ‘putting under the feet,’ in subjection (1Co 15:27; Heb 2:8); ‘bruising or treading under feet,’ in victory (Mal 4:3; Ro 16:20); ‘putting feet upon the neck of an enemy,’ as a symbol of subduing or conquering him (Jos 10:24); ‘washing the foot in blood,’ in execution of enemies (Ps 68:22, 23); ‘covering the feet,’ easing nature (literally, ‘keeping the feet hidden’; Jg 3:24; 1Sa 24:3). The phrase “dipping his foot in oil” was used prophetically in foretelling the fat, or abundant, portion that the tribe of Asher would have among the other tribes of Israel. (De 33:24) Ruth uncovered the feet of Boaz and lay down at his feet as a notification for him to take legal action in the matter of brother-in-law marriage.​—Ru 3:4, 7, 8.

“Comely” feet. Jehovah has special regard for the feet of those proclaiming the good news of the Kingdom, calling them “comely.” (Isa 52:7; Ro 10:15) The Christian must have his feet shod with “the equipment of the good news of peace” so that he can properly carry the good news. (Eph 6:15) Jesus instructed his disciples that when those in a house or a city refused to take them in or listen to their words, they should shake the dust off their feet, thereby showing that they left the unreceptive house or city to the consequences that were due to come from a higher source, from heaven.​—Mt 10:14.

‘Cut off your foot.’ Jesus spoke of ‘cutting off one’s foot,’ not literally but in a figurative sense, when he said: “If, then, your hand or your foot is making you stumble, cut it off and throw it away from you.” He meant that, instead of letting a body member such as a hand or a foot cause its owner to commit unforgivable sin, he should deaden such body member as completely as if it were severed from the body.​—Mt 18:8; Mr 9:45; compare Col 3:5.

In the Christian “body.” The apostle Paul, likening the Christian congregation to a human body, highlights the interdependence of the members thereof when he says: “If the foot should say: ‘Because I am not a hand, I am no part of the body,’ it is not for this reason no part of the body.”​—1Co 12:15.

God’s Footstool. Jehovah pictures himself in his sovereign position as sitting on a heavenly throne with the earth as his footstool. (Isa 66:1) He says to Zion that he will beautify the place of his sanctuary, and he adds: “I shall glorify the very place of my feet.”​—Isa 60:13, 14; see HEEL; TOE.

A low stool, designed to serve as a rest or a support for the feet when the individual is seated. The Hebrew word keʹvesh appears only once in the Scriptures and is used with reference to the gold footstool of King Solomon’s throne. (2Ch 9:18) The Hebrew expression hadhomʹ ragh·laʹyim (literally, “stool of the feet”) occurs six times and is used figuratively to refer to the temple (1Ch 28:2; Ps 99:5; 132:7; La 2:1), to the earth (Isa 66:1), and to the enemies to be crushed by Messiah’s rule (Ps 110:1). James reproves those practicing class distinctions in the congregation, using the illustration of a poor man who was told: “Take that seat there under my footstool.” (Jas 2:3) All other occurrences of the word “footstool” in the Christian Greek Scriptures are quotations from or references to the Hebrew Scriptures.​—Mt 5:35; Ac 7:49; “stool for your [or, his] feet” in Lu 20:43; Ac 2:35; Heb 1:13; 10:13.

The use of “forced labor” (Heb., mas) was evidently quite common in Bible times, with conquered peoples frequently being constituted slaves. (De 20:11; Jos 16:10; 17:13; Es 10:1; Isa 31:8; La 1:1) As slavish forced laborers, the Israelites, under the immediate oversight of Egyptian chiefs who tyrannized over them, engaged in building the storage places of Pithom and Raamses. (Ex 1:11-14) Then, upon entering the Promised Land, instead of following through on Jehovah’s command to drive out all the Canaanite inhabitants of the land and devote them to destruction, the Israelites forced them into task work, slavish labor. This had the bad effect of luring Israel into the worship of false gods. (Jos 16:10; Jg 1:28; 2:3, 11, 12) King Solomon continued levying the descendants of these Canaanites, that is, of the Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites, for slavish forced labor.​—1Ki 9:20, 21.

At times, Israelite workers were drafted to meet an emergency or to complete a special project that could not be delayed indefinitely. Issachar, according to the words of his dying father Jacob, was to be subjected as a tribe to this type of forced labor. (Ge 49:15) Solomon conscripted 30,000 men of Israel for his temple-building operations. Nevertheless, these were not constituted slaves, for they served in shifts of 10,000 a month in Lebanon and thus were able to spend two months at home and a month at the work. But it appears that considerable resentment built up against the conscripting of Israelites for forced labor. When Rehoboam did not agree to lighten the heavy yoke Israel bore under the rulership of Solomon and subsequently sent Adoram (Hadoram, Adoniram) to them, the Israelites stoned Adoram, who must have been quite advanced in years then, since in David’s time he had begun to serve as overseer of those conscripted for work.​—2Sa 20:24; 1Ki 4:6; 5:13, 14; 12:14, 18; 2Ch 10:18.

Laziness could easily get an Israelite into debt and in time force him to sell his inheritance and also himself into slavery. Hence the proverb: “The slack hand will come to be for forced labor.”​—Pr 12:24.

See COMPULSORY SERVICE.

The part of the face above the eyes. One Hebrew expression rendered ‘forehead’ (De 14:1) and the Greek word for “forehead” (meʹto·pon) literally mean “between the eyes.” As a very prominent and readily seen feature of an individual, the forehead was, in ancient times, a place for marking slaves so that all could see to what master they belonged. Also, the devotees of certain pagan gods were thus marked. Even today some follow the practice of putting religious marks on the forehead, so that all others can be aware of their devotion to their religious beliefs.

Mark in the Forehead. Bearing a mark in the “forehead” is similarly used in a figurative way in the Bible to signify that one is a slave to the true God or to another. At Revelation 7:2-4, reference is made to angelic sealing of 144,000 persons in their foreheads. (See SEAL.) In another part of the vision of Revelation, the 144,000 are represented as having the name of the Lamb, Jesus Christ, and the name of his Father written on their foreheads. As the bride of the Lamb, they would properly take his name. (Re 14:1; 22:3, 4) Since the Hebrew language is twice mentioned in the book of Revelation (9:11; 16:16) and since the apostle John was a Hebrew, it may have been the sacred Tetragrammaton that was written on the foreheads of the 144,000, identifying them as Jehovah’s servants and witnesses.

As described at Ezekiel 9:3-6, a class of persons are marked in their forehead for protection from destruction by God’s executional forces, not being marked by angels in this instance, nor with a “seal,” but by a man who has “a secretary’s inkhorn.” Pictured as “sighing and groaning over all the detestable things that are being done,” these, when ‘marked,’ show themselves to be slaves and devotees of Jehovah; their actions, practices, and personalities evidently give evidence of this before all, as if written ‘on their foreheads.’

In branding slaves for the world political “wild beast” (see BEASTS, SYMBOLIC [The seven-headed wild beast out of the sea]), a symbolic mark is put on the foreheads or the right hands of persons, even by compulsion, as depicted at Revelation 13:16, 17. Those receiving that mark identify themselves as being against God and are due to receive his anger in undiluted form.​—Re 14:9-11; see MARK, II.

Israel’s High Priest. In Israel the high priest’s turban had on its front, over the priest’s forehead, a gold plate, “the holy sign of dedication,” upon which were inscribed “with the engravings of a seal” the words “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.” (Ex 28:36-38; 39:30) As Israel’s chief representative of Jehovah’s worship, it was fitting that the high priest keep his office holy, and this inscription would also serve as a reminder to all Israel of the need of constant holiness in the service of Jehovah. It also served as a suitable picture of the great High Priest, Jesus Christ, and his being dedicated by Jehovah to this priestly service that upholds God’s holiness.​—Heb 7:26.

Babylon the Great. Conversely, the symbolic great harlot has the name “Babylon the Great” on her forehead. Ancient Babylon long represented that which was unholy and in opposition to God.​—Re 17:1-6; see BABYLON THE GREAT.

Other Uses of Term. Another figurative use of the word “forehead” is found at Isaiah 48:4, where Jehovah stated that Israel’s forehead was copper, evidently because her stubbornness and rebelliousness were so great. At Jeremiah 3:3, the brazen and shameless apostasy of unfaithful Jerusalem is metaphorically described as “the forehead of a wife committing prostitution.” Also, at Ezekiel 3:7-9, God told Ezekiel, who prophesied to hardheaded (literally, “strong of forehead”), hardhearted Israelites, that he had made the prophet’s forehead “like a diamond,” in that he had given him the resolution, determination, and boldness to deliver God’s message to them.

When King Uzziah presumptuously and illegally usurped a priest’s duties in attempting to offer incense upon the altar of incense in the temple of Jehovah, his sin and Jehovah’s judgment were plainly and immediately made manifest by leprosy flashing up in his forehead.​—2Ch 26:16, 19, 20.

A person of non-Israelite extraction, a Gentile; in Hebrew, nokh·riʹ or ben-ne·kharʹ, literally, “son of a foreign (country).” (De 14:21; Ex 12:43, ftn) The foreigners among the Hebrews consisted of hired laborers, merchants, captives taken in war, Canaanites not executed or expelled from the Promised Land, and various kinds of transients.​—Jos 17:12, 13; Jg 1:21; 2Sa 12:29-31; 1Ki 7:13; Ne 13:16.

Although foreigners’ rights were limited by the Law covenant, they were to be treated with justice and fairness and were to receive hospitality as long as they did not flagrantly disobey the laws of the land. The foreigner, by virtue of his having no real ties with Israel, was distinct from the circumcised proselyte who had come into membership in the congregation of Israel by completely accepting Law covenant responsibilities. Similarly, the foreigner was different from the settler who had taken up semipermanent residence in the Promised Land and who, therefore, not only came under certain legal restrictions but also enjoyed certain rights and privileges.​—See ALIEN RESIDENT.

During the time that the Israelites were alien residents in Canaan and in Egypt, many non-Israelites composed part of the households of the sons of Jacob and their descendants. This came about through the hiring of servants who lived with the family and through the purchasing of slaves, who, by the terms of the covenant with Abraham, had to be circumcised. (Ge 17:9-14) Some involved in mixed marriages, along with their offspring, were included in the vast mixed company that accompanied the Israelites in the Exodus.​—Ex 12:38; Le 24:10; Nu 11:4.

After Israel settled in the Promised Land, foreigners, such as the Canaanites who were not driven out, had to be dealt with. (Jg 2:2, 3) Merchants and craftsmen also began to travel into the land of Israel. (Eze 27:3, 17; 2Sa 5:11; 1Ki 5:6-18) Likely hired laborers accumulated as the Israelites grew more prosperous in developing the Promised Land. (Compare De 8:11-13; Le 22:10.) Foreigners began to be attached to the Israelite armies, and in doing so, they developed an esteem for their Hebrew leaders and a respect for the Israelite religion, as in the cases of the Gittites, the Cherethites, and the Pelethites.​—2Sa 15:18-21.

Provisions of the Law Covenant. In the Law covenant Jehovah provided basic legislation to regulate dealings with foreigners and to protect the Israelite commonwealth and the integrity of its citizens and dependents economically as well as religiously and politically. The Israelites were not to have any fellowship, especially religiously, with the foreigners (Ex 23:23-25; De 7:16-26; Jos 23:6, 7), and they were not to conclude any covenants with them or their gods. (Ex 34:12-15; 23:32; De 7:2) Time and again Jehovah stressed the absolute need not to bow down to the gods of the foreigners (Ex 20:3-7; 23:31-33; 34:14), nor were they even to inquire into, or interest themselves in, their religious practices.​—De 12:29-31.

Marriage alliances with foreigners were prohibited, primarily because of the danger of corruption of pure worship. (Ex 34:16; De 7:3, 24; Jos 23:12, 13) All inhabitants of cities of the seven Canaanite nations were to be destroyed. (De 7:1; 20:15-18) But in the capture of a city not of the seven proscribed Canaanite nations, an Israelite soldier could take a virgin from the city as a wife after she had undergone a period of purification. In such cases no actual alliance would be formed with a foreign tribe or family, her parents having been slain when her city was taken.​—De 21:10-14; Nu 31:17, 18; De 20:14.

An additional restriction was that no uncircumcised foreigner could eat of the Passover. (Ex 12:43) It appears, however, that foreigners could offer sacrifices through the priestly arrangement, provided the offering itself conformed to divine standards. (Le 22:25) Of course, such persons could never come into the sanctuary (Eze 44:9), but they could come to Jerusalem and ‘pray toward God’s house,’ and they would likely not do so empty-handed, that is, without an accompanying sacrificial offering.​—1Ki 8:41-43.

In governmental matters, the foreigner had no political status and could never become a king. (De 17:15) Though the Israelite, the alien resident, and settler in the land could take advantage of the sanctuary provided for the unintentional manslayer in the cities of refuge, there is no mention of such provision for the foreigner.​—Nu 35:15; Jos 20:9.

Although Israelites were forbidden to eat an animal that had died without the blood being drained, it could legally be sold to a foreigner. (De 14:21) During Sabbath years the Israelite could not be pressed for payment of debts, but the foreigner was not under this arrangement and could be pressed for payment. (De 15:1-3) Although a fellow Israelite was not to be charged interest, the foreigner could be so charged.​—De 23:20.

Source of Difficulty. During Joshua’s time and the period of the Judges that followed, many foreigners were in the land and were a source of constant difficulty. (Jos 23:12, 13) The Canaanite foreigners who remained after the Israelite conquest became subject to slavish forced labor (Jos 16:10; 17:13; Jg 1:21, 27-35), but because the Israelites did not drive them from the land and eradicate their worship as Jehovah had commanded (Jg 2:1, 2), the Canaanites in general continued to practice their idolatrous and degraded religions. As a result the Israelites were continually being led into false worship (Ps 106:34-39), particularly the worship of the Baals and the Ashtoreth images. (Jg 2:11-13) These Canaanitish foreigners continued to be found in Israel down through David’s time to the reign of Solomon, when they were still being put to forced labor on the temple and Solomon’s other building projects.​—1Ki 9:20, 21; see FORCED LABOR.

Contrary to divine command, Solomon took many foreign wives, who gradually turned his heart away from the pure worship of Jehovah to that of foreign gods. (1Ki 11:1-8) Intrusion of false religion at the highest governmental level had fatal repercussions. It resulted in the splitting of the nation and eventual exile in Babylon as successive kings, both of Judah and of Israel, led the people into false worship. This culminated in the fulfillment on the nation of the maledictions that were foretold as inescapable sanctions for violations of the Law.​—1Ki 11:9-11; 2Ki 15:27, 28; 17:1, 2; 23:36, 37; 24:18, 19; De 28:15-68.

Following restoration of a faithful remnant of Israelites from the exile in Babylon, many Israelites took foreign wives for themselves. (Ezr 9:1, 2; Ne 13:23-25) This wrong course necessitated vigorous purges of foreign wives and their sons under the direction of Ezra and Nehemiah. (Ezr 10:2-4, 10-19, 44; Ne 13:1-3, 27-30) Action was also taken against other foreigners guilty of improprieties.​—Ne 13:7, 8, 16-21.

The conquering Babylonians had dealt very harshly with the Jews at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem. (La 2:5-12, 19-22) After the liberation, the Jews were in constant conflict with the foreigners around them in the Promised Land, especially being harassed by the Greek rulers of Syria. In the Jews’ efforts to maintain their restored worship, they had to resist the fierce persecutions of Antiochus IV Epiphanes as he attempted to Hellenize the Jews. Throughout the postexilic centuries the Israelites were in a constant struggle for independence, which created a zeal for Judaism and, on the part of some, an intensely nationalistic spirit. These factors, coupled with the fear of corrupting their race through intermarriage with foreigners, likely contributed to the departure from the liberal spirit clearly evident in the Hebrew Scriptures respecting foreigners.​—Compare 1Ki 8:41-43; 2Ch 6:32, 33; Isa 56:6, 7.

During the First Century C.E. Particularly through the influence of their religious leaders, there developed the aloofness and rigid exclusiveness that existed among the Jews in the first century C.E. Evidence of this attitude is seen in the disdain they showed for the Samaritans, a people of mixed descent from Israelites and foreigners. As a rule the Jews ‘had no dealings with the Samaritans,’ not even wanting to ask for so much as a drink of water from them. (Joh 4:9) Jesus, however, made clear the wrongness of such an extreme view.​—Lu 10:29-37.

The establishment of the new covenant on the basis of Christ’s ransom sacrifice brought to an end the legal separation between Jew and Gentile. (Eph 2:11-16) Yet, even after Pentecost of 33 C.E., the early disciples were slow to grasp this fact. The common or standard Jewish view was expressed by Peter to the Gentile Cornelius: “You well know how unlawful it is for a Jew to join himself to or approach a man of another race.” (Ac 10:28) John 18:28 shows that entry into a Gentile home was viewed by the Jews as an act that brought ceremonial defilement. While the Law given through Moses made no specific injunction against such minor association, this view was common among the Jews and particularly among their religious leaders. It took some time for the early Jewish Christians to free themselves of the restrictions imposed by prevailing attitudes and recognize the fact emphasized by the apostle Paul that, for those having the ‘new Christian personality,’ there is “neither Greek nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision, foreigner, Scythian, slave, freeman, but Christ is all things and in all.”​—Ga 2:11-14; Col 3:10, 11.

The Greek word for “foreigner” is barʹba·ros, basically referring to one who did not speak Greek.​—See BARBARIAN.

Foreknowledge means knowledge of a thing before it happens or exists; also called prescience. In the Bible it relates primarily, though not exclusively, to Jehovah God the Creator and his purposes. Foreordination means the ordaining, decreeing, or determining of something beforehand; or the quality or state of being foreordained.

Original-Language Words. The words generally translated as “foreknow,” “foreknowledge,” and “foreordain” are found in the Christian Greek Scriptures, although the same basic ideas are expressed in the Hebrew Scriptures.

“Foreknowledge” translates the Greek proʹgno·sis (from pro, before, and gnoʹsis, knowledge). (Ac 2:23; 1Pe 1:2) The related verb pro·gi·noʹsko is used in two cases with regard to humans: in Paul’s statement that certain Jews were “previously acquainted” with him (knew him beforehand), and in Peter’s reference to the “advance knowledge” had by those addressed in his second letter. (Ac 26:4, 5; 2Pe 3:17) In this latter case it is obvious that such foreknowledge was not infinite; that is, it did not mean that those Christians knew all the details of time, place, and circumstance about the future events and conditions Peter had discussed. But they did have a general outline of what to expect, received as a result of God’s inspiration of Peter and of other contributors to the Bible.

“Foreordain” translates the Greek pro·o·riʹzo (from pro, before, and ho·riʹzo, mark out or set the bounds). (The English word “horizon” transliterates the Greek word ho·riʹzon, meaning the “bounding” or “limiting.”) Illustrating the sense of the Greek verb ho·riʹzo is Jesus Christ’s statement that, as “the Son of man,” he was “going his way according to what [was] marked out [ho·ri·smeʹnon].” Paul said that God had “decreed [marked out, ho·riʹsas] the appointed times and the set limits of the dwelling of men.” (Lu 22:22; Ac 17:26) The same verb is used of human determination, as when the disciples “determined [hoʹri·san]” to send relief to their needy brothers. (Ac 11:29) However, specific references to foreordaining in the Christian Greek Scriptures are applied only to God.

Factors to Recognize. To understand the matter of foreknowledge and foreordination as relating to God, certain factors necessarily must be recognized.

First, God’s ability to foreknow and foreordain is clearly stated in the Bible. Jehovah himself sets forth as proof of his Godship this ability to foreknow and foreordain events of salvation and deliverance, as well as acts of judgment and punishment, and then to bring such events to fulfillment. His chosen people are witnesses of these facts. (Isa 44:6-9; 48:3-8) Such divine foreknowledge and foreordination form the basis for all true prophecy. (Isa 42:9; Jer 50:45; Am 3:7, 8) God challenges the nations opposing his people to furnish proof of the godship they claim for their mighty ones and their idol-gods, calling on them to do so by foretelling similar acts of salvation or judgment and then bringing them to pass. Their impotence in this respect demonstrates their idols to be ‘mere wind and unreality.’​—Isa 41:1-10, 21-29; 43:9-15; 45:20, 21.

A second factor to be considered is the free moral agency of God’s intelligent creatures. The Scriptures show that God extends to such creatures the privilege and responsibility of free choice, of exercising free moral agency (De 30:19, 20; Jos 24:15), thereby making them accountable for their acts. (Ge 2:16, 17; 3:11-19; Ro 14:10-12; Heb 4:13) They are thus not mere automatons, or robots. Man could not truly have been created in “God’s image” if he were not a free moral agent. (Ge 1:26, 27; see FREEDOM.) Logically, there should be no conflict between God’s foreknowledge (as well as his foreordaining) and the free moral agency of his intelligent creatures.

A third factor that must be considered, one sometimes overlooked, is that of God’s moral standards and qualities, including his justice, honesty, impartiality, love, mercy, and kindness. Any understanding of God’s use of the powers of foreknowledge and foreordination must therefore harmonize with not only some of these factors but with all of them. Clearly, whatever God foreknows must inevitably come to pass, so that God is able to call “things that are not as though they were.”​—Ro 4:17.

Does God know in advance everything that people will do?

The question then arises: Is his exercise of foreknowledge infinite, without limit? Does he foresee and foreknow all future actions of all his creatures, spirit and human? And does he foreordain such actions or even predestinate what shall be the final destiny of all his creatures, even doing so before they have come into existence?

Or, is God’s exercise of foreknowledge selective and discretionary, so that whatever he chooses to foresee and foreknow, he does, but what he does not choose to foresee or foreknow, he does not? And, instead of preceding their existence, does God’s determination of his creatures’ eternal destiny await his judgment of their course of life and of their proved attitude under test? The answers to these questions must necessarily come from the Scriptures themselves and the information they provide concerning God’s actions and dealings with his creatures, including what has been revealed through his Son, Christ Jesus.​—1Co 2:16.

Predestinarian view. The view that God’s exercise of his foreknowledge is infinite and that he does foreordain the course and destiny of all individuals is known as predestinarianism. Its advocates reason that God’s divinity and perfection require that he be omniscient (all-knowing), not only respecting the past and present but also regarding the future. According to this concept, for him not to foreknow all matters in their minutest detail would evidence imperfection. Examples such as the case of Isaac’s twin sons, Esau and Jacob, are presented as evidence of God’s foreordaining creatures before their birth (Ro 9:10-13); and texts such as Ephesians 1:4, 5 are cited as evidence that God foreknew and foreordained the future of all his creatures even before the start of creation.

To be correct, this view would, of course, have to harmonize with all the factors previously mentioned, including the Scriptural presentation of God’s qualities, standards, and purposes, as well as his righteous ways in dealing with his creatures. (Re 15:3, 4) We may properly consider, then, the implications of such a predestinarian view.

This concept would mean that, prior to creating angels or earthling man, God exercised his powers of foreknowledge and foresaw and foreknew all that would result from such creation, including the rebellion of one of his spirit sons, the subsequent rebellion of the first human pair in Eden (Ge 3:1-6; Joh 8:44), and all the bad consequences of such rebellion down to and beyond this present day. This would necessarily mean that all the wickedness that history has recorded (the crime and immorality, oppression and resultant suffering, lying and hypocrisy, false worship and idolatry) once existed, before creation’s beginning, only in the mind of God, in the form of his foreknowledge of the future in all of its minutest details.

If the Creator of mankind had indeed exercised his power to foreknow all that history has seen since man’s creation, then the full weight of all the wickedness thereafter resulting was deliberately set in motion by God when he spoke the words: “Let us make man.” (Ge 1:26) These facts bring into question the reasonableness and consistency of the predestinarian concept; particularly so, since the disciple James shows that disorder and other vile things do not originate from God’s heavenly presence but are “earthly, animal, demonic” in source.​—Jas 3:14-18.

Infinite exercise of foreknowledge? The argument that God’s not foreknowing all future events and circumstances in full detail would evidence imperfection on his part is, in reality, an arbitrary view of perfection. Perfection, correctly defined, does not demand such an absolute, all-embracing extension, inasmuch as the perfection of anything actually depends upon its measuring up completely to the standards of excellence set by one qualified to judge its merits. (See PERFECTION.) Ultimately, God’s own will and good pleasure, not human opinions or concepts, are the deciding factors as to whether anything is perfect.​—De 32:4; 2Sa 22:31; Isa 46:10.

To illustrate this, God’s almightiness is undeniably perfect and is infinite in capacity. (1Ch 29:11, 12; Job 36:22; 37:23) Yet his perfection in strength does not require him to use his power to the full extent of his omnipotence in any or in all cases. Clearly he has not done so; if he had, not merely certain ancient cities and some nations would have been destroyed, but the earth and all in it would have been obliterated long ago by God’s executions of judgment, accompanied by mighty expressions of disapproval and wrath, as at the Flood and on other occasions. (Ge 6:5-8; 19:23-25, 29; compare Ex 9:13-16; Jer 30:23, 24.) God’s exercise of his might is therefore not simply an unleashing of limitless power but is constantly governed by his purpose and, where merited, tempered by his mercy.​—Ne 9:31; Ps 78:38, 39; Jer 30:11; La 3:22; Eze 20:17.

Similarly, if, in certain respects, God chooses to exercise his infinite ability of foreknowledge in a selective way and to the degree that pleases him, then assuredly no human or angel can rightly say: “What are you doing?” (Job 9:12; Isa 45:9; Da 4:35) It is therefore not a question of ability, what God can foresee, foreknow, and foreordain, for “with God all things are possible.” (Mt 19:26) The question is what God sees fit to foresee, foreknow, and foreordain, for “everything that he delighted to do he has done.”​—Ps 115:3.

Selective exercise of foreknowledge. The alternative to predestinarianism, the selective or discretionary exercise of God’s powers of foreknowledge, would have to harmonize with God’s own righteous standards and be consistent with what he reveals of himself in his Word. In contrast with the theory of predestinarianism, a number of texts point to an examination by God of a situation then current and a decision made on the basis of such examination.

Thus, at Genesis 11:5-8 God is described as directing his attention earthward, surveying the situation at Babel, and, at that time, determining the action to be taken to break up the unrighteous project there. After wickedness developed at Sodom and Gomorrah, Jehovah advised Abraham of his decision to investigate (by means of his angels) to “see whether they act altogether according to the outcry over it that has come to me, and, if not, I can get to know it.” (Ge 18:20-22; 19:1) God spoke of ‘becoming acquainted with Abraham,’ and after Abraham went to the point of attempting to sacrifice Isaac, Jehovah said, “For now I do know that you are God-fearing in that you have not withheld your son, your only one, from me.”​—Ge 18:19; 22:11, 12; compare Ne 9:7, 8; Ga 4:9.

Selective foreknowledge means that God could choose not to foreknow indiscriminately all the future acts of his creatures. This would mean that, rather than all history from creation onward being a mere rerun of what had already been foreseen and foreordained, God could with all sincerity set before the first human pair the prospect of everlasting life in an earth free from wickedness. His instructions to his first human son and daughter to act as his perfect and sinless agents in filling the earth with their offspring and making it a paradise, as well as exercising control over the animal creation, could thus be expressed as the grant of a truly loving privilege and as his genuine desire toward them​—not merely as the giving of a commission that, on their part, was foredoomed to failure. God’s arranging for a test by means of “the tree of the knowledge of good and bad” and his creation of “the tree of life” in the garden of Eden also would not be meaningless or cynical acts, made so by his foreknowing that the human pair would sin and never be able to eat of “the tree of life.”​—Ge 1:28; 2:7-9, 15-17; 3:22-24.

To offer something very desirable to another person on conditions known beforehand to be unreachable is recognized as both hypocritical and cruel. The prospect of everlasting life is presented in God’s Word as a goal for all persons, one possible to attain. After urging his listeners to ‘keep on asking and seeking’ good things from God, Jesus pointed out that a father does not give a stone or a serpent to his child that asks for bread or a fish. Showing his Father’s view of disappointing the legitimate hopes of a person, Jesus then said: “Therefore, if you, although being wicked, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more so will your Father who is in the heavens give good things to those asking him?”​—Mt 7:7-11.

Thus, the invitations and opportunities to receive benefits and everlasting blessings set before all men by God are bona fide. (Mt 21:22; Jas 1:5, 6) He can in all sincerity urge men to ‘turn back from transgression and keep living,’ as he did with the people of Israel. (Eze 18:23, 30-32; compare Jer 29:11, 12.) Logically, he could not do this if he foreknew that they were individually destined to die in wickedness. (Compare Ac 17:30, 31; 1Ti 2:3, 4.) As Jehovah told Israel: “Nor said I to the seed of Jacob, ‘Seek me simply for nothing, you people.’ I am Jehovah, speaking what is righteous, telling what is upright. . . . Turn to me and be saved, all you at the ends of the earth.”​—Isa 45:19-22.

In a similar vein, the apostle Peter writes: “Jehovah is not slow respecting his promise [of the coming day of reckoning], as some people consider slowness, but he is patient with you because he does not desire any to be destroyed but desires all to attain to repentance.” (2Pe 3:9) If God already foreknew and foreordained millenniums in advance precisely which individuals would receive eternal salvation and which individuals would receive eternal destruction, it may well be asked how meaningful such ‘patience’ of God could be and how genuine his desire could be that ‘all attain to repentance.’ The inspired apostle John wrote that “God is love,” and the apostle Paul states that love “hopes all things.” (1Jo 4:8; 1Co 13:4, 7) It is in harmony with this outstanding, divine quality that God should exercise a genuinely open, kindly attitude toward all persons, he being desirous of their gaining salvation, until they prove themselves unworthy, beyond hope. (Compare 2Pe 3:9; Heb 6:4-12.) Thus, the apostle Paul speaks of “the kindly quality of God [that] is trying to lead you to repentance.”​—Ro 2:4-6.

Finally if, by God’s foreknowledge, the opportunity to receive the benefits of Christ Jesus’ ransom sacrifice were already irrevocably sealed off from some, perhaps for millions of individuals, even before their birth, so that such ones could never prove worthy, it could not truly be said that the ransom was made available to all men. (2Co 5:14, 15; 1Ti 2:5, 6; Heb 2:9) The impartiality of God is clearly no mere figure of speech. “In every nation the man that fears [God] and works righteousness is acceptable to him.” (Ac 10:34, 35; De 10:17; Ro 2:11) The option is actually and genuinely open to all men “to seek God, if they might grope for him and really find him, although, in fact, he is not far off from each one of us.” (Ac 17:26, 27) There is no empty hope or hollow promise set forth, therefore, in the divine exhortation at the end of the book of Revelation inviting: “Let anyone hearing say: ‘Come!’ And let anyone thirsting come; let anyone that wishes take life’s water free.”​—Re 22:17.

The Things Foreknown and Foreordained. Throughout the Bible record, God’s exercise of foreknowledge and foreordination is consistently tied in with his own purposes and will. “To purpose” means to set something before oneself as an aim or an object to be attained. (The Greek word proʹthe·sis, translated “purpose,” means, literally, “a placing or a setting forth or before [of something].”) Since God’s purposes are certain of accomplishment, he can foreknow the results, the ultimate realization of his purposes, and can foreordain them as well as the steps he may see fit to take to accomplish them. (Isa 14:24-27) Thus, Jehovah is spoken of as ‘forming’ or ‘fashioning’ (from the Hebrew ya·tsarʹ, related to the word for “potter” [Jer 18:4]) his purpose concerning future events or actions. (2Ki 19:25; Isa 46:11; compare Isa 45:9-13, 18.) As the Great Potter, God “operates all things according to the way his will counsels,” in harmony with his purpose (Eph 1:11), and “makes all his works cooperate together” for the good of those loving him. (Ro 8:28) It is, therefore, specifically in connection with his own foreordained purposes that God tells “from the beginning the finale, and from long ago the things that have not been done.”​—Isa 46:9-13.

When God created the first human pair they were perfect, and God could look upon the result of all his creative work and find it “very good.” (Ge 1:26, 31; De 32:4) Instead of distrustfully concerning himself with what the human pair’s future actions would be, the record says that he “proceeded to rest.” (Ge 2:2) He could do so since, by virtue of his almightiness and his supreme wisdom, no future action, circumstance, or contingency could possibly present an insurmountable obstacle or an irremediable problem to block the realization of his sovereign purpose. (2Ch 20:6; Isa 14:27; Da 4:35) There is, therefore, no Scriptural basis for the argument of predestinarianism that for God to refrain from exercising his powers of foreknowledge in this way would jeopardize God’s purposes, making them “always liable to be broken through want of foresight, and [that] he must be continually putting his system to rights, as it gets out of order, through the contingence of the actions of moral agents.” Nor would this selective exercise of foresight give his creatures the power to “break [God’s] measures, make him continually to change his mind, subject him to vexation, and bring him into confusion,” as predestinarians claim. (M’Clintock and Strong’s Cyclopædia, 1894, Vol. VIII, p. 556) If even God’s earthly servants have no real need to be “anxious about the next day,” it follows that their Creator, to whom mighty nations are as “a drop from a bucket,” neither had nor has such anxiety.​—Mt 6:34; Isa 40:15.

Concerning classes of persons. Cases are also presented in which God did foreknow the course that certain groups, nations, or the majority of mankind would take, and thus he foretold the basic course of their future actions and foreordained what corresponding action he would take regarding them. However, such foreknowledge or foreordination does not deprive the individuals within such collective groups or divisions of mankind of exercising free choice as to the particular course they will follow. This can be seen from the following examples:

Prior to the Flood of Noah’s day, Jehovah announced his purpose to bring about this act of destruction, resulting in loss of human as well as animal life. The Biblical account shows, however, that such divine determination was made after the conditions developed that called for such action, including violence and other badness. Additionally, God, who is able to “know the heart of the sons of mankind,” made examination and found that “every inclination of the thoughts of [mankind’s] heart was only bad all the time.” (2Ch 6:30; Ge 6:5) Yet individuals, Noah and his family, gained God’s favor and escaped destruction.​—Ge 6:7, 8; 7:1.

Similarly, although God gave the nation of Israel the opportunity to become “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” by keeping his covenant, yet some 40 years later, when the nation was at the borders of the Promised Land, Jehovah foretold that they would break his covenant and, as a nation, would be forsaken by him. This foreknowledge was not without prior basis, however, as national insubordination and rebellion already had been revealed. Hence, God said: “For I well know their inclination that they are developing today before I bring them into the land about which I have sworn.” (Ex 19:6; De 31:16-18, 21; Ps 81:10-13) The results to which such manifest inclination would now lead in the way of increased wickedness could be foreknown by God without its making him responsible for such conditions, even as one’s foreknowing that a certain structure built of inferior materials and with shoddy workmanship will deteriorate does not make that one responsible for such deterioration. The divine rule governs that ‘what is sown is what will be reaped.’ (Ga 6:7-9; compare Ho 10:12, 13.) Certain prophets delivered prophetic warnings of God’s foreordained expressions of judgment, all of which had basis in already existing conditions and heart attitudes. (Ps 7:8, 9; Pr 11:19; Jer 11:20) Here again, however, individuals could and did respond to God’s counsel, reproof, and warnings and so merited his favor.​—Jer 21:8, 9; Eze 33:1-20.

God’s Son, who also could read the hearts of men (Mt 9:4; Mr 2:8; Joh 2:24, 25), was divinely endowed with powers of foreknowledge and foretold future conditions, events, and expressions of divine judgment. He foretold the judgment of Gehenna for the scribes and Pharisees as a class (Mt 23:15, 33) but did not say thereby that each individual Pharisee or scribe was foredoomed to destruction, as the case of the apostle Paul shows. (Ac 26:4, 5) Jesus predicted woes for unrepentant Jerusalem and other cities, but he did not indicate that his Father had foreordained that each individual of those cities should so suffer. (Mt 11:20-23; Lu 19:41-44; 21:20, 21) He also foreknew what mankind’s inclination and heart attitude would lead to and foretold the conditions that would have developed among mankind by the time of “the conclusion of the system of things,” as well as the outworkings of God’s own purposes. (Mt 24:3, 7-14, 21, 22) Jesus’ apostles likewise declared prophecies manifesting God’s foreknowledge of certain classes, such as the “antichrist” (1Jo 2:18, 19; 2Jo 7), and also the end to which such classes are foreordained.​—2Th 2:3-12; 2Pe 2:1-3; Jude 4.

Concerning individuals. In addition to foreknowledge concerning classes, certain individuals are specifically involved in divine forecasts. These include Esau and Jacob (mentioned earlier), the Pharaoh of the Exodus, Samson, Solomon, Josiah, Jeremiah, Cyrus, John the Baptizer, Judas Iscariot, and God’s own Son Jesus.

In the cases of Samson, Jeremiah, and John the Baptizer, Jehovah exercised foreknowledge prior to their birth. This foreknowledge, however, did not specify what their final destiny would be. Rather, on the basis of such foreknowledge, Jehovah foreordained that Samson should live according to the Nazirite vow and should initiate the deliverance of Israel from the Philistines, that Jeremiah should serve as a prophet, and that John the Baptizer should do a preparatory work as a forerunner of the Messiah. (Jg 13:3-5; Jer 1:5; Lu 1:13-17) While highly favored by such privileges, this did not guarantee their gaining eternal salvation or even that they would remain faithful until death (although all three did). Thus, Jehovah foretold that one of David’s many sons would be named Solomon and he foreordained that Solomon would be used to build the temple. (2Sa 7:12, 13; 1Ki 6:12; 1Ch 22:6-19) However, though favored in this way and even privileged to write certain books of the Holy Scriptures, Solomon nevertheless fell into apostasy in his later years.​—1Ki 11:4, 9-11.

Likewise with Esau and Jacob, God’s foreknowledge did not fix their eternal destinies but, rather, determined, or foreordained, which of the national groups descending from the two sons would gain a dominant position over the other. (Ge 25:23-26) This foreseen dominance also pointed to the gaining of the right of the firstborn by Jacob, a right that brought along with it the privilege of being in the line of descent through which the Abrahamic “seed” would come. (Ge 27:29; 28:13, 14) By this means Jehovah God made clear that his choice of individuals for certain uses is not bound by the usual customs or procedures conforming to men’s expectations. Nor are divinely assigned privileges to be dispensed solely on the basis of works, which might allow a person to feel he has ‘earned the right’ to such privileges and that they are ‘owed to him.’ The apostle Paul stressed this point in showing why God, by undeserved kindness, could grant to the Gentile nations privileges once seemingly reserved for Israel.​—Ro 9:1-6, 10-13, 30-32.

Paul’s quotations concerning Jehovah’s ‘love for Jacob [Israel] and his hatred for Esau [Edom]’ comes from Malachi 1:2, 3, written long after Jacob and Esau’s time. So the Bible does not necessarily say that Jehovah held such opinion of the twins before their birth. It is a scientifically established fact that much of a child’s general disposition and temperament is determined at the time of conception because of the genetic factors contributed by each parent. That God can see such factors is self-evident; David speaks of Jehovah as seeing “even the embryo of me.” (Ps 139:14-16; see also Ec 11:5.) To what extent such divine insight affected Jehovah’s foreordination concerning the two boys cannot be said, but at any rate, his choice of Jacob over Esau did not of itself doom Esau or his descendants, the Edomites, to destruction. Even individuals from among the accursed Canaanites gained the privilege of association with God’s covenant people and received blessings. (Ge 9:25-27; Jos 9:27; see CANAAN, CANAANITE No. 2.) The “change of mind” that Esau earnestly sought with tears, however, was only an unsuccessful attempt to change his father Isaac’s decision that the firstborn’s special blessing should remain entirely with Jacob. Hence, this indicated no repentance before God on Esau’s part as to his materialistic attitude.​—Ge 27:32-34; Heb 12:16, 17.

Jehovah’s prophecy concerning Josiah called for some descendant of David to be so named, and it foretold his acting against false worship in the city of Bethel. (1Ki 13:1, 2) Over three centuries later a king so named fulfilled this prophecy. (2Ki 22:1; 23:15, 16) On the other hand, he failed to heed “the words of Necho from the mouth of God,” and this led to his being killed. (2Ch 35:20-24) Hence, while foreknown by God and foreordained to do a particular work, Josiah was still a free moral agent able to choose to heed or disregard advice.

Similarly, Jehovah foretold nearly two centuries beforehand that he would use a conqueror named Cyrus to effect the release of the Jews from Babylon. (Isa 44:26-28; 45:1-6) But the Persian to whom that name eventually was given in fulfillment of divine prophecy is not stated in the Bible to have become a genuine worshiper of Jehovah, and secular history shows him continuing his worship of false gods.

These cases of foreknowledge prior to the individual’s birth thus do not conflict with God’s revealed qualities and announced standards. Nor is there any indication that God coerced the individuals to act against their own will. In the cases of Pharaoh, Judas Iscariot, and God’s own Son, there is no evidence that Jehovah’s foreknowledge was exercised prior to the person’s coming into existence. Within these individual cases certain principles are illustrated, bearing on God’s foreknowledge and foreordination.

One such principle is God’s testing of individuals by causing or allowing certain circumstances or events, or by causing such individuals to hear his inspired messages, the result being that they are obliged to exercise their free choice to make a decision and thus reveal a definite heart attitude, read by Jehovah. (Pr 15:11; 1Pe 1:6, 7; Heb 4:12, 13) According to the way the individuals respond, God can also mold them in the course they have selected of their own volition. (1Ch 28:9; Ps 33:13-15; 139:1-4, 23, 24) Thus, “the heart of earthling man” first inclines toward a certain way before Jehovah does the directing of the steps of such a one. (Pr 16:9; Ps 51:10) Under testing, one’s heart condition can become fixed, either hardened in unrighteousness and rebellion or made firm in unbreakable devotion to Jehovah God and the doing of his will. (Job 2:3-10; Jer 18:11, 12; Ro 2:4-11; Heb 3:7-10, 12-15) Having reached such a point of his own choice, the end result of the individual’s course can now be foreknown and foretold with no injustice and no violation of man’s free moral agency.​—Compare Job 34:10-12.

The case of faithful Abraham, already discussed, illustrates these principles. A contrasting case is that of the unresponsive Pharaoh of the Exodus. Jehovah foreknew that Pharaoh would refuse permission for the Israelites to leave “except by a strong hand” (Ex 3:19, 20), and he foreordained the plague resulting in the death of the firstborn. (Ex 4:22, 23) The apostle Paul’s discussion of God’s dealings with Pharaoh is often incorrectly understood to mean that God arbitrarily hardens the heart of individuals according to his foreordained purpose, without regard for the individual’s prior inclination, or heart attitude. (Ro 9:14-18) Likewise, according to many translations, God advised Moses that he would “harden [Pharaoh’s] heart.” (Ex 4:21; compare Ex 9:12; 10:1, 27.) However, some translations render the Hebrew account to read that Jehovah “let [Pharaoh’s] heart wax bold” (Ro); “let [Pharaoh’s] heart become obstinate.” (NW) In support of such rendering, the appendix to Rotherham’s translation shows that in Hebrew the occasion or permission of an event is often presented as if it were the cause of the event, and that “even positive commands are occasionally to be accepted as meaning no more than permission.” Thus at Exodus 1:17 the original Hebrew text literally says that the midwives “caused the male children to live,” whereas in reality they permitted them to live by refraining from putting them to death. After quoting Hebrew scholars M. M. Kalisch, H. F. W. Gesenius, and B. Davies in support, Rotherham states that the Hebrew sense of the texts involving Pharaoh is that “God permitted Pharaoh to harden his own heart​—spared him—​gave him the opportunity, the occasion, of working out the wickedness that was in him. That is all.”​—The Emphasised Bible, appendix, p. 919; compare Isa 10:5-7.

Corroborating this understanding is the fact that the record definitely shows that Pharaoh himself “hardened his heart.” (Ex 8:15, 32, KJ; “made his heart unresponsive,” NW) He thus exercised his own will and followed his own stubborn inclination, the results of which inclination Jehovah accurately foresaw and predicted. The repeated opportunities given him by Jehovah obliged Pharaoh to make decisions, and in doing so he became hardened in his attitude. (Compare Ec 8:11, 12.) As the apostle Paul shows by quoting Exodus 9:16, Jehovah allowed the matter to develop in this way to the full length of ten plagues in order to make manifest his own power and cause his name to be made known earth wide.​—Ro 9:17, 18.

Did God predestine Judas to betray Jesus in order to fulfill prophecy?

The traitorous course of Judas Iscariot fulfilled divine prophecy and demonstrated Jehovah’s foreknowledge as well as that of his Son. (Ps 41:9; 55:12, 13; 109:8; Ac 1:16-20) Yet it cannot be said that God foreordained or predestinated Judas himself to such a course. The prophecies foretold that some intimate acquaintance of Jesus would be his betrayer, but they did not specify which of those sharing such acquaintance it would be. Again, Bible principles rule against God’s having foreordained Judas’ actions. The divine standard stated by the apostle is: “Never lay your hands hastily upon any man; neither be a sharer in the sins of others; preserve yourself chaste.” (1Ti 5:22; compare 3:6.) Evidencing his concern that the selection of his 12 apostles be wisely and properly made, Jesus spent the night in prayer to his Father before making known his decision. (Lu 6:12-16) If Judas were already divinely foreordained to be a traitor, this would result in inconsistency in God’s direction and guidance and, according to the rule, would make him a sharer in the sins that one committed.

Thus, it seems evident that at the time of his being selected as an apostle, Judas’ heart presented no definite evidence of a treasonous attitude. He allowed a ‘poisonous root to spring up’ and defile him, resulting in his deviation and in his accepting, not God’s direction, but the Devil’s leading in a course of thievery and treachery. (Heb 12:14, 15; Joh 13:2; Ac 1:24, 25; Jas 1:14, 15; see JUDAS No. 4.) By the time such deviation reached a certain point, Jesus himself could read Judas’ heart and foretell his betrayal.​—Joh 13:10, 11.

True, in the account at John 6:64, on the occasion of some disciples stumbling over certain teachings of Jesus, we read that “from the beginning [“from the outset,” JB] Jesus knew who were the ones not believing and who was the one that would betray him.” While the word “beginning” (Gr., ar·kheʹ) is used at 2 Peter 3:4 to refer to the start of creation, it can also refer to other times. (Lu 1:2; Joh 15:27) For example, when the apostle Peter spoke of the holy spirit falling on Gentiles “just as it did also upon us in the beginning,” he obviously was not referring to the beginning of his discipleship or apostleship but to an important point in his ministry, the day of Pentecost, 33 C.E., “the beginning” of the outpouring of the holy spirit for a certain purpose. (Ac 11:15; 2:1-4) It is therefore interesting to note this comment on John 6:64 in Lange’s Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (p. 227): “Beginning . . . means not, metaphysically from the beginning of all things, . . . nor from the beginning of His [Jesus’] acquaintance with each one, . . . nor from the beginning of His collecting of the disciples around Him, or the beginning of His Messianic ministry, . . . but from the first secret germs of unbelief [that produced the stumbling of some disciples]. So also He knew His betrayer from the beginning.”​—Translated and edited by P. Schaff, 1976; compare 1Jo 3:8, 11, 12.

Foreordination of the Messiah. Jehovah God foreknew and foretold the Messiah’s sufferings, the death he would undergo, and his subsequent resurrection. (Ac 2:22, 23, 30, 31; 3:18; 1Pe 1:10, 11) The realization of things determined by God’s exercise of such foreknowledge depended in part upon God’s own exercise of power and in part upon the actions of men. (Ac 4:27, 28) Such men, however, willingly allowed themselves to be overreached by God’s Adversary, Satan the Devil. (Joh 8:42-44; Ac 7:51-54) Hence, even as Christians in Paul’s day were “not ignorant of [Satan’s] designs,” God foresaw the wicked desires and methods the Devil would devise against Jesus Christ, God’s Anointed One. (2Co 2:11) Obviously, God’s power could also thwart or even block any attacks or attempts upon the Messiah that did not conform to the manner or time prophesied.​—Compare Mt 16:21; Lu 4:28-30; 9:51; Joh 7:1, 6-8; 8:59.

The apostle Peter’s statement that Christ, as the sacrificial Lamb of God, was “foreknown before the founding [form of Greek ka·ta·bo·leʹ] of the world [koʹsmou]” is construed by advocates of predestinarianism to mean that God exercised such foreknowledge before mankind’s creation. (1Pe 1:19, 20) The Greek word ka·ta·bo·leʹ, translated “founding,” literally means “a throwing down” and can refer to the ‘conceiving of seed,’ as at Hebrews 11:11. While there was “the founding” of a world of mankind when God created the first human pair, as is shown at Hebrews 4:3, 4, that pair thereafter forfeited their position as children of God. (Ge 3:22-24; Ro 5:12) Yet, by God’s undeserved kindness, they were allowed to conceive seed and produce offspring, one of whom is specifically shown in the Bible to have gained God’s favor and placed himself in position for redemption and salvation, namely, Abel. (Ge 4:1, 2; Heb 11:4) It is noteworthy that at Luke 11:49-51 Jesus refers to “the blood of all the prophets spilled from the founding of the world” and parallels this with the words “from the blood of Abel down to the blood of Zechariah.” Thus, Abel is connected by Jesus with “the founding of the world.”

The Messiah, or Christ, was to be the promised Seed through whom all righteous persons of all the families of the earth would be blessed. (Ga 3:8, 14) The first mention of such “seed” came after the rebellion in Eden had already been initiated, but prior to the birth of Abel. (Ge 3:15) This was some 4,000 years before the revelation of “the sacred secret” was made by the clear identification of that Messianic “seed.” Hence, it was, indeed, “kept in silence for long-lasting times.”​—Ro 16:25-27; Eph 1:8-10; 3:4-11.

In his due time Jehovah God assigned his own firstborn Son to fulfill the prophesied role of the “seed” and become the Messiah. There is nothing to show that that Son was “predestined” to such a role even before his creation or before rebellion broke out in Eden. God’s eventual selection of him as the one charged with fulfilling the prophecies likewise was not made without prior basis. The period of intimate association between God and his Son previous to the Son’s being sent to earth undoubtedly resulted in Jehovah’s ‘knowing’ his Son to an extent that He could be certain of his Son’s faithful fulfillment of the prophetic promises and pictures.​—Compare Ro 15:5; Php 2:5-8; Mt 11:27; Joh 10:14, 15; see JESUS CHRIST (Tested and Perfected).

Foreordination of the ‘called and chosen.’ There remain those texts that deal with the Christian “called ones,” or “chosen ones.” (Jude 1; Mt 24:24) They are described as “chosen according to the foreknowledge of God” (1Pe 1:1, 2), ‘chosen before the founding of the world,’ ‘foreordained to the adoption as sons of God’ (Eph 1:3-5, 11), ‘selected from the beginning for salvation and called to this very destiny’ (2Th 2:13, 14). The understanding of these texts depends upon whether they refer to the foreordination of certain individual persons or whether they describe the foreordination of a class of persons, namely, the Christian congregation, the “one body” (1Co 10:17) of those who will be joint heirs with Christ Jesus in his heavenly Kingdom.​—Eph 1:22, 23; 2:19-22; Heb 3:1, 5, 6.

If these words apply to specific individuals as foreordained to eternal salvation, then it follows that those individuals could never prove unfaithful or fail in their calling, for God’s foreknowledge of them could not prove inaccurate and his foreordination of them to a certain destiny could never miscarry or be thwarted. Yet the same apostles who were inspired to write the foregoing words showed that some who were “bought” and “sanctified” by the blood of Christ’s ransom sacrifice and who had “tasted the heavenly free gift” and “become partakers of holy spirit . . . and powers of the coming system of things” would fall away beyond repentance and bring destruction upon themselves. (2Pe 2:1, 2, 20-22; Heb 6:4-6; 10:26-29) The apostles unitedly urged those to whom they wrote: “Do your utmost to make the calling and choosing of you sure for yourselves; for if you keep on doing these things you will by no means ever fail”; also, “Keep working out your own salvation with fear and trembling.” (2Pe 1:10, 11; Php 2:12-16) Paul, who was “called to be an apostle of Jesus Christ” (1Co 1:1), obviously did not consider himself individually predestinated to eternal salvation, since he speaks of his strenuous efforts in striving to attain “the goal for the prize of the upward call of God” (Php 3:8-15) and his concern lest he himself should “become disapproved somehow.”​—1Co 9:27.

Similarly, “the crown of life” offered such ones is granted subject to their faithfulness under trial until death. (Re 2:10, 23; Jas 1:12) Their crowns of kingship with God’s Son can be lost. (Re 3:11) The apostle Paul expressed confidence that “the crown of righteousness” was “reserved” for him, but he only did so when he was certain that he was nearing the end of his course, having “run [it] to the finish.”​—2Ti 4:6-8.

On the other hand, viewed as applying to a class, to the Christian congregation, or “holy nation” of called ones as a whole (1Pe 2:9), the texts previously cited would mean that God foreknew and foreordained that such a class (but not the specific individuals forming it) would be produced. Also, these scriptures would mean that he prescribed, or foreordained, the ‘pattern’ to which all those in due time called to be members thereof would have to conform, all of this according to his purpose. (Ro 8:28-30; Eph 1:3-12; 2Ti 1:9, 10) He also foreordained the works such ones would be expected to carry out and their being tested because of the sufferings the world would bring upon them.​—Eph 2:10; 1Th 3:3, 4.

As to those texts referring to ‘names being written in the book of life,’ see NAME.

Fatalism and Predestinarianism. Among the pagan peoples of ancient times, including the Greeks and Romans, one’s fate, particularly the length of the individual’s life, was often considered to be determined beforehand for all individuals by the gods. Grecian mythology represented the control of men’s destiny by three goddesses: Clotho (spinner), who spun the thread of life; Lachesis (disposer of lots), who determined the length of life; and Atropos (inflexible), who cut life off when the time expired. A similar triad was found among the Roman deities.

According to Jewish historian Josephus (first century C.E.), the Pharisees endeavored to harmonize the idea of fate with their belief in God and with the free moral agency granted to man. (The Jewish War, II, 162, 163 [viii, 14]; Jewish Antiquities, XVIII, 13, 14 [i, 3]) The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge says: “Previous to Augustine [of the fourth and fifth centuries C.E.] there was no serious development in Christianity of a theory of predestination.” Before Augustine, earlier so-called “Church Fathers” such as Justin, Origen, and Irenaeus “know nothing of unconditional predestination; they teach free will.” (Hastings’ Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, 1919, Vol. X, p. 231) In their refutation of Gnosticism, they are described as regularly expressing their belief in the free moral agency of man as “the distinguishing characteristic of human personality, the basis of moral responsibility, a divine gift whereby man might choose that which was well-pleasing to God,” and as speaking of “the autonomy of man and the counsel of God who constraineth not.”​—The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, edited by S. Jackson, 1957, Vol. IX, pp. 192, 193.

One who goes in advance to prepare for the coming of another. This might include scouting and spying, clearing the way, proclaiming and giving notice of another’s approach, or showing the way for others to follow. The forerunner is usually, but not always, of less importance than the person who follows.

It was the Oriental custom that runners go before the royal chariot to prepare and announce the king’s coming and to assist him generally. (1Sa 8:11) Absalom and Adonijah, in imitation of such regal dignity and to add prestige and seeming sanction to their respective rebellions, placed 50 runners before their personal chariots.​—2Sa 15:1; 1Ki 1:5; see RUNNERS.

John the Baptizer was in reality the forerunner of Christ, in fulfillment of Isaiah 40:3 and Malachi 3:1 and 4:5, 6: “Someone is calling out in the wilderness: ‘Clear up the way of Jehovah . . . Make the highway . . . straight.’” “I am sending my messenger, and he must clear up a way before me.” John’s advance proclamation, therefore, aroused people to expect, look for, and wait for Jesus, that, in turn, they might listen to him, honor him, and follow him. (Mt 3:1-12; 11:7, 10, 14; Mr 9:11-13; Lu 1:13-17, 76; Joh 1:35-37) In a similar manner, messengers were sent out in advance of Jesus, and these went into a village of the Samaritans “to make preparation for him.”​—Lu 9:52.

Jesus himself, however, is the one referred to in the only passage of Scripture using the word “forerunner.” (Heb 6:19, 20) He was not a forerunner in the sense of being inferior to those who followed after him. Rather, he was the first to enter heavenly glory, opening and preparing the way for the heavenly congregation of his footstep followers. (Joh 14:2, 3) Hence, they have boldness of approach to God through the way their Forerunner inaugurated.​—Heb 10:19-22.

See CIRCUMCISION.

The Hebrew term for a wooded tract is yaʹʽar, rendered “woods” (De 19:5; 1Sa 14:25) and “forest.” (Jos 17:15) At one time the land of Palestine had abundant forests with trees of many types. The Scriptural references to forests and woodlands and to the use of wood materials make it evident that trees were then much more common there than at present, despite the reforestation efforts in recent years. (2Ch 27:4; Jg 9:48, 49) This is also made certain from the description of wild animal life, showing that the forests were able to provide adequate cover and habitation for bears (2Ki 2:23, 24), lions (1Sa 17:34; 1Ch 11:22), and other forms of animal life (Eze 34:25).

But deforestation of large areas has come about because of the devastation of war, the extensive use of timber with no accompanying effort to replenish the forests, and uncontrolled grazing in which the young shoots of new trees have been eaten by goats and other animals. Denis Baly, in his book The Geography of the Bible (1974, pp. 77, 115, 116), speaks of centuries of neglect, which has resulted in the disappearance of many woodlands and the loss of as much as 2 m (6.5 ft) of fertile soil, leaving much of the land rocky and barren.

Certain forests are specifically mentioned in the Bible. The forests of Lebanon, now reduced to a few small groves, were outstanding for their splendid tree growth (1Ki 5:2-10, 13-18; 2Ki 19:23), with great quantities of cedar, juniper, cypress, and other trees. The “forest of Ephraim” (perhaps “forest of Mahanaim”), in which Absalom met disaster, may have been located E of the Jordan River near Mahanaim, and appears to have been of considerable density. (2Sa 18:6, ftn, 8, 17) “The forest of Hereth” was in Judah. (1Sa 22:5) Additionally, the region of Gilead was famous for its woodlands and balsam trees, while Bashan to the N was noted for its “massive trees,” apparently including the oak. (Isa 2:13; Zec 11:2) In the days of David and Solomon, sycamore trees grew in abundance in the Shephelah lowland. (1Ki 10:27; 1Ch 27:28; 2Ch 1:15; 9:27) The Jordan Valley had a thick growth of tamarisks and willows, where lions lurked.​—Jer 12:5; Zec 11:3.

Symbolic Use. Even as trees are used to symbolize individual persons and rulers, so the Bible uses forests symbolically for peoples or nations and their rulers. The wickedness of apostate Judah was like a flame to burn up her people (Isa 9:18); Jehovah’s anger would burn up the southern kingdom (Judah) with an inextinguishable flame. (Eze 20:46-48) Similar prophecies are given against pagan nations, enemies of God’s people. The Assyrian warriors would be cut down and thinned out like trees of a forest.​—Ps 83:14, 15; Jer 46:22, 23; Isa 10:19, 34.

An individual claiming ability to forecast what will take place in the future, among whom the Bible names magic-practicing priests, spiritistic diviners, astrologers, and others. (See DIVINATION; SPIRITISM.) The Hebrew word yid·deʽo·niʹ, rendered “professional foreteller of events,” comes from the root ya·dhaʽʹ (know) and implies knowledge hidden to the ordinary person. It often appears in conjunction with ʼohv, meaning “spirit medium.” (De 18:11) Some individuals possessed occult powers by virtue of contact with the demons, the wicked angelic enemies of God under Satan the Devil, who is the ruler of the demons. (Lu 11:14-20) In ancient times various methods were employed by these prognosticators in obtaining their messages of prediction: stargazing (Isa 47:13), examination of the liver and other viscera of sacrificed animal victims (Eze 21:21), interpretation of omens (2Ki 21:6), consultation with the so-called spirits of the dead, and so forth.​—De 18:11.

The lives of the Egyptians, like the lives of the Babylonians, were regulated to a large extent by their fortune-tellers. (Isa 19:3) On the other hand, God’s true servants never looked to such persons for information. When the Law was given to Israel shortly after their release from bondage in Egypt, they were strictly forbidden to consult “professional foretellers of events.” (Le 19:31) Having “immoral intercourse” with them would result in being cut off (in death) from among God’s people. And as to the one practicing the art, the law went on to say: “As for a man or woman in whom there proves to be a mediumistic spirit or spirit of prediction, they should be put to death without fail.” (Le 20:6, 27) Nearly 40 years later, when poised to enter the Promised Land and to drive out its inhabitants, Israel was reminded: “You must not learn to do according to the detestable things of those nations. There should not be found in you . . . anyone who consults a spirit medium or a professional foreteller of events or anyone who inquires of the dead.”​—De 18:9-11.

More than 350 years later, Israel’s first king, Saul, removed all the foretellers of events from the land, but before his death he had fallen so far away from Jehovah that he personally sought out “a mistress of spirit mediumship in En-dor” to foretell his future. At first she was afraid to practice her art, but at Saul’s insistence that she “bring up Samuel,” she conjured up a vision. She described its form as ‘an old man wearing a sleeveless coat.’ Saul was convinced that it was the prophet Samuel. (1Sa 28:3, 7-19) But it could not actually have been Samuel, for he was dead, and the dead “are conscious of nothing at all.” (Ec 9:5) Samuel, when alive, would certainly have had nothing to do with a spirit medium, and Jehovah God and his holy angels would give such a one no cooperation. God himself told his people: “In case they should say to you people: ‘Apply to the spiritistic mediums or to those having a spirit of prediction who are chirping and making utterances in low tones,’ is it not to its God that any people should apply? Should there be application to dead persons in behalf of living persons? To the law and to the attestation!” Jehovah goes on to say: “Surely they will keep saying what is according to this statement that will have no light of dawn.”​—Isa 8:19, 20.

Nearly 400 years after Saul’s reign, King Manasseh of Judah “did on a large scale what was bad in Jehovah’s eyes, to offend him,” including the consulting of professional foretellers of events, who flourished under his rule. (2Ki 21:6; 2Ch 33:6) All of these had to be cleaned out of the land by Manasseh’s grandson, righteous King Josiah.​—2Ki 23:24.

The only mention in the Christian Greek Scriptures of demonic predicting of the future is the instance in which the apostle Paul, in the city of Philippi, freed “a certain servant girl with a spirit, a demon of divination.” She had furnished her masters with much gain “by practicing the art of prediction.” Manifesting the fact that such practice is truly demonic and diametrically opposed to God, the masters of the girl from whom the demon was cast out caused Paul much trouble in Philippi, bringing Paul and his companion Silas before the magistrates, who gave the command to beat them and then threw them into jail.​—Ac 16:12, 16-24.

The act of pardoning an offender; ceasing to feel resentment toward him because of his offense and giving up all claim to recompense. The Hebrew verb sa·lachʹ (forgive) is used only with regard to God’s pardoning a sinner. The Greek term a·phiʹe·mi literally means “let go off.”​—See PARDON.

According to God’s law given to the nation of Israel, in order for a person who had sinned against God or against his fellowman to have his sins forgiven, he first had to rectify the wrong as the Law prescribed and then, in most cases, present a blood offering to Jehovah. (Le 5:5–6:7) Hence, the principle stated by Paul: “Yes, nearly all things are cleansed with blood according to the Law, and unless blood is poured out no forgiveness takes place.” (Heb 9:22) Actually, though, the blood of animal sacrifices could not take away sins and give the individual a perfectly clean conscience. (Heb 10:1-4; 9:9, 13, 14) By contrast, the foretold new covenant made possible true forgiveness, based on Jesus Christ’s ransom sacrifice. (Jer 31:33, 34; Mt 26:28; 1Co 11:25; Eph 1:7) Even while on earth, Jesus, by healing a paralytic, demonstrated that he had authority to forgive sins.​—Mt 9:2-7.

Jehovah forgives “in a large way,” as is indicated by Jesus’ illustrations of the prodigal son and of the king who forgave a slave a debt of 10,000 talents (60,000,000 denarii, or c. $40,000,000), whereas that slave was unwilling to forgive a fellow slave a debt of but a hundred denarii (c. $70). (Isa 55:7; Lu 15:11-32; Mt 18:23-35) Nevertheless, Jehovah’s forgiveness is not prompted by sentimentality, for he does not leave notorious acts unpunished. (Ps 99:8) Joshua warned Israel that Jehovah would not forgive apostasy on their part.​—Jos 24:19, 20; compare Isa 2:6-9.

God has a required way for seeking and receiving his forgiveness. A person must acknowledge his sin, recognize that it is an offense against God, confess it unqualifiedly, have a deep heartfelt sorrow for the wrong done, and have a determination to turn from such a course or practice. (Ps 32:5; 51:4; 1Jo 1:8, 9; 2Co 7:8-11) He must do what he can to right the wrong or damage done. (Mt 5:23, 24) Then he must pray to God, asking for forgiveness on the basis of Christ’s ransom sacrifice.​—Eph 1:7; see REPENTANCE.

Moreover, forgiving others for personal offenses, regardless of the number of times involved, is a Christian requirement. (Lu 17:3, 4; Eph 4:32; Col 3:13) God’s forgiveness is not extended toward those who refuse to forgive others. (Mt 6:14, 15) However, even when serious wrongdoing leads to expulsion of “the wicked man” from the Christian congregation, that person may in due time be accorded forgiveness if he proves that he is truly repentant. At that time all in the congregation can confirm their love for him. (1Co 5:13; 2Co 2:6-11) However, Christians are not required to forgive those who practice malicious, willful sin with no repentance. Such become God’s enemies.​—Heb 10:26-31; Ps 139:21, 22.

It is proper to pray for God’s forgiveness in behalf of others, even for an entire congregation. Moses did so respecting the nation of Israel, confessing their national sin and asking forgiveness, and he was favorably heard by Jehovah. (Nu 14:19, 20) Also, Solomon, at the dedication of the temple, prayed that Jehovah might forgive his people when they sinned and then turned back from their wrong course. (1Ki 8:30, 33-40, 46-52) Ezra acted representatively in confessing publicly the sins of the repatriated Jews. His heartfelt prayer and exhortation had the result that the people took action in order to receive Jehovah’s forgiveness. (Ezr 9:13–10:4, 10-19, 44) James encouraged the spiritually sick one to call for the older men of the congregation to pray over him, and “if he has committed sins, it will be forgiven him.” (Jas 5:14-16) However, there is “a sin that does incur death,” sin against the holy spirit, a deliberate practice of sin for which there is no forgiveness. A Christian should not pray for those sinning in this way.​—1Jo 5:16; Mt 12:31; Heb 10:26, 27; see SIN, I; SPIRIT.

Illicit sex relations outside of Scriptural marriage. The Hebrew verb za·nahʹ and its related forms convey the idea of harlotry, immoral intercourse, fornication, or prostitution. (Ge 38:24; Ex 34:16; Ho 1:2; Le 19:29) The Greek word translated “fornication” is por·neiʹa. Regarding the meanings of por·neiʹa, B. F. Westcott in his book Saint Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians (1906, p. 76) says: “This is a general term for all unlawful intercourse, (I) adultery: Hos. ii. 2, 4 (LXX.); Matt. v. 32; xix. 9; (2) unlawful marriage, I Cor. v. I; (3) fornication, the common sense as here [Eph 5:3].” Bauer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (revised by F. W. Gingrich and F. Danker, 1979, p. 693) defines por·neiʹa as “prostitution, unchastity, fornication, of every kind of unlawful sexual intercourse.” Porneia is understood to involve the grossly immoral use of the genital organ(s) of at least one human; also there must have been two or more parties (including another consenting human or a beast), whether of the same sex or the opposite sex. (Jude 7) The unlawful act of a rapist is fornication, but, of course, that does not make the person who is forcibly raped also a fornicator.

When God performed the first human marriage he said: “That is why a man will leave his father and his mother and he must stick to his wife and they must become one flesh.” (Ge 2:24) Here the standard set for man and woman was monogamy, and promiscuous sex relationship was ruled out. Also, no divorce and remarriage to another was anticipated.​—See DIVORCE.

In patriarchal society God’s faithful servants hated fornication, whether between single, engaged, or married persons, and it was considered a sin against God.​—Ge 34:1, 2, 6, 7, 31; 38:24-26; 39:7-9.

Under the Law. Under the Mosaic Law, a man committing fornication with an unengaged girl was required to marry the girl and to pay her father the purchase price for brides (50 silver shekels; $110), and he could not divorce her all his days. Even if her father refused to give him the girl in marriage, the man had to pay the purchase price to the father. (Ex 22:16, 17; De 22:28, 29) However, if the girl was engaged, the man was to be stoned to death. If the girl screamed when she was attacked, she was not to be punished, but if the engaged girl failed to scream (thereby indicating consent), she was also put to death.​—De 22:23-27.

The sanctity of marriage was emphasized by the law that punished with death a girl who married under the false pretense of being a virgin, having committed fornication secretly. If her husband falsely charged her with such a crime, it was regarded as bringing great reproach on her father’s house. For his slanderous action, the man was to be “disciplined” by the judges, perhaps by beating, and fined 100 silver shekels ($220), the money then being given to the father. (De 22:13-21) Prostitution of a priest’s daughter brought disgrace on his sacred office. She was to be killed, then burned as something detestable. (Le 21:9; see also Le 19:29.) Fornication between married persons (adultery) was a violation of the seventh commandment and merited the death penalty for both parties.​—Ex 20:14; De 5:18; 22:22.

If a man committed fornication with a servant girl who had been designated for another man, but who had not been redeemed or freed, punishment was to take place, but they were not to be put to death. (Le 19:20-22) Evidently this was because the woman was not yet free and in full control of her actions, as a free engaged girl would be. The redemption price had not yet been paid, or at least not fully paid, and she was still a bondservant to her master.

When the mercenary prophet Balaam could not bring a curse upon Israel by divination, he found a way to bring them under God’s displeasure by appealing to wrong desire for sexual relations. By means of the women of Moab he seduced the Israelites into practicing the filthy phallic worship of the Baal of Peor, for which 24,000 of the sons of Israel died.​—Nu 25:1-9; 1Co 10:8 (likely 1,000 heads of the people were killed and hung on stakes [Nu 25:4] and the rest were destroyed by the sword or the plague).

Forbidden to Christians. Jesus Christ restored God’s original standard of monogamy (Mt 5:32; 19:9) and showed the wickedness of fornication by classing it with murder, thievery, wicked reasoning, false testimony, and blasphemy. He pointed out that these come from within a man, from his heart, and defile him. (Mt 15:19, 20; Mr 7:21-23) Later, the governing body of the Christian congregation, comprised of the apostles and older men in Jerusalem, wrote to Christians in about 49 C.E., warning them against fornication, and placing it alongside idolatry and the eating of blood.​—Ac 15:20, 29; 21:25.

The apostle Paul points out that fornication is one of the works of the flesh, the opposite of the fruitage of the spirit of God, and warns that the practice of fleshly works will prevent an individual from inheriting the Kingdom. (Ga 5:19-21) He counsels that the Christian should deaden his body “as respects fornication.” (Col 3:5) In fact, he warns that it should not even be a topic of conversation among Christians, who should be holy. Similarly, the Israelites were not to mention the names of the pagan gods​—not that they would fail to warn their children about these gods, but they would not mention them with any esteem.​—Eph 5:3; Ex 23:13.

Fornication is an offense for which an individual may be expelled (disfellowshipped) from the Christian congregation. (1Co 5:9-13; Heb 12:15, 16) The apostle explains that a Christian committing fornication sins against his own body, using reproductive members for a perverted purpose. He is greatly affected spiritually in an adverse way, brings defilement into God’s congregation, and lays himself open to the danger of deadly sexually transmitted diseases. (1Co 6:18, 19) He encroaches on the rights of his Christian brothers (1Th 4:3-7) by (1) bringing uncleanness and disgraceful folly, with reproach, into the congregation (Heb 12:15, 16), (2) depriving the one with whom he commits fornication of a clean moral standing and, if that one is single, of being clean when entering into marriage, (3) depriving his own family of a clean moral record, as well as (4) wronging the parents, husband, or fiancé of the one with whom he commits fornication. He disregards, not man, whose laws may or may not condone fornication, but God, who will exact punishment for his sin.​—1Th 4:8.

Symbolic Use. Jehovah God spoke of the nation of Israel in covenant relationship to him as “a wife.” (Isa 54:5, 6) When the nation became unfaithful to him, ignoring him and turning to other nations such as Egypt and Assyria for help and entering into alliances with them, Israel was like an unfaithful wife, an adulteress, a prostitute, one carrying on fornication promiscuously. (Eze 16:15, 25-29) Likewise, if Christians in a dedicated relationship to God, or professing such a relationship, are unfaithful by engaging in false worship or by being friends of the world, they are called adulteresses.​—Jas 4:4.

Concerning the symbolic meaning of por·neiʹa in certain texts, F. Zorell (Lexicon Graecum Novi Testamenti, Paris, 1961, col. 1106) says: “Apostasy from the true faith, committed either entirely or partially, defection from the one true God Jahve to foreign gods [4Ki 9:22; Jer 3:2, 9; Ho 6:10 etc.; for God’s union with his people was considered like a kind of spiritual matrimony]: Re 14:8; 17:2, 4; 18:3; 19:2.”​—Brackets his; 4Ki in the Greek Septuagint corresponds to 2Ki in the Masoretic text.

Babylon the Great, described in the Bible book of Revelation as a harlot, is a symbol of something religious. Her various sects, “Christian” and pagan, have claimed to be organizations of true worship. But she has consorted with the rulers of this world for power and material gain, and with her “the kings of the earth committed fornication.” Her unclean, filthy course of fornication has been detestable in God’s sight and has caused great bloodshed and distress in the earth. (Re 17:1-6; 18:3) For her course she will suffer the judgment of God on those practicing fornication, namely, destruction.​—Re 17:16; 18:8, 9.

The Hebrew term for “fortification” has the basic sense of a place that is impenetrable, inaccessible. (Compare Zec 11:2, ftn.) Fortifications of a town were costly and difficult and required an adequate defense force, so not all towns were fortified. The larger cities were usually walled cities; the smaller towns in that area, known as dependent towns, were unwalled. (Jos 15:45, 47; 17:11) Inhabitants of these towns could flee to the walled city in the event of an invasion by the enemy. Fortified cities thus served as a refuge for the people in the area. Cities were also fortified when they were strategically located to protect highways, water sources, routes to supply bases, and communication lines.

The strength and height of the fortifications of many cities in the Promised Land were such that the unfaithful spies sent by Moses to spy out Canaan reported that “the fortified cities are very great” and “fortified to the heavens.” From their faithless viewpoint the cities looked impregnable.​—Nu 13:28; De 1:28.

Cities in Bible lands generally covered an area of but a few acres. Some, however, were much larger. The capital cities of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, and Rome were exceptionally large. Babylon was one of the most strongly defended cities in Bible times. Not only did it have unusually strong walls but it was situated on a river that provided a fine moat for defense as well as a water supply. Babylon felt she could hold her captives forever. (Isa 14:16, 17) But the city was taken in one night by the strategy of Cyrus the Persian, who diverted the Euphrates so that his forces could enter the city through gates in the walls along the quays.​—Da 5:30.

Three essentials were required for a fortified city: (1) walls to act as a barrier to the enemy, (2) weapons so that the defending forces could retaliate to repel the attackers, and (3) an adequate water supply. Foodstuffs could be stored during times of peace; but a constant, accessible source of water was essential for a city to withstand a siege of any length.

Moats and Ramparts. Some cities were surrounded by a moat filled with water, especially if a river or lake was nearby. Babylon on the Euphrates was a notable example, as was also No-amon (Thebes) on the Nile canals. (Na 3:8) Where there were no nearby bodies of water, a dry moat was often constructed. Jerusalem was rebuilt with a moat.​—Da 9:25.

Rising from the side of the moat was a “rampart” built from the earth dug up when the moat was excavated. (2Sa 20:15) This rampart sometimes was covered with a stone facing and formed a glacis, or incline, sloping up to the wall built on top of the rampart. The moat discovered by archaeologists on the western defenses of the city of Hazor was 80 m (262 ft) wide at the top, 40 m (131 ft) across the bottom, and about 15 m (50 ft) deep. The rampart rising from the moat was an additional 15 m (50 ft). This made the top of the rampart nearly 30 m (100 ft) high, measuring from the bottom of the moat. On top of this stood the city wall.​—Compare Ps 122:7.

This rampart was, of course, very difficult to ascend, especially with battering rams, for which reason the attackers built a ramp, or “siege rampart,” up which the battering rams were moved. (2Sa 20:15; see BATTERING RAM.) The moat was so wide that it greatly weakened the archery fire of the attacking army, and shooting from the bottom of the moat accomplished little. On the other hand, the builders of the ramps for their battering rams were under constant fire from the city walls, being subjected to a rain of arrows, stones, and sometimes firebrands. Of course, not all cities had moats or sloping ramparts, some basing their defense entirely on vertical walls.

The Walls. After the moat and rampart, the wall was the next feature of the defenses. Some walls and towers provided fortified positions for soldiers and rooms for storage as well as ladders to the top. The wall was made up of large stones, brick, and earth. Some of the stones were enormous in size. Earlier walls were mostly made of stones without mortar. Later on, mortar was often used between the stones. Mortar was made by treading clay with the feet and mixing it with water, as in making bricks. Otherwise it would crack and weaken the defensive wall.​—Compare Eze 13:9-16; Na 3:14.

The wall system often consisted of a high inner wall and a lower outer wall. A dry moat was sometimes constructed between these walls. Along the outer wall were bastions, round or square in shape. They were crenellated (indented with battlements) so that the archers could shoot through the embrasures and at the same time receive some protection against enemy arrows and rock slingers. Bastions extended out from the wall so that the archers not only could command the area in front of them but could also shoot to the right or to the left at the flanks of the enemy forces that might be trying to scale or breach the wall.

The inner wall was heavier and thicker. After the invention of the heavy battering rams, especially like those used by the Assyrians, much stronger, thicker walls were built to withstand the devastations of this instrument. A stone wall at Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah?) was found to average 4 m (13 ft) in thickness, and it is estimated to have been 12 m (39 ft) high. The top of the wall was crenellated, as were nearly all city walls.

Towers and Gates. Towers were built into the inner walls (in addition to bastions or towers in the outer walls). They were higher than the wall, protruding from the wall sometimes as much as 3 m (10 ft). They were equipped with crenellations on top and sometimes with openings below the crenellations, for the convenience of archers and stone throwers. The fact that the towers protruded from the wall and were never placed farther than two bowshots apart, but were usually much closer, enabled the defenders to command all the area along the wall. Also, a balcony at the tower’s top had openings in the floor so that archery fire, stones, and firebrands could be directed straight down at the invaders below. These towers are mentioned many times in the Scriptures. (Ne 3:1; Jer 31:38; Zec 14:10) Towers served also as posts for watchmen, who could see the enemy approaching from a distance.​—Isa 21:8, 9.

Usually the citadel was built on the highest elevation in the city. It had a tower fortress and its own walls, less massive than the walls surrounding the city. The citadel was the last stronghold of refuge and resistance. When the soldiers of the enemy breached the city walls, they would have to fight through the streets of the city to reach the tower. Such a tower was the one at Thebez, which Abimelech attacked after capturing the city and where a woman broke his skull by pitching an upper millstone upon his head.​—Jg 9:50-54.

Besides these city towers, other towers (Heb., migh·dalʹ; plural, migh·da·limʹ) were built in isolated places. These were constructed as “police stations” to protect wells or other water sources, highways, frontiers, communication lines, or supply lines. King Uzziah of Judah is noted for building towers in Jerusalem as well as in the wilderness; these apparently were erected to protect the cisterns that he built for watering his livestock. (2Ch 26:9, 10) Several of such towers have been found in the Negeb.

The weakest part of the defenses of a city were its gates; therefore the gates were the most hotly defended points in the walls. Only as many gates were constructed as necessary for the traffic of the inhabitants in and out of the city during peacetime. Gates were made of wood or of wood and metal, sometimes being metal covered to resist fire. In archaeological diggings the gateways are often found to be charred, indicating that fire was used in an attempt to burn the gates down.​—See GATE, GATEWAY.

Some of the kings of Judah noted for their construction of fortifications were Solomon, who built “fortified cities with walls, doors and bar”; Asa, who put up cities with “walls around and towers, double doors and bars”; and Uzziah, who built “towers in the wilderness” and “engines of war” in Jerusalem.​—2Ch 8:3-5; 14:2, 6, 7; 26:9-15.

Fortifications of the Besieging Army. At times the besieging army built fortifications of its own around its camp. This protected the camp from sorties on the part of those besieged or from attacks by outside allies of the city. These fortified camps might be round or oval in shape and surrounded by a wall, which was often crenellated and had crenellated towers. For these fortifications, they would cut down the trees, sometimes for miles around the city. Jehovah’s law directed the Israelites not to cut down fruit trees for this purpose.​—De 20:19, 20.

Fortifications With Pointed Stakes. When foretelling the destruction of Jerusalem, Jesus Christ indicated that her enemies would build around her “a fortification with pointed stakes,” or, “palisade.” (Lu 19:43, Int) The historian Josephus confirms the accurate fulfillment of this prophecy. Titus argued in favor of building a fortification to keep the Jews from leaving the city, in order to bring about their surrender or, if this did not materialize, to make it easier to take the city because of the resultant famine. His arguments won out, and the army was organized to undertake the project. The legions and lesser divisions of the army competed with one another to finish the task; individually the men were spurred on by a desire to please their superiors. To provide materials for the construction of this fortification, the countryside about Jerusalem within a distance of about 16 km (10 mi) was denuded of its trees. Amazingly, according to Josephus, the over 7-km-long (4.5 mi) fortification was completed in just three days, an undertaking that ordinarily would have required a number of months. Outside the wall of this fortification, 13 places for garrisons were constructed, and their combined circumference amounted to about 2 km (1 mi).​—The Jewish War, V, 491-511, 523 (xii, 1, 2, 4).

Archaeological Discoveries. Following up the building operations of his father David, King Solomon was outstanding for his construction works. Besides building the magnificent temple of Jehovah at Jerusalem, he strengthened Jerusalem’s walls and built extensive fortifications at Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer. Archaeologists were guided in their excavation of these fortifications by the Bible’s statement at 1 Kings 9:15: “Now this is the account of those conscripted for forced labor that King Solomon levied to build the house of Jehovah and his own house and the Mound and the wall of Jerusalem and Hazor and Megiddo and Gezer.” They found that the gates of these three last-named cities were all built to a single unique plan, each being 17 m (56 ft) wide, with an entrance flanked on both sides by square towers and leading into a vestibule 20 m (66 ft) long, with three chambers on each side. They were somewhat similar to the description of the gates of Ezekiel’s visionary temple.​—Eze 40:5-16.

Immediately above walls built by Solomon at Megiddo and Hazor, other walls were constructed, possibly by Ahab. These were more thickly and strongly built, doubtless because of the heavy Assyrian battering rams in use during that later period.

The source of water for Megiddo was a well in a natural cave at the western foot of the mound on which the city was built. To get water into the city, they sent a vertical shaft 30 m (98 ft) deep, 22 m (72 ft) of this distance through solid rock; this brought them to the level of the well. From this level they cut a horizontal tunnel with a slight gradient for a distance of 67 m (220 ft) to the well. The slight slope from the well to the bottom of the shaft allowed the water to flow into the city by gravity. The well was sealed from the outside by a thick wall.

Even greater engineering skill was required when Hezekiah sealed up the course of the water flowing from Gihon and cut a channel of some 533 m (1,749 ft) to bring water into Jerusalem, thereby enabling the city to withstand a long siege.​—2Ch 32:30.