(Dabʹbe·sheth) [Hump].

A town of Zebulun. (Jos 19:11) Its precise location is unknown; however, the site of Tell esh-Shammam (Tel Shem), about 5 km (3 mi) E of Jokneam on the Plain of Jezreel, appears to fit the Biblical context.

(Dabʹe·rath) [Pasture].

A city mentioned in the boundary list of Zebulun (Jos 19:10, 12) but regarded as belonging to the neighboring tribe of Issachar when later apportioned with its pasture ground to Levites of the family of Gershon (Gershom). (Jos 21:27, 28; 1Ch 6:71, 72) Daberath is not included in the list of sites assigned to Issachar, but many geographers think it is likely represented by Rabbith at Joshua 19:20, a view that finds support in the text of Vatican Manuscript No. 1209.​—See RABBITH.

Daberath is identified today with ruins at Khirbet Dabura (Horvat Devora), near the village of Dabburiya on the NW edge of Mount Tabor.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

The “dagger men” were members of a fanatical political Jewish faction existing in the first century C.E. that engaged in organized political killings. When the Jews rioted against Paul at Jerusalem during his last visit there, the military commander Claudius Lysias suspected the apostle of being the Egyptian who had previously stirred up sedition and had led the 4,000 “dagger men” into the wilderness.​—Ac 21:30-38; 23:26, 27.

The Greek expression translated “dagger men” literally means “men of the Sicarii.” The Greek word for “Sicarii” (si·kaʹri·oi) comes from the Latin sicarii, which, in turn, is derived from sica (dagger).

According to the Jewish historian Josephus, especially during the festivals, the “dagger men,” or Sicarii, with daggers concealed under their garments, mingled among the crowds at Jerusalem and stabbed their enemies in broad daylight. Then, to avoid suspicion, they joined those expressing indignation about the killings. Josephus further indicates that the Sicarii took a leading part in the revolt against Rome. In 66 C.E., a band of Sicarii, under the command of Eleazar, son of Jairus, seized and massacred the Roman garrison at Masada. This band of fanatical patriots continued their defiance of Rome until 73 C.E., in which year the defenses of Masada were breached. The Romans, however, did not have to make an assault on the fortress itself. In order to avoid being captured, the Sicarii had carried out a systematic suicidal massacre of 960 men, women, and children. Only two women and five children, who had hidden in a cave, survived.

(Daʹgon).

A god of the Philistines. The existence of cities called “Beth-dagon” (likely named after the god Dagon) in the territories of Judah and Asher suggests that the worship of this deity was well established in Canaan at the time of Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land. (Jos 15:41; 19:27) It is believed that the Philistines adopted Dagon worship from the Canaanites.

There is no agreement as to the derivation of the name Dagon. Some scholars associate it with the Hebrew word dagh (fish), while others favor linking the name with the Hebrew word da·ghanʹ (grain). At 1 Samuel 5:4 it is stated concerning the fallen Dagon, “Only the fish part [literally, “Only Dagon”] had been left upon him,” his head and the palms of his hands having been cut off. The Hebrew word literally meaning “Dagon” in this text has been variously rendered “body” (NIV, TEV), “Dagon’s body” (NE), and “Dagon himself” (Ro) by some translators, while others have translated it as “fish portion” (Le), “fish-stump” (Da), “fishy part” (Yg), or “fish part” (NW).

Dagon at times figures in the Biblical narratives. By bracing himself against the two middle supporting pillars, Samson caused the collapse of a house at Gaza used for Dagon worship, killing the Philistines who had assembled there. (Jg 16:21-30) At the house of Dagon in Ashdod, the Philistines deposited the sacred ark of Jehovah as a war trophy. Twice the image of Dagon fell on its face before the Ark. The second time the idol itself was broken. Perhaps in order not to defile the place where the pieces of their god had lain, the priests and others entering the temple of Dagon at Ashdod were careful not to tread upon the threshold. (1Sa 5:2-5) By experiencing the painful effects of piles and the ruining of their land by jerboas, the Philistines came to recognize that the hand of the God of Israel had been hard against them and their god Dagon. (1Sa 5:6, 7; 6:5) When King Saul was discovered among the slain at Gilboa, the Philistines cut off his head. After informing the houses of their idols as well as the people back home, they fastened Saul’s skull to the house of Dagon.​—1Sa 31:8-10; 1Ch 10:8-10.

It may be that the Philistines carried idols of their god Dagon into battle.​—2Sa 5:21.

[ד] (daʹleth).

The fourth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. There is considerable similarity between the letters daʹleth [ד] and rehsh [ר], allowing for possible scribal errors in copying. This may account for various differences in spelling, such as that of the “Rodanim” at 1 Chronicles 1:7 and the “Dodanim” at Genesis 10:4.

In the Hebrew, this fourth letter is used as the initial letter in the first word of each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:25-32.​—See HEBREW, II.

(Dal·ma·nuʹtha).

An area to which Jesus retired by boat with his disciples after the miraculous feeding of 4,000 men near the Sea of Galilee. (Mr 8:1-10) Though various sites have been suggested for Dalmanutha, the name is not referred to in other Biblical or non-Biblical sources, so its exact location remains unknown. Some scholars feel Dalmanutha may be a scribal alteration, since the parallel narrative at Matthew 15:29-39 has “Magadan” and certain ancient manuscripts of Mark’s account also use “Magadan” or “Magdala” instead of Dalmanutha. However, since the best Greek manuscripts do have Dalmanutha, instead of considering the term to be a textual error, it seems best to preserve the reading Dalmanutha. Possibly Dalmanutha was simply another name for Magadan, or it may have been a nearby area the name of which, though little used or not widely known, has nevertheless been preserved for us in Mark’s Gospel.

(Dal·maʹtia).

An area in the mountainous region E of the Adriatic Sea on the Balkan Peninsula. The name was used to describe the southernmost part of the Roman province of Illyricum. In the years following 9 C.E., when this area became a separate province, Dalmatia was often used interchangeably with Illyricum and eventually came to designate the new province itself. Paul’s companion Titus departed for Dalmatia sometime prior to the apostle’s execution, assumed to be about 65 C.E. (2Ti 4:6-10) In the same verse in which Demas is said to have “forsaken” Paul, Titus is mentioned as going there. However, while there are no definite statements as to the purpose of Titus’ mission to Dalmatia, it appears he left with Paul’s approval. Since Paul, when nearing the completion of his third missionary tour about nine years earlier, had said his circuit extended as far N as Illyricum (Ro 15:19), some scholars reason that Titus was at this time being dispatched to that region to regulate its congregational affairs and engage in missionary activities. If so, he would be acting in a capacity similar to the one he exercised in Crete. (Tit 1:5) In his letter to Titus, Paul had asked him to leave Crete (Tit 3:12), and it seems likely that Titus was with the apostle until his assignment to Dalmatia.

(Dalʹphon).

One of Haman’s ten sons.​—Es 9:7, 10; see HAMAN.

(Damʹa·ris).

A woman who heard Paul’s defense at the Athenian Areopagus (Mars’ Hill) and became a believer. (Ac 17:33, 34) Damaris possibly was not a Greek, in view of the fact that in Athenian society women normally remained in seclusion. Since Damaris is the only woman named, she may have been of some prominence. There is no valid basis for concluding that she was married to Dionysius, simply because the two are mentioned together.

(Dam·a·scenesʹ) [Of (Belonging to) Damascus].

The inhabitants of Damascus. (2Co 11:32) Paul used the term when recounting his narrow escape from that city about 20 years after it occurred, as narrated in Acts 9:23-25.

(Da·masʹcus).

An ancient and important city of Syria. Damascus (present-day esh-Sham, or Dimashq) lies at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon Range, with the nearby Arabian-Syrian Desert stretching out before it to the E. (Ca 7:4) To the SW of the city, snowcapped Mount Hermon rises 2,814 m (9,232 ft), marking the southern end of the Anti-Lebanon Range.

The slopes behind Damascus to the W are quite barren, but the cool waters of the Barada River (the Abanah of 2Ki 5:12) come rushing through a gorge in the mountains and flow onto the plain where the city is situated. Thereafter irrigation creates a luxuriant oasis some 16 km (10 mi) wide and 48 km (30 mi) long. This abundant water supply made Damascus a key point on the ancient military and trade routes between the lands of the eastern Mediterranean, the countries of Mesopotamia, and the Orient. Also serving to channel traffic by Damascus are the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, since these act as a natural barrier to caravan traffic moving toward or from the Mediterranean seaboard.

Northwest of the city there is a break in the Anti-Lebanon range, and from ancient times, this pass connected to the major highway through Coele-Syria (the Beqaʽ) that went S to Hazor, then down along the W side of the Sea of Galilee through the Plains of Megiddo toward the seacoast, and continued S through Philistia and on to Egypt. East of the Anti-Lebanon range, a route went S from Damascus to Hazor and N to Hamath, Aleppo, and Carchemish. Another prominent route, commonly called the King’s Highway (compare Nu 21:22), ran S from Damascus, following the edge of the plateau E of the Jordan on down to the Red Sea and the Arabian Peninsula. These were the roads over which marched the armies of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. In yet another direction, caravans heading for Mesopotamia first went from Damascus E to Tadmor and from there to the Euphrates region.

The plain on which Damascus is situated is a plateau region some 700 m (2,300 ft) above sea level, and the city enjoys a pleasant climate, with average temperatures varying from about 7° C. (45° F.) in winter to 29° C. (84° F.) in summer. The very fertile land produces fine orchards of olives, figs, and apricots, as well as rich grainfields. The city’s prosperity, however, came primarily from the commercial traffic and also because it was a natural trading center for nomadic tribes. Damascus is called a “merchant” of Tyre by the prophet Ezekiel, evidently trading wine from the neighboring city of Helbon and reddish-gray wool in exchange for Tyre’s exports of manufactured articles. (Eze 27:18) The “streets” that Ben-hadad II offered to be assigned to Ahab in Damascus were evidently for the establishment of bazaars, or markets, to promote Ahab’s commercial interests in that Syrian capital.​—1Ki 20:34.

History. The initial history of Damascus is unknown. Josephus (Jewish Antiquities, I, 145 [vi, 4]) presents the traditional Jewish view that it was founded by Uz, the son of Aram and grandson of Shem, though there are indications of a more southerly position for the descendants of Uz. (Ge 10:21-23; see UZ No. 4.) Abraham likely passed by or through Damascus on his way to the Promised Land. Eliezer, the servant of childless Abraham, was “a man of Damascus.” (Ge 15:2) To a place N of Damascus called Hobah, Abraham pursued the invading kings to recover his captive nephew Lot.​—Ge 14:1-16.

Opposes Israel. Damascus thereafter disappears from the Biblical account for nearly a thousand years, and when it reappears it is generally as an opponent of the nation of Israel. By then it was the center of one of the many Aramaean kingdoms of Syria. When David fought and defeated the king of Zobah, “Syria of Damascus” came to help the losers. David defeated them as well, stationed garrisons in the Damascene kingdom, and made Damascus tributary to Israel. (2Sa 8:3-6; 1Ch 18:5, 6) During Solomon’s reign, however, a fugitive named Rezon from the Aramaean kingdom of Zobah gained control of Damascus, setting himself up as king. His hatred for Israel was vented in acts of aggression.​—1Ki 11:23-25.

King Ben-hadad I of Damascus, after first making a covenant with Baasha of the northern kingdom of Israel, sold out to Asa of Judah (977-937 B.C.E.) and invaded his former ally’s territory. (1Ki 15:18-20; 2Ch 16:2-4) At the head of a coalition of 32 allied kings, his successor Ben-hadad II also invaded the northern kingdom of Israel. He tried again, with his troops reorganized under 32 governors, but he suffered defeat both times. (1Ki 20:1, 16-34) Though captured on the second attempt, he was released by King Ahab (c. 940-920 B.C.E.) and later, at the battle of Ramoth-gilead, directed his chariot forces against the combined forces of Judah and Israel, defeating them and causing Ahab’s death. (1Ki 22:29-37) During the reign of Jehoram of Israel (c. 917-905 B.C.E.), Ben-hadad II mounted a final attempt to capture Samaria but was miraculously routed.​—2Ki 6:24; 7:6, 7.

Fulfilling the commission given to his predecessor Elijah, the prophet Elisha went to Damascus and told Hazael he would replace Ben-hadad II as king of Syria. (1Ki 19:15; 2Ki 8:7-13) Prior to Ben-hadad’s death, Damascus had been the focal point of Syrian resistance to the expansion of the Assyrian Empire, which was bent on dominating the lands bordering the Mediterranean. As a key junction point on the main route from Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean, Damascus was a principal target. At the head of a coalition of neighboring kingdoms, Damascus resisted with some success a series of attacks by Shalmaneser III of Assyria. One of Shalmaneser’s inscriptions records the seizure of the Syrian throne by Hazael. After one major conflict, Shalmaneser bottled up Hazael in Damascus, besieging the city, but was unable to take it.

As king of Damascus, Hazael continued an aggressive policy toward Israel. (2Ki 10:32) Extending Damascene power as far as the Philistine city of Gath, he even invaded Judah, intimidating King Jehoash (898-859 B.C.E.) so that the Judean king paid a huge tribute to spare Jerusalem from Syrian attack. (2Ki 12:17, 18; 13:3, 22; 2Ch 24:23, 24) Under Hazael’s successor, Ben-hadad III, the yoke of Damascus was loosened from Israel’s territory as Jehoash of Israel (c. 859-845 B.C.E.) inflicted three defeats on Syria. (2Ki 13:24, 25) Then Jeroboam II of Israel (c. 844-804 B.C.E.) pushed deep into Syria as far as “the entering in of Hamath,” and “restored Damascus and Hamath to Judah in Israel.” (2Ki 14:23-28) This is generally understood to mean the making of these kingdoms tributary, similar to their position under Solomon.​—1Ki 4:21.

Jehovah’s judgments on Damascus. A century later, however, Damascus is shown again in its position as “the head of Syria.” (Isa 7:8) During the reign of King Ahaz of Judah (761-746 B.C.E.), Rezin of Damascus, in league with Pekah of Israel, swept through Judah to Elath on the Gulf of ʽAqaba. This so frightened King Ahaz that he sent a bribe to Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria, asking him to divert Syrian pressure from Judah. With alacrity, the Assyrian attacked Damascus, captured it, put Rezin to death, and exiled many of the Damascenes. (2Ki 16:5-9; 2Ch 28:5, 16) Thereby Jehovah’s prophecies through Isaiah and Amos were fulfilled (Isa 8:4; 10:5, 8, 9; Am 1:3-5), yet Ahaz, on going to Damascus to meet (and likely pay homage to) Tiglath-pileser, senselessly had a copy made of the Damascene altar for false worship he saw there, and later he sacrificed upon it to “the gods of Damascus.”​—2Ki 16:10-13; 2Ch 28:23.

Damascus never constituted a threat to Israel thereafter. Though weak militarily, the city evidently regained commercial strength, as is indicated by Ezekiel’s prophecy. (Eze 27:18) But Damascus, once so highly praised, was also foretold by Jeremiah to suffer distress as a result of the bad report coming from Hamath and Arpad in northern Syria, a report likely relating to the harsh conquest of the Aramaean kingdoms by the advancing Babylonian armies of Nebuchadnezzar. (Jer 49:23-27) Damascus, the jewel of the desert, would not escape the effects of that conquest. Still later Damascus is included in an adverse pronouncement through Jehovah’s prophet Zechariah, whose prophecy was written in 518 B.C.E. The prophecy likely found fulfillment in the time of Alexander the Great, who occupied Syria and Phoenicia following his victory at the Battle of Issus in 333 B.C.E.​—Zec 9:1-4.

During the Seleucid period, Damascus was replaced by Antioch as the Syrian provincial capital. King Aretas III of the Arabic Nabataean kingdom captured the city in 85 B.C.E. Rome conquered all of Syria in 64-63 B.C.E., and Damascus continued as a Roman city until 33 C.E. It was listed by Pliny (Roman historian of the first century C.E.) as one of the original ten cities of the Decapolis.

In the first century C.E. When Saul of Tarsus headed for Damascus in his campaign of persecuting Christians, the city had a number of Jewish synagogues. (Ac 9:1, 2) It evidently then formed part of the domain of Nabataean King Aretas IV and was ruled by an appointed governor. (2Co 11:32, 33) After his conversion, blinded Saul was led to a home on the street called Straight. (See STRAIGHT.) Paul (Saul) preached for a time in the synagogues of Damascus, but a murder plot made necessary his escape by night through an opening in the city wall.​—Ac 9:11, 17-25; 26:20; Ga 1:16, 17.

[Judge].

1. The 5th of Jacob’s 12 sons; born in Paddan-aram. (Ge 35:25, 26) Dan was the firstborn of his mother Bilhah, the maidservant of her barren mistress Rachel, who substituted for her as a secondary wife to Jacob. It was for this reason that Rachel quickly adopted the boy and called his name Dan, saying: “God has acted as my judge . . . so that he gave me a son.” (Ge 30:6) The name of Dan’s full brother was Naphtali. By the time Jacob moved down into Egypt, taking along the whole household, Dan himself had a son named Hushim (called Shuham at Nu 26:42). (Ge 46:7, 23, 26) Seventeen years later, when dying Jacob called his sons to his bedside, Dan had full legal status along with the other 11 as family heads of the 12 tribes of Israel. In blessing him, Jacob said: “Dan will judge his people as one of the tribes of Israel. Let Dan prove to be a serpent by the roadside, a horned snake at the wayside, that bites the heels of the horse so that its rider falls backward. I shall indeed wait for salvation from you, O Jehovah.”​—Ge 49:16-18.

2. One of the tribes of Israel, named after the 5th son of Jacob. Dan’s son Hushim was also called Shuham, and the Shuhamites were the only family enrolled for Dan. (Nu 26:42) When entering Egypt, Dan had only this one son, yet some two centuries later after coming out of slavery, the tribe numbered 62,700 men 20 years old and upward. (Ge 46:23; Nu 1:1, 38, 39) It was the second most populous tribe as to men of battle age. In the wilderness Dan’s tribe, with Ahiezer as chieftain, was assigned to camp on the N of the tabernacle alongside the tribes of Asher and Naphtali. On the move the tribe marched in the highly important position as rear guard, a compliment to their courage, loyalty, and dependability.​—Nu 2:25-31; 10:25.

When the Promised Land was divided up, with chieftain Bukki the son of Jogli representing Dan, as matters turned out, this tribe got one of the smallest territories, despite the fact that it was still the second largest in number. Its lot, however, the seventh, fell on very desirable soil, bordering the tribes of Judah, Ephraim, and Benjamin, a land extending from the fertile valleys of the Shephelah to the seacoast plains of the Mediterranean. But because of not driving out the squatter nations, as Jehovah had commanded, Dan suffered severely. (Nu 26:43; 34:22; Jos 19:40-46; Jg 1:34) It was for such reason that part of the tribe moved to the northern extremity of Palestine and took over the city of Leshem, or Laish, and called it “Dan.” (Jos 19:47, 48; Jg 18:11-31) In the course of this exploit the Danites robbed a man named Micah of his carved image and set it up as their own god, notwithstanding that members of Dan had been chosen years earlier to stand for the maledictions from Mount Ebal, which included, “Cursed is the man who makes a carved image or a molten statue, a thing detestable to Jehovah.” (De 27:13-15) Dan was conspicuously absent from giving support to Judge Barak against the forces of Sisera.​—Jg 5:17.

In Bible history certain individuals of the tribe of Dan distinguished themselves. There was Oholiab, son of Ahisamach, who was given divine wisdom to assist Bezalel; he was a man highly skilled in embroidering and weaving costly materials for the tabernacle furnishings. (Ex 31:1-6; 35:34, 35; 38:22, 23) Samson the faithful servant of Jehovah as judge of Israel for 20 years proved true both Jacob’s deathbed prophecy (“Dan will judge his people”) and Moses’ prediction (“Dan is a lion cub”). (Ge 49:16; De 33:22; Jg 13:2, 24, 25; 15:20) When David became king, 28,600 Danites were numbered among his loyal troops. Later, Azarel the son of Jeroham is mentioned as the chief prince of the tribe. (1Ch 12:35; 27:22) The mother of the “skillful man” that the king of Tyre sent to assist Solomon in building the temple was of the tribe of Dan.​—2Ch 2:13, 14.

3. A city in the extreme N of Palestine. Prior to its capture by the tribe of Dan, it was called Leshem or Laish by the pagan inhabitants. (Jos 19:47; Jg 18:7, 27) The Danites rebuilt the destroyed city and called it “Dan by the name of their father, Dan.” (Jg 18:28, 29) However, the city is mentioned some four centuries earlier by the name of Dan in the account of Abraham’s pursuit of Chedorlaomer and his allies all the way “up to Dan.” (Ge 14:14) There is nothing to argue against the existence of this name, Dan, as applying to the indicated area in the time of Abraham. The correspondence of this early name to that of the forefather of the tribe of Dan may have been coincidental or even divinely directed.

The name Dan again appears in the Pentateuch at Deuteronomy 34:1, where it is included among the extremities of the territory seen by Moses in his final view of the Promised Land from his position on Mount Nebo. Since Dan is located at the base of the Anti-Lebanon mountains (and not far from Mount Hermon), this may mean that Moses’ view reached up to that range. The use of the name Dan here could correspond to its usage in the case of Abraham or could be the result of Joshua’s recording the final portion of the book, which includes events following Moses’ death.

Dan lay in “the low plain that belonged to Beth-rehob,” and this area, N of the waters of Merom and just below Lebanon, was a fertile and very desirable region, well watered. (Jg 18:28) The site has been identified with Tell el-Qadi (Tel Dan), which Arabic name means “Mound of the Judge,” thus preserving the meaning of the Hebrew “Dan.” Two springs there join to form the Nahr el-Leddan, which is the most abundant in water of the streams that combine a few miles away to form the Jordan. The city was on a high mound near the southern foot of Mount Hermon and overlooked the spacious Hula Basin. Its position was also strategic, as it lay on the important trade route between Tyre and Damascus.

Dan became synonymous with the extreme N of Israel as shown by the frequent expression “from Dan to Beer-sheba.” (Jg 20:1; 1Sa 3:20; 2Sa 3:10; 1Ki 4:25; 2Ch 30:5) There were, in actuality, other towns farther N than Dan, even as there were several towns farther S than Beer-sheba, but apparently Dan was a city of major importance in the N as Beer-sheba was in the S. Because of its position it was logically among the first to suffer when the land was attacked from the N, as in the invasion by Syrian Ben-hadad. (1Ki 15:20; 2Ch 16:4) This is doubtless reflected in Jeremiah’s prophetic expressions at Jeremiah 4:15; 8:16. Following the division of the kingdom, Jeroboam set up golden calves at Dan and at Bethel in his effort to divert his subjects from the temple in Jerusalem.​—1Ki 12:28-30; 2Ki 10:29.

The rhythmic performance of bodily movements, usually accompanied by music, ranging anywhere from a slow tempo to a violent frenzy. Dancing is an outward expression of one’s emotions and attitudes, often those of joy and ecstasy, rarely of hatred and revenge (as exhibited in war dances). The emotions and feelings displayed in the dance are heightened by appropriately colored costumes or symbolic accessories.

The art of dancing is of very ancient origin, and from earliest times it has been used by almost all races as a medium of emotional expression, particularly in worship. In the Hebrew Scriptures several expressions occur that are translated “dancing,” “circle dances,” “dancing around,” and “skipping about.” The Hebrew verb chul, which basically means “whirl; turn,” is also rendered “dance.” (Jg 21:21; compare Jer 30:23; La 4:6.) Two nouns meaning “dance; circle dance” are drawn from this verb, namely ma·chohlʹ (Jer 31:4; Ps 150:4) and mecho·lahʹ.​—Ca 6:13; Jg 21:21.

Victory and Festive Dances. Dancers expressed their heartfelt praise and thanksgiving to Jehovah after Israel witnessed the faith-inspiring demonstration of Jehovah’s power in destroying the Egyptians. So, as the men joined Moses in singing a victory song, Miriam led the women in dances to the accompaniment of tambourines. (Ex 15:1, 20, 21) Another victory dance motivated by deep religious feelings was that of Jephthah’s daughter, who came out to join her father in praising Jehovah for having given the Ammonites into his hands. (Jg 11:34) The women of Israel, dancing to the music of lutes and tambourines, welcomed Saul and David back after Jehovah’s victory over the Philistines. (1Sa 18:6, 7; 21:11; 29:5) Dancing was a part of certain annual festivals in connection with the worship of Jehovah. (Jg 21:19-21, 23) The Psalms also endorse dancing as a means of honoring and praising Jehovah. “Praise Jah, you people! . . . Let them praise his name with dancing. With the tambourine and the harp let them make melody to him.” “Praise him with the tambourine and the circle dance.”​—Ps 149:1, 3; 150:4.

It was a great occasion when the ark of the covenant finally arrived in Jerusalem, especially for King David, who gave way to his emotions in a most vigorous dance. “And David was dancing around before Jehovah with all his power, . . . leaping and dancing around before Jehovah.” (2Sa 6:14-17) In the parallel passage David is described as “skipping about.”​—1Ch 15:29.

Dancing also had a religious significance among the people of the pagan nations. The processions of ancient Babylon and other nations were usually of a religious nature, and often processional dances were staged as part of the event. The dances in Greece usually acted out some legend connected with their gods, who were themselves depicted as dancing. Fertility dances were designed to stimulate the sexual passions of both participants and observers. The Canaanites performed circle dances around their idols and sacred poles honoring the fertility forces of nature. The worship of Baal was associated with wild, unrestrained dances. In Elijah’s time there was such a display by the priests of Baal who, in the course of the demonic dance, lacerated themselves with knives as they kept “limping around” the altar. (1Ki 18:26-29) Other translations say they “performed a limping dance” (AT), “danced in halting wise” (JP), “performed their hobbling dance” (JB). On making the golden calf, the Israelites also indulged in a form of pagan dancing before their idol, thus meriting Jehovah’s condemnation.​—Ex 32:6, 17-19.

Other Bible Mention of Dancing. In Israel, dancing was performed mostly in groups, particularly by women. When men joined in the dance, they were in separate companies; apparently there was no mingling of the sexes in their dances. The dances were both processional and circular (Jg 21:21; 2Sa 6:14-16), but these styles did not make the dances akin to the pagan processional or circle dances. The motives and objectives behind the dances themselves, the announced purpose of the dances, the movements of the dancing bodies, and the ideas such movements convey to observers are the important things to consider and compare in determining resemblance in dance patterns.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures the word or·kheʹo·mai is translated “dance.” According to W. E. Vine it “probably originally signified to lift up, as of the feet; hence, to leap with regularity of motion.” (An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 266) Herod was so pleased with Salome’s dancing at his birthday party that he granted her request and had John the Baptizer beheaded. (Mt 14:6-11; Mr 6:21-28; see SALOME No. 2.) Jesus Christ likened his generation to the young children he observed playing games and dancing in the marketplace. (Mt 11:16-19; Lu 7:31-35) In Jesus’ illustration of the prodigal son, however, a different Greek word is used, kho·rosʹ, from which the English word “chorus” is drawn. This Greek word has reference to a company of dancers, evidently a dancing troupe hired as entertainment for such a festive occasion.​—Lu 15:25.

(Danʹi·el) [My Judge Is God].

1. David’s second son, born to him at Hebron by Abigail. (1Ch 3:1) He is called Chileab at 2 Samuel 3:3. With the slaying of the firstborn, Amnon, he could feel in line for the kingship after David, but no mention is made of a usurpation, suggesting either that he respected the God-given appointment of Solomon or that he died before his father.

2. An outstanding prophet of Jehovah of the tribe of Judah. The writer of the book bearing his name. Very little is known of his early life, but he tells of being taken to Babylon, likely as a teenage prince, along with other royal offspring and nobles. (Da 1:3-6) This was in Jehoiakim’s third year (as tributary king to Babylon), which third year started in the spring of 618 B.C.E. (Da 1:1) With Jehoiakim’s inglorious death, Jehoiachin, his son, ruled for a few months before surrendering. Early in 617 B.C.E., Jehoiachin and other “foremost men,” also young Daniel (2Ki 24:15), were taken into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar.

Under Babylonian Rule. While many of the exiles were located by the river Chebar outside the city of Babylon, Daniel and his three companions were selected to receive special training in the writing and the tongue of the Chaldeans to equip them for governmental service. In accord with custom, they were given Babylonian names, Daniel’s being Belteshazzar, according to the name of Nebuchadnezzar’s god. (Da 1:7; 4:8; see BELTESHAZZAR.) Not wishing to pollute himself with the foods allotted, which might include some prohibited by the Mosaic Law or defiled by pagan rituals, he made request that their diet be limited to vegetables and water. Jehovah God gave them “knowledge and insight in all writing and wisdom; and Daniel himself had understanding in all sorts of visions and dreams.” (Da 1:17) Examined by the king at the end of three years, they were found to be “ten times better than all the magic-practicing priests and the conjurers that were in all his royal realm.”​—Da 1:20.

Daniel continued in court service until the fall of Babylon. At Daniel chapter 1, verse 19, it is stated that his three companions also “continued to stand before the king” (of Babylon). Whether they lived to hold this position until Babylon’s fall is not stated, but Daniel did; and after this he was in the Persian court until at least the third year of Cyrus.​—Da 10:1.

Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams. In Nebuchadnezzar’s second year (probably dating from Jerusalem’s overthrow in 607 B.C.E.), he has a dream that ‘agitates his spirit.’ All the wise men being unable to reveal it, Daniel comes before the king and not only tells him the dream, by divine revelation, but interprets it, thereby saving himself and the other wise men from execution. This prompts Nebuchadnezzar to make Daniel “ruler over all the jurisdictional district of Babylon and the chief prefect over all the wise men.” (Da 2:48) His three companions receive high positions outside the court, while Daniel serves in the court of the king.

Just why Daniel was not also involved in the issue of integrity encountered by his companions, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, when commanded to worship the golden image set up in the Plain of Dura, is not certain. (Da 3) The Bible is silent on the matter. Daniel’s previous course as well as his later loyalty to God even in danger of death, as described in chapter 6, provides full assurance that, if present, and whatever the circumstances, Daniel did not compromise by bowing before the image. Also, Jehovah’s Word expresses his approval of Daniel as wholly devoted, listing him alongside Noah and Job.​—Eze 14:14, 20; Mt 24:15; Heb 11:32, 33.

Later Daniel interpreted Nebuchadnezzar’s dream, regarding the immense tree that was cut down and then allowed to sprout again, as representing the great Babylonian monarch himself (in the prophecy’s first fulfillment). (Da 4:20-22) Nebuchadnezzar would be insane for seven years and then would regain his sanity and his kingdom. Nebuchadnezzar confirmed the fulfillment of the divinely sent dream upon himself, for he saw fit to publicize the occurrence throughout the realm.​—Da 4:1, 2.

Visions. During the first and third years of Belshazzar, Daniel received two visions (Da chaps 7, 8) in which various animals represented successive world powers, leading to the time when these would be forcefully broken up and the heavenly rulership would be given to “someone like a son of man.” (Da 7:11-14) Whether Daniel was actually in Shushan when he received the vision recorded in chapter 8, or saw himself there in vision, is not certain. It appears that for many years after Nebuchadnezzar’s death Daniel was used little, if at all, as counselor, so that the queen (likely the queen mother) found it necessary to bring him to Belshazzar’s attention when none of the wise men were able to interpret the ominous handwriting on the palace wall at the time of Belshazzar’s riotous and blasphemous feast. As promised, “they heralded concerning [Daniel] that he was to become the third ruler in the kingdom,” Nabonidus being first ruler and his son Belshazzar being second. That same night the city fell to the Medes and Persians, and Belshazzar was slain.​—Da 5:1, 10-31.

Under Medo-Persian Rule. During the reign of Darius the Mede, Daniel was one of the three high officials appointed over the 120 satraps who were to rule the kingdom. Excelling greatly in governmental service because of divine favor, Daniel was about to be elevated over all the kingdom when envy and jealousy caused the other officials to scheme for his execution. The law that they induced the king to enact would have to be in connection with Daniel’s worship of God, as they could find no fault with him otherwise. The king acted reluctantly to carry out the law, which, according to custom, could not be changed, but he did cast Daniel into the pit of the lions. For Daniel’s firm integrity and faith, Jehovah sent His angel to deliver him from the lions’ mouths. Darius then executed justice on the conspirators, having them destroyed by the same lions.​—Da 6.

In the first year of Darius, Daniel discerned the nearness of the end of the 70 years of desolation of Jerusalem, according to the writings of Jeremiah. (Jer 25:11, 12) Humbly Daniel acknowledged the sins of his people and prayed that Jehovah would cause His face to shine upon the desolated sanctuary in Jerusalem. (Da 9:1, 2, 17) He was favored with a revelation through Gabriel, who gave him the prophecy of the 70 weeks, pinpointing the year of Messiah’s arrival. Daniel happily lived to see the return of the Jews under Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E., but it is not stated that he accompanied them. During the third year of Cyrus (536 B.C.E.), Daniel was given a vision by an angel who, in his mission to visit Daniel, had to contend with the prince of Persia. The angel spoke to reveal what was to “befall [Daniel’s] people in the final part of the days, because it is a vision yet for the days to come.” (Da 10:14) Starting with the kings of Persia, he recorded history in advance. The prophecy revealed that the world scene would come to be dominated by two main opposing political powers, termed “the king of the north” and “the king of the south,” which situation would prevail until the standing up of Michael, with a great time of distress to follow.​—Da chaps 11, 12.

Daniel may not have lived much beyond the third year of Cyrus. If he was a teenager at the time of being brought to Babylon in 617 B.C.E., he would be almost 100 years old when he received that vision recorded in chapters 10 through 12. The angel’s statement to Daniel, “As for you yourself, go toward the end; and you will rest, but you will stand up for your lot at the end of the days,” seems to imply that his life was nearing its close, with assurance of a resurrection for him.​—Da 12:13.

Daniel’s Writership. Daniel is referred to by Christ (Mt 24:15) and alluded to at Hebrews 11:33. It cannot be demonstrated successfully by the critics that one or more later writers of Maccabean times had to do with the writing of all or parts of the canonical book of Daniel. However, three additions called “The Song of the Three Holy Children,” “Susanna and the Elders,” and “The Destruction of Bel and the Dragon” are Apocryphal and are by a later hand. These and other writings that claim Daniel as the writer or that set forth unusual feats or teachings by him are more in the realm of fable, revolving around the great fame of Daniel, and are not reliable.​—See APOCRYPHA; also DANIEL, BOOK OF.

3. A priest of the Levite house of Ithamar who accompanied Ezra to Jerusalem in 468 B.C.E. (Ezr 8:2) Possibly the same priest or his descendant signed the confession contract during Nehemiah’s governorship (Ne 10:6), but he was not the same person as the prophet Daniel, who was of the tribe of Judah.​—Da 1:6.

A prophetic book placed in the English Bible among the major prophets, immediately after Ezekiel. This is the order followed in the Greek Septuagint and in the Latin Vulgate. In the Hebrew canon, Daniel is placed in the “Writings” or “Hagiographa.”

Writer. That Daniel was the writer is made evident by the book itself. It reports: “In the first year of Belshazzar the king of Babylon, Daniel himself beheld a dream and visions of his head upon his bed. At that time he wrote down the dream itself. The complete account of the matters he told.” (Da 7:1) His being the writer is also apparent from the fact that chapters 7 through 12 are written in the first person.

Chapters 1 through 6 are written in the third person, but this does not argue against Daniel’s writership. He took the position of an observer who was reporting what was happening to himself and others. Another Bible writer, Jeremiah, does this frequently. (See Jer 20:1-6; 21:1-3; and chaps 26, 36.) Again, Jeremiah writes in the first person.​—Jer 1, 13, 15, 18; see DANIEL No. 2.

Setting and Time of Writing. The setting of the book is in Babylon, with one of its visions in Shushan by the river Ulai. Whether Daniel was in Shushan in reality or in a visionary way is not clear. The writing was completed in about 536 B.C.E., and the book covers the period from 618 to about 536 B.C.E.​—Da 8:1, 2.

Authenticity. Some critics question the authenticity of Daniel, assuming the position taken by a third-century heathen philosopher and enemy of Christianity, Porphyry, who contended that the book of Daniel was forged by a Palestinian Jew of the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. This forger, he theorized, took past events and made them appear to be prophecies. The genuineness of the book of Daniel was not seriously questioned, however, from that day until the early part of the 18th century. Jesus Christ’s own acceptance of Daniel’s prophecy is an even more significant evidence of its authenticity.​—Mt 24:15; Da 11:31.

Historical. Several manuscripts of parts of the book of Daniel were found in the Dead Sea caves. The earliest manuscript dates from the first half of the first century B.C.E.; the book of Daniel was an accepted part of the Scriptures in that time and was so well known to the Jews that many copies had already been made of it. That it was recognized as a canonical book of that time is supported by the writer of the Apocryphal, but historical, book of First Maccabees (2:59, 60), who made reference to Daniel’s deliverance from the den of lions, and that of the three Hebrews from the fiery furnace.

We have also the testimony of the Jewish historian Josephus, who states that the prophecies of Daniel were shown to Alexander the Great when he entered Jerusalem. This occurred in about 332 B.C.E., more than 150 years before the Maccabean period. Josephus says of the event: “When the book of Daniel was shown to him, in which he had declared that one of the Greeks would destroy the empire of the Persians, he believed himself to be the one indicated.” (Jewish Antiquities, XI, 337 [viii, 5]) History also recounts that Alexander bestowed great favors on the Jews, and this is believed to have been because of what Daniel said about him in prophecy.

Language. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and 8:1–12:13 are written in Hebrew, while Daniel 2:4b–7:28 is written in Aramaic. Regarding the vocabulary used in the Aramaic portion of Daniel, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Vol. 1, p. 860) says: “When the Aramaic vocabulary of Daniel is examined, nine-tenths of it can be attested immediately from West Semitic inscriptions, or papyri from the 5th cent. B.C. or earlier. The remaining words have been found in sources such as Nabatean or Palmyrene Aramaic, which are later than the 5th cent. B.C. While it is at least theoretically possible that this small balance of vocabulary suddenly originated after the 5th cent. B.C., it is equally possible to argue from a fifth-century B.C. written form to an earlier oral one. By far the most probable explanation, however, is that the missing tenth represents nothing more serious than a gap in our current knowledge of the linguistic situation, which we may confidently expect to be filled in process of time.”​—Edited by G. Bromiley, 1979.

There are some so-called Persian words in Daniel, but in view of the frequent dealings that the Jews had with Babylonians, Medes, Persians, and others, this is not unusual. Furthermore, most of the foreign names used by Daniel are names of officials, articles of clothing, legal terms, and such, for which the Hebrew or Aramaic of the time apparently had no equally suitable terms. Daniel was writing for his people who were for the most part in Babylonia, and many were scattered in other places at this time. Therefore, he wrote in language that would be understandable to them.

Doctrinal. Some critics object because Daniel alludes to the resurrection. (Da 12:13) They assume that this is a doctrine that was developed later or was taken from a pagan belief, but the reference in Daniel is in agreement with the rest of the Hebrew Scriptures, which contains statements of belief in a resurrection. (Job 14:13, 15; Ps 16:10) Also, there are actual instances of resurrection. (1Ki 17:21, 22; 2Ki 4:22-37; 13:20, 21) And on no less authority than the apostle Paul we have the statement that Abraham had faith in the raising up of the dead (Heb 11:17-19) and also that other faithful servants of God of ancient times looked forward to the resurrection. (Heb 11:13, 35-40; Ro 4:16, 17) Jesus himself said: “But that the dead are raised up even Moses disclosed, in the account about the thornbush, when he calls Jehovah ‘the God of Abraham and God of Isaac and God of Jacob.’”​—Lu 20:37.

Those who claim that the book is not really prophetic but was written after the events occurred would have to move up the time of writing of the book beyond the days of Jesus’ ministry on earth, for the ninth chapter admittedly contains a prophecy concerning the Messiah’s appearance and sacrifice. (Da 9:25-27) Also, the prophecy continues on and recounts the history of the kingdoms that would rule right down to “the time of the end,” when they will be destroyed by the Kingdom of God in the hands of his Messiah.​—Da 7:9-14, 25-27; 2:44; 11:35, 40.

Value of the Book. Daniel is outstanding in his recording of prophetic time periods: The 69 weeks (of years) from the decree to rebuild Jerusalem to the coming of the Messiah; the events to take place within the 70th week, and the destruction of Jerusalem to follow soon afterward (Da 9:24-27); the “seven times,” which Jesus called “the appointed times of the nations” and indicated were still running at the time that he was on earth, with their conclusion at a much later date (Da 4:25; Lu 21:24); the periods of 1,290, 1,335, and 2,300 days; and “an appointed time, appointed times and a half.” All of these time prophecies are vital to an understanding of God’s dealings with his people.​—Da 12:7, 11, 12; 8:14; see APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS; SEVENTY WEEKS.

Daniel also gives details concerning the rise and fall of world powers from the time of ancient Babylon right on down till the time when the Kingdom of God crushes them out of existence forever. The prophecy directs attention to the Kingdom of God, in the hands of his appointed King and his associate “holy ones,” as the government that will endure forever, for the blessing of all who serve God.​—Da 2:44; 7:13, 14, 27.

The angel’s inspired interpretation of the prophecy regarding the beasts as representing world powers (Da 7:3-7, 17, 23; 8:20, 21) is of great assistance in understanding the symbolism of the beasts in Revelation.​—Re 13:1-18; see BEASTS, SYMBOLIC.

Daniel’s record of the deliverance of his three companions from the fiery furnace for refusing to bow down before Nebuchadnezzar’s great golden image (Da 3) is an account of the legal establishment of the right of Jehovah’s worshipers to give Him exclusive devotion, in the realm of the first world power during the “Gentile times.” It also helps Christians to discern that their subjection to the superior authorities, as mentioned at Romans 13:1, is relative, in harmony also with the actions of the apostles in Acts 4:19, 20 and 5:29. It strengthens Christians as to their position of neutrality as regards the affairs of the nations, revealing that their neutrality may bring them into difficulty, but whether God delivers them at the time, or even permits them to be killed for their integrity, the Christian position is that they will worship and serve Jehovah God alone.​—Da 3:16-18.

[Box on page 578]

HIGHLIGHTS OF DANIEL

Prophecies concerning the rise and fall of human governments from ancient Babylon until God’s Kingdom crushes all of them and takes over world rulership

Written by Daniel, who was in Babylon from 617 B.C.E. until after the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem in 537 B.C.E.

Daniel and three companions when exiles in Babylon demonstrate integrity to Jehovah

While being prepared for service in Nebuchadnezzar’s court, they abstain from his wine and delicacies; God favors them with knowledge and insight (1:1-21)

Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego refuse to join in worshiping Nebuchadnezzar’s giant image; they firmly tell the angry king that they will not worship his gods; he has them bound and thrown into superheated furnace; angel delivers them without injury (3:1-30)

Jealous officials scheme against Daniel; despite an interdict forbidding it, he continues to pray to his God and does not try to conceal that fact; is thrown into lions’ pit; angel delivers him uninjured (6:1-28)

Prophetic dreams and visions point to God’s Kingdom in the hands of his Messiah

Immense image that is crushed by stone cut without hands out of a mountain; the image depicts the succession of world powers starting with Babylon and ending with all of them being crushed and replaced by the Kingdom of God (2:1-49)

Immense tree that is cut down and banded for seven times; initially fulfilled when the king goes insane and lives like a beast for seven years, until he recognizes that the Most High is Ruler in the kingdom of mankind and that He gives rulership to the one He chooses (4:1-37)

Handwriting appears on the wall when Belshazzar uses vessels from Jehovah’s temple to toast his idol gods; Daniel is called, fearlessly rebukes the king, explains the writing, telling him that his kingdom has been given to the Medes and the Persians (5:1-31)

March of world powers depicted by lion, bear, leopard, fearsome beast with ten horns, as well as a small horn from the head of the latter beast; then the Ancient of Days gives rulership over all peoples to one like a son of man (7:1-28)

Ram, male goat, and small horn represent world powers to succeed Babylon; small horn defies Prince of the army of the heavens, then is broken without a hand (8:1-27)

Seventy weeks (of years); after 7 + 62 weeks Messiah is to appear and thereafter be cut off; covenant (Abrahamic) to be kept in force for Jews exclusively for one week (9:1-27)

Struggle between king of the north and king of the south, the standing up of Michael as deliverer, and events that follow this (10:1–12:13)

See DAN No. 2.

(Dan-jaʹan).

A place mentioned only once, on the route followed by Joab when taking the census ordered by David. (2Sa 24:1-6) The description seems to place its location in the extreme N of Israel, since it is stated that they went “on to Dan-jaan and went around to Sidon.” The fact that Beer-sheba is mentioned in the following verse (2Sa 24:7) calls to mind the common expression “from Beer-sheba to Dan,” used by David in instructing Joab about the census. (1Ch 21:2) Dan-jaan may therefore refer to the city of Dan or possibly a suburb of that northern city.​—Compare Jg 18:28, 29, where Dan and Sidon are also mentioned jointly; see also DAN No. 3.

(Danʹnah).

A city situated in the mountainous region of Judah. (Jos 15:49) Its exact location is unknown today.

(Daʹra), Darda (Darʹda).

A descendant of Judah through Zerah (1Ch 2:4, 6); his wisdom, though great, was not equal to Solomon’s.​—1Ki 4:31; see MAHOL.

A Persian gold coin weighing 8.4 g (0.27 oz t) and hence presently evaluated at $94.50. The obverse side of a daric that was coined for two centuries from the latter part of the sixth century B.C.E. onward depicts a king in a half-kneeling position, with a spear in his right hand and a bow in his left. The reverse side shows the oblong punch impression made when the coin was stamped. At 1 Chronicles 29:7 one of the figures for temple contributions during David’s reign is stated in terms of darics, although the Persian daric was unknown in David’s time. Evidently the writer of Chronicles converted the original figure into terms then current and familiar to his readers.​—Ezr 8:27.

(Da·riʹus).

In the Biblical record, the name is applied to three kings, one a Mede, the other two Persians. Some consider it possible that “Darius” may have been used, at least in the case of Darius the Mede, as a title or throne name rather than a personal name.

1. Darius the Mede, successor to the kingdom of the Chaldean king Belshazzar following the conquest of Babylon by the forces of Cyrus the Persian, at which time Darius was about 62 years of age. (Da 5:30, 31) He is further identified as “the son of Ahasuerus of the seed of the Medes.”​—Da 9:1.

Exercising his administrative capacity, Darius appointed 120 satraps to serve throughout the realm, and he also appointed three high officials who, acting on behalf of the king’s interests, had jurisdiction over the satraps. The prime concern of the arrangement may well have been financial, as the collecting of revenues and tributes for the royal coffers was one of the chief duties of satraps. (Compare Ezr 4:13.) One member of the triumvirate of high officials assigned was Daniel, who so distinguished himself over the other officials and satraps that Darius contemplated making him prime minister. Evidently because of envy, though perhaps also because of resentment of the restraint against corruption and graft that Daniel’s integrity doubtless produced, the other two high officials, in league with the satraps, devised a legal trap. Appearing as a throng before the king, they presented for the king’s signature an edict, ostensibly favored by the entire body of all ranking government officials (Daniel not being mentioned, however). It would prohibit the making of “a petition to any god or man” other than Darius for 30 days. The proposed penalty was that the violator would be thrown into the lions’ pit. The decree had all the appearances of serving to establish Darius, a foreigner, firmly in his newly received position as king of the realm and of being an expression of loyalty and support on the part of the government officials advocating it.​—Da 6:1-3, 6-8.

Darius signed the decree and soon was faced with the result, one that should have revealed to him the hidden purpose of the edict. For continuing prayer to Jehovah God, Daniel, as the edict’s first violator (compare Ac 5:29), was thrown into the lions’ pit despite Darius’ sincere efforts to find a way of circumventing the unchangeable statute. Darius expressed trust in the power of Daniel’s God to preserve him and, after a sleepless night and fasting, hurried to the lions’ pit and rejoiced to find Daniel still alive and unharmed. The king then not only had Daniel’s accusers and their families thrown into the lions’ pit as retributive justice but also had a proclamation made throughout the realm that “in every dominion of my kingdom, people are to be quaking and fearing before the God of Daniel.”​—Da 6:9-27.

Historical records show that, from ancient times, Mesopotamian kings were viewed as divine and had worship offered to them. Many commentators consider that the restriction on the making of ‘petitions’ set forth in Darius’ edict was entirely with regard to petitions of a religious nature, not applying to requests of a general kind. The existence of a “lions’ pit” in Babylon is in conformity with the testimony of ancient inscriptions that show that Oriental rulers frequently had menageries of wild animals. The Soncino Books of the Bible (Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah, p. 49) in commenting on this states: “The Persians are known to have inherited from the Assyrian kings the practice of keeping these animals in their zoological gardens.”​—Edited by A. Cohen, London, 1951.

After chapter 6 of Daniel the only further mention of Darius is with regard to events in his “first year” of rule. It was during that year that Daniel “discerned” the 70-year limit on the desolation of Judah and received the revelation concerning the 70 prophetic weeks and Messiah’s coming. (Da 9:1, 2, 24-27) The angel who brought Daniel the vision depicting the strivings of “the king of the north” and “the king of the south” also revealed that he had earlier acted as an angelic strengthener and fortress during Darius the Mede’s first year. (Da 11:1, 6) Commentators generally have understood that the angel rendered this service to Darius, but it seems more likely that such assistance was given to Michael, who is mentioned in the previous verse (Da 10:21) as contending alongside this particular angelic messenger. Thus there was angelic cooperation and collaboration in contending with the demon ‘prince of Persia’ who endeavored to thwart the fulfillment of Jehovah’s purposes.​—Da 10:13, 14.

Identification of Darius the Mede. No reference to “Darius the Mede” has as yet been found in any non-Biblical inscription, nor is he mentioned by ancient secular historians prior to Josephus (Jewish historian of the first century C.E.). This has served as the basis or pretext for many critics to label Darius the Mede as a fictitious personage.

Some scholars present Cambyses (II) as being made “King of Babylon” by his father Cyrus soon after the conquest of Babylon. While Cambyses evidently did represent his father annually at the “New Year’s” festival at Babylon, he seems to have resided at Sippar during the rest of the time. Research based on study of cuneiform texts indicates that Cambyses evidently did not assume the title “King of Babylon” until Nisan 1 of the year 530 B.C.E., being made coregent with Cyrus, who was then setting out on the campaign that resulted in his death. Efforts to associate Darius with Cyrus’ son Cambyses II do not agree with Darius’ being “about sixty-two years old” at the time of Babylon’s fall.​—Da 5:31.

The view that Darius might be another name for Cyrus himself does not harmonize with Darius’ being a “Mede” and “of the seed of the Medes,” this latter expression pointing to his father, Ahasuerus, as Median. Cyrus is definitely called “Persian,” and while his mother may have been Median as some historians claim, his father, according to the Cyrus Cylinder, was Cambyses I, a Persian.​—Da 9:1; 6:28.

Others would identify Darius with a supposed “uncle” of Cyrus, presented by Greek historian Xenophon as “Cyaxares, the son of Astyages.” Xenophon relates that Cyaxares succeeded to the throne of Astyages, the Median king, but that Cyaxares later gave both his daughter and all of Media to his nephew Cyrus. (Cyropaedia, I, v, 2; VIII, v, 19) Both Herodotus and Ctesias (Greek historians more or less contemporaneous with Xenophon) give accounts contradicting that of Xenophon, however, and Herodotus claims that Astyages died sonless. The Nabonidus Chronicle shows Cyrus gaining kingship over the Medes through the capture of Astyages. Additionally, this identification of Darius with Cyaxares II would require the assumption that Astyages was known also as Ahasuerus, since Darius the Mede was “the son of Ahasuerus.” (Da 9:1) So this view is lacking in confirmation.

Who really was Darius the Mede?

More recently, a number of reference works have favored an identification of Darius with Gubaru (commonly identified with the Gobryas mentioned in Xenophon’s Cyropaedia), who became governor of Babylon after the Medo-Persian conquest of that city. Basically the evidence they present is as follows:

The ancient cuneiform text known as the Nabonidus Chronicle, in recounting the fall of Babylon, says that Ugbaru “the governor of Gutium and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle.” Then, after relating Cyrus’ entry into the city 17 days later, the inscription states that Gubaru, “his governor, installed (sub-) governors in Babylon.” (Ancient Near Eastern Texts, edited by J. Pritchard, 1974, p. 306; compare Darius the Mede, by J. C. Whitcomb, 1959, p. 17.) Note that the names “Ugbaru” and “Gubaru” are not the same. While they appear to be similar, in the cuneiform style of writing the sign for the first syllable of Ugbaru’s name is quite different from that for Gubaru. The Chronicle states that Ugbaru, the governor of Gutium, died within a few weeks of the conquest. Other cuneiform texts show that Gubaru continued living and served for 14 years as governor not only of the city of Babylon but of the entire region of Babylonia as well as of the “Region beyond the River,” which included Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine down to the Egyptian frontier. Thus Gubaru was ruler over a region that extended the full length of the Fertile Crescent, basically the same area as that of the Babylonian Empire. Darius the Mede, it will be remembered, is spoken of as being “made king over the kingdom of the Chaldeans” (Da 5:31; 9:1), but not as “the king of Persia,” the regular form for referring to King Cyrus. (Da 10:1; Ezr 1:1, 2; 3:7; 4:3) So the region ruled by Gubaru would at least appear to be the same as that ruled by Darius.

Since Gubaru is nowhere called “Darius,” the suggestion is made that “Darius” was his title or throne name. W. F. Albright states: “It seems to me highly probable that Gobryas [Gubaru] did actually assume the royal dignity, along with the name ‘Darius,’ perhaps an old Iranian royal title, while Cyrus was absent on an Eastern campaign.” (Journal of Biblical Literature, 1921, Vol. XL, p. 112, ftn. 19) In answer to the objection that the cuneiform tablets nowhere speak of Gubaru as “king,” those advocating Gubaru’s identification with King Darius point to the fact that the title of king is likewise not applied to Belshazzar in the cuneiform tablets, yet the cuneiform document known as the “Verse Account of Nabonidus” definitely states that Nabonidus “entrusted the kingship” to his son.

Along this line, Professor Whitcomb points out that, according to the Nabonidus Chronicle, Gubaru, as Cyrus’ district-governor, “appointed . . . (district-governors) in Babylon,” even as Daniel 6:1, 2 shows that Darius “set up over the kingdom one hundred and twenty satraps.” Whitcomb therefore holds that Gubaru, as a governor over governors, was likely addressed as king by his subordinates. (Darius the Mede, pp. 31-33) And, referring to the extensive region over which Gubaru (Gobryas) exercised dominion, A. T. Olmstead says: “Over this whole vast stretch of fertile country, Gobryas [Gubaru] ruled almost as an independent monarch.”​—History of the Persian Empire, 1948, p. 56.

In harmony with the above, some scholars consider it likely that Darius the Mede was in reality a viceroy who ruled over the kingdom of the Chaldeans but as a subordinate of Cyrus, the supreme monarch of the Persian Empire. A. T. Olmstead observes: “In his dealings with his Babylonian subjects, Cyrus was ‘king of Babylon, king of lands.’ By thus insisting that the ancient line of monarchs remained unbroken, he flattered their vanity, won their loyalty . . . But it was Gobryas the satrap who represented the royal authority after the king’s departure.” (History of the Persian Empire, p. 71) Those who hold that the Biblical Darius was indeed such a vicegerent point to the fact that Darius is stated to have “received the kingdom” and that he was “made king over the kingdom of the Chaldeans” as evidence that he was indeed subordinate to a superior monarch.​—Da 5:31; 9:1; compare 7:27, where “the Supreme One,” Jehovah God, gives the Kingdom to “the holy ones.”

While in many respects the information available concerning Gubaru appears to parallel that regarding Darius, and while Darius may have been a viceroy under Cyrus, still such identification cannot be considered conclusive. The historical records do not tell us Gubaru’s nationality nor his parentage to show thereby that he was a “Mede” and “the son of Ahasuerus.” They do not show that he had kingly authority to the extent of being able to make a proclamation or edict of the nature described at Daniel 6:6-9. Additionally, the Bible record appears to indicate that Darius’ rule over Babylon was not of long duration and that Cyrus thereafter took over the kingship of Babylon, though it is possible that they ruled concurrently and that Daniel made special mention of only the year that Darius came to prominence in Babylon. (Da 6:28; 9:1; 2Ch 36:20-23) Gubaru continued in his position for 14 years.

Why historical identification is uncertain. The truth of the Bible account is, of course, not dependent upon confirmation by secular sources. The numerous cases where individuals or events recorded in the Bible, once rejected as ‘unhistorical’ by critics, have eventually been demonstrated beyond denial to be historical should protect the student of God’s Word against giving undue weight to adverse criticism. (See BELSHAZZAR; SARGON.) The hundreds of thousands of cuneiform tablets unearthed in the Middle East still present a very imperfect history with various gaps and blanks. As for other sources, the ancient secular historians, copies of whose writings have survived (though often in fragmentary form), were few in number, the majority of them Greek, and they were separated from the events in the book of Daniel by one, two, or more centuries.

A far more cogent reason, however, for the lack of information concerning Darius in the Babylonian records is provided by the book of Daniel itself. It shows that Darius assigned Daniel to a high position in the government, much to the distaste of the other high officials. Their plot against Daniel was abortive, and Darius executed Daniel’s accusers and their families, likely incurring the animosity of the remaining officials by doing so. Darius’ proclamation ordering all in the kingdom to ‘fear before the God of Daniel’ inevitably must have caused deep dissatisfaction and resentment among the powerful Babylonian clergy. Since the scribes were assuredly under the direction of the aforementioned elements, it would not be in the least strange if the records were subsequently altered and evidence concerning him eliminated. Similar actions are known to have been taken in the history of those times.

The dual form of the Medo-Persian rule presented in the Bible must therefore be given its proper weight. (Da 5:28; 8:3, 4, 20) Though secular history accords overwhelming prominence to Cyrus and the Persians, the Bible record shows that the Medes continued in an apparent partnership arrangement with the Persians, and the laws continued to be those of “the Medes and the Persians.” (Da 6:8; Es 1:19) The Medes played a major part in the overthrow of Babylon. (Isa 13:17-19) Note, too, that Jeremiah (51:11) foretold that “the kings [plural] of the Medes” would be among Babylon’s attackers. Darius may well have been one of these kings.

2. Darius Hystaspis, also called Darius the Great or Darius I (Persian). He is viewed as one of the outstanding rulers of the Persian Empire. Darius describes himself as “son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan, of Aryan seed.” (History of the Persian Empire, pp. 122, 123) He thus claimed royal descent from the same ancestor as Cyrus the Great, though being of a different family branch from Cyrus.

Following the death of Cambyses II in 522 B.C.E. while he was returning from Egypt, the Persian throne was occupied for a short time by his brother Bardiya (or possibly by a Magian named Gaumata). Darius, with the aid of six other Persian nobles, slew the occupant of the throne and gained it for himself. Darius’ version of this is set forth in three languages in the immense inscription that he had carved on sheer cliffs at Behistun, facing a plain through which ran the principal caravan route from Baghdad to Tehran. According to the inscription, Gaumata was a usurper, posing as Cambyses’ brother who had been put to death. Most modern scholars accept this account (which is laced with repeated assurances by Darius that “it is true and not lies”) as basically factual, while some believe that Darius was a “monumental liar” and that the evidence indicates him to be the actual usurper. Whatever the case, Darius was faced with an empire in revolt upon assuming the kingship and is considered to have spent the next two years subduing the insurrectionary elements throughout the realm. Egypt, which had thrown off the Persian yoke, was reconquered by Darius about 519-518 B.C.E. Thereafter he extended the imperial borders into India in the E and into Thrace and Macedonia in the W. He is noted as well for his efficient reorganization of the administrative structure throughout the empire, for the formation of an imperial law code, called the Ordinance of Good Regulations, and for having reopened the canal connecting the Nile River of Egypt with the Red Sea.

It is particularly with regard to the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem that Darius Hystaspis figures in the Bible record. The temple foundation was laid in 536 B.C.E., but rebuilding work came under ban in 522 B.C.E. and “continued stopped until the second year of the reign of Darius” (520 B.C.E.). (Ezr 4:4, 5, 24) During this year the prophets Haggai and Zechariah stirred up the Jews to renew the construction, and the work got under way again. (Ezr 5:1, 2; Hag 1:1, 14, 15; Zec 1:1) This provoked an inquiry and the sending of a letter to Persian King Darius by Tattenai, the governor representing the imperial interests in the region W of the Euphrates, and other officials. The letter advised him of the construction work, set forth the Jews’ claim for the legality of the project, and requested an investigation in the royal archives to see if there existed written evidence to substantiate that claim. (Ezr 5:3-17) The Jewish declaration that contrasted the actions of the Chaldean Nebuchadnezzar, as the destroyer of the temple, with the Persian Cyrus, as the one authorizing its reconstruction, should have had an appropriate and felicitous effect on Darius since, in the first years of his reign, he had to overcome two revolts by rebels each taking the name Nebuchadnezzar (called Nebuchadnezzar III and Nebuchadnezzar IV by historians), claiming to be sons of Nabonidus, and endeavoring to make Babylon independent of the Persian Empire.

The official search of records in the archives at Ecbatana, the ancient Median capital, uncovered the document by Cyrus. Darius thereupon sent orders to Governor Tattenai that he and the other officials should not only refrain from interfering with the temple work but also provide building funds from “the royal treasury of the tax beyond the River,” as well as animals and other necessary supplies for the sacrificial offerings. Anyone violating the king’s order was to be impaled on a stake and his house “turned into a public privy.”​—Ezr 6:1-12.

With this official cooperation and with continued prophetic encouragement (Zec 7:1; 8:1-9, 20-23), the temple work went on to successful completion “by the third day of the lunar month Adar, that is, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius” (Ezr 6:13-15; by March 6 of 515 B.C.E.). Since Darius’ inscriptions show him to be a devoted worshiper of Ahura Mazda, it is evident that his action, though serving Jehovah God’s purpose and doubtless having His direction, was basically taken out of respect for the irrevocable nature of the Medo-Persian laws and in harmony with a policy of tolerance by Darius’ government, evidence for which tolerance is found in some of his inscriptions.

Later Campaigns in Greece. Toward the turn of the century, various Greek cities of Ionia revolted against Persian domination, and though their revolt was quelled, Darius determined to punish Athens and Eretria for their having rendered aid to the rebellious cities. This led to a Persian invasion of Greece, resulting, however, in defeat of Darius’ forces at the battle of Marathon in 490 B.C.E. Though Darius made careful preparations for a further Grecian campaign, he was unable to carry it out before his death in 486 B.C.E. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes.

3. Nehemiah 12:22 mentions the recording of Levitical heads of paternal houses “in the days of Eliashib, Joiada and Johanan and Jaddua . . . down till the kingship of Darius the Persian.” Since Eliashib was high priest at the time of Nehemiah’s return to Jerusalem (Ne 3:1) and since by the time of Nehemiah’s second visit to that city (following the 32nd year of Artaxerxes [443 B.C.E.]) Joiada had a married son (Ne 13:28), it is likely that the “Darius” mentioned was Darius Ochus (also called Nothus), who ruled from 423 to 405 B.C.E.

A letter found among the Elephantine Papyri, reckoned as dating from the last years of the fifth century B.C.E., makes reference to “Johanan” as high priest at Jerusalem at that time.

(Darʹkon).

One whose descendants were represented among “the sons of the servants of Solomon” returning with Zerubbabel from Babylonian exile.​—Ezr 2:1, 2, 55, 56; Ne 7:6, 7, 57, 58.

The fruit of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a tree common to Palestine. Dates are oval shaped, fleshy, sweet tasting, and produce one seed.

In the Bible account, dates are mentioned only indirectly. For example, the Shulammite maiden describes the dark locks of her shepherd lover’s hair as being like “date clusters” (“bushy,” KJ; Heb., tal·tal·limʹ; ‘date-panicles,’ Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, by L. Koehler and W. Baumgartner, Leiden, 1958, p. 1030). Solomon likens her stature to a palm tree and her breasts to “date clusters” (“clusters of grapes,” KJ) and to “fruit stalks of dates” (Heb., san·sin·nimʹ; see Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, p. 662).​—Ca 5:11; 7:7, 8; see PALM TREE.

(Daʹthan).

Son of Eliab of the tribe of Reuben and the brother of Abiram and Nemuel. Dathan and Abiram supported the Levite Korah in his rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron and, in effect, challenged Jehovah’s promises by referring to Egypt as the “land flowing with milk and honey.” Because of their rebellion, Dathan and Abiram as well as their households perished when the ground swallowed them up.​—Nu 16:1-35; 26:7-11; De 11:6; Ps 106:17; see ABIRAM No. 1.

A female offspring; in Hebrew, bath, and in Greek, thy·gaʹter. (Ge 5:4; Mt 14:6; Ac 21:9) The birth of daughters in the household in Biblical times was not as great an occasion as was the arrival of sons; their position was less honored than that of boys, and their names have not been recorded as often. (1Ch 2:34, 35) Yet most parents dearly loved their daughters and protected their interests. When grieving parents interceded, Jesus healed a Phoenician woman’s daughter, and he raised the daughter of Jairus from the dead.​—Mt 15:22-28; Lu 8:41, 42, 49-56.

In the patriarchal society, daughters had certain rights, responsibilities, and also limitations. They were assigned various chores. Priests’ daughters ate from the priestly portions of sacrifices. (Ge 24:16, 19, 20; 29:6-9; Le 10:14) A daughter was the property of her father until he gave her in marriage (Jos 15:16, 17; 1Sa 18:17, 19, 27), and as such she could even be used as security or sold into slavery, though not to a foreigner. (Ex 21:7-10; Ne 5:2-5) Until she was married, her vows were subject to her father’s annulment. (Nu 30:3-5) A father could not lawfully make her a prostitute, and if she were violated, he could collect damages. (Ex 22:16, 17; Le 19:29; De 22:28, 29) There are instances where fathers offered their virgin daughters to depraved mobs in order to protect their guests. (Ge 19:6-8; Jg 19:22-24) Daughters were sometimes given an inheritance along with their brothers, but in the case of the five daughters of Zelophehad whose father died without sons, they received the entire inheritance of their forefathers, on the condition that they marry sons of Manasseh so that the property would remain in the same tribe. (Nu 36:1-12; Jos 15:19; Job 42:15) If a daughter was divorced or widowed, she could come back into her father’s household.​—Ge 38:11; Le 22:13.

“Daughter”​—is it always an immediate female offspring?

The term “daughter” was applied to relationships other than one’s immediate progeny. For example, under certain circumstances the term referred to a sister (Ge 34:8, 17), an adopted daughter (Es 2:7, 15), a daughter-in-law (Jg 12:9; Ru 1:11-13), a granddaughter (1Ki 15:2, 10, where the Hebrew word for daughter, bath, is rendered “granddaughter” in Mo, NW; see 2Ch 13:1, 2), and a descendant.​—Ge 27:46; Lu 1:5; 13:16.

Aside from these direct relatives, the term “daughter” was applied to women in general (Ge 6:2, 4; 30:13; Pr 31:29); women of a particular land, people or city (Ge 24:37; Jg 11:40; 21:21); and female worshipers of false gods (Mal 2:11). It was used as a general address of kindness by one with authority or by an older person to a younger woman. (Ru 3:10, 11; Mr 5:34) Forms of the word bath are also used when referring to “branches” of a tree (Ge 49:22) and “dependent towns” of a larger city. (Nu 21:25; Jos 17:11; Jer 49:2) The term for “daughter,” in its many senses, occurs over 600 times in the Bible.

The wife of one’s son. The same Hebrew (kal·lahʹ) and Greek (nymʹphe) words translated “daughter-in-law” are also rendered “bride” in certain instances.​—Ca 4:8-12; Isa 61:10; Jer 7:34; Joh 3:29; Re 18:23; 21:2, 9; 22:17.

Since the father himself in patriarchal times usually arranged for the marriage of his son, his daughter-in-law was largely his own choice. (Ge 24) She was welcomed into his household, and when it moved she moved with it. (Ge 11:31) The Mosaic Law prohibited a man from having relations with his daughter-in-law under the penalty of death.​—Le 18:15; 20:12; Eze 22:11.

Dispositions of daughters-in-law and their attitudes toward in-laws varied a great deal. Ruth, for example, proved a most loyal and devoted companion to her mother-in-law Naomi, more so than Orpah, saying, “Your people will be my people, and your God my God. Where you die I shall die.” (Ru 1:6-17, 22; 4:14, 15) Esau’s Hittite wives were most disconcerting to their in-laws Isaac and Rebekah. (Ge 26:34; 27:46) Christ Jesus foretold that the Kingdom message would separate daughters-in-law from mothers-in-law.​—Lu 12:53.

(Daʹvid) [probably, Beloved].

In the New World Translation the name occurs 1,079 times in the Hebrew Scriptures, including 75 times in superscriptions of 73 psalms, and 59 times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Of all Hebrew Scripture personages, only Moses and Abraham are mentioned more frequently by Christian Bible writers. In the 1,138 places where the name David occurs, reference is to but one individual, the second king of Israel, or the one of whom David, at times, served as a pictorial type: “Jesus Christ, son of David.”​—Mt 1:1.

This shepherd, musician, poet, soldier, statesman, prophet, and king stands out in the Hebrew Scriptures in great prominence. Here was a fierce fighter on the battlefield who showed endurance under hardships, a leader and commander strong and unwavering in courage, yet humble enough to acknowledge his mistakes and repent of his gross sins, a man capable of tender compassion and mercy, a lover of truth and righteousness, and above all, one with implicit trust and confidence in his God Jehovah.

David, a descendant of Boaz and Ruth, had an ancestry running back through Perez to Judah. (Ru 4:18-22; Mt 1:3-6) This youngest of Jesse’s eight sons also had two sisters or half sisters. (1Sa 16:10, 11; 17:12; 1Ch 2:16) One of David’s brothers evidently died without having children and was thus dropped from later genealogical records. (1Ch 2:13-16) The name of David’s mother is not given. Some have suggested that Nahash was his mother, but it is more probable that Nahash was the father of David’s half sisters.​—2Sa 17:25; see NAHASH No. 2.

Bethlehem, located about 9 km (5.5 mi) SSW of Jerusalem, was David’s hometown, the town where his forefathers Jesse, Obed, and Boaz had lived, and which was sometimes called “David’s city” (Lu 2:4, 11; Joh 7:42), not to be confused with “the City of David,” that is, Zion in Jerusalem.​—2Sa 5:7.

As a Youth. We first meet up with David as he is tending his father’s sheep in a field near Bethlehem, reminding us that it was also in a field near Bethlehem where shepherds more than a millennium later were overawed at being chosen to hear Jehovah’s angel announcing the birth of Jesus. (Lu 2:8-14) Samuel, sent by God to the house of Jesse to anoint one of his sons to be the future king, turns down David’s seven older brothers, saying, “Jehovah has not chosen these.” Finally David is fetched from the field. There is an atmosphere of suspense when he enters​—“ruddy, a young man with beautiful eyes and handsome in appearance”—​for until now no one knows why Samuel has come. “Get up,” Samuel is commanded by Jehovah, “anoint him, for this is he!” This is the one of whom Jehovah says, “I have found David the son of Jesse, a man agreeable to my heart, who will do all the things I desire.”​—1Sa 16:1-13; 13:14; Ac 13:22.

David’s years spent as a shepherd lad had a profound influence on the rest of his life. Outdoor life prepared him to live as a fugitive when, in later life, he fled the wrath of Saul. He also acquired skill in throwing slingstones, and he developed endurance, courage, and a willingness to pursue and rescue sheep separated from the flock, not hesitating to kill a bear or a lion when necessary.​—1Sa 17:34-36.

But for all of his valor as a warrior, David will also be remembered as one skilled on the harp and as a composer of song, abilities he perhaps acquired during the long hours spent tending the sheep. David also had a reputation for developing new musical instruments. (2Ch 7:6; 29:26, 27; Am 6:5) David’s love for Jehovah raised his lyrics far above the common level of simple entertainment and made them classical masterpieces dedicated to the worship and praise of Jehovah. The superscriptions of no less than 73 psalms indicate that David was their composer, but still other psalms are elsewhere attributed to David. (Compare Ps 2:1 with Ac 4:25; Ps 95:7, 8 with Heb 4:7.) Some, for example Psalms 8, 19, 23, 29, quite likely reflect David’s experiences as a shepherd.

All this training while caring for sheep prepared David for the greater role of shepherding Jehovah’s people, as it is written: “[Jehovah] chose David his servant and took him from the pens of the flock. From following the females giving suck he brought him in to be a shepherd over Jacob his people and over Israel his inheritance.” (Ps 78:70, 71; 2Sa 7:8) However, when David first left his father’s sheep it was not to take over the kingship. Instead, he served as the court musician upon the recommendation of an adviser of Saul, who described David not only as “skilled at playing” but also as “a valiant, mighty man and a man of war and an intelligent speaker and a well-formed man, and Jehovah is with him.” (1Sa 16:18) So David became the harpist to troubled Saul, as well as his armor-bearer.​—1Sa 16:19-23.

Later, for reasons not disclosed, David returns to his father’s house for an indeterminate period. Upon bringing provisions to his brothers in Saul’s army, which at the time is in a standoff position with the Philistines, he is incensed at seeing and hearing Goliath reproach Jehovah. “Who is this uncircumcised Philistine that he has to taunt the battle lines of the living God?” David asks. (1Sa 17:26) “Jehovah,” he adds, “who delivered me from the paw of the lion and from the paw of the bear, he it is who will deliver me from the hand of this Philistine.” (1Sa 17:37) Granted permission, the killer of the lion and the bear approaches Goliath with the words: “I am coming to you with the name of Jehovah of armies, the God of the battle lines of Israel, whom you have taunted.” Suddenly David hurls the stone in his sling and brings the enemy champion down. Then with Goliath’s own sword David decapitates him, and he returns to camp with the trophies of war, the giant’s head and sword.​—1Sa 17:45-54; PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 745.

It is noteworthy that the Septuagint, as it appears in the fourth-century Greek manuscript Vatican 1209, omits 1 Samuel 17:55 through the word “down” in 18:6a. Hence Moffatt marks all except the last of these verses in double brackets, calling them “either editorial additions or later interpolations.” However, there is evidence favoring the reading of the Masoretic text.​—See SAMUEL, BOOKS OF (Sections Missing in the Greek Septuagint).

As a Fugitive. (MAP, Vol. 1, p. 746) These fast-moving events catapulted David from the obscurity of the wilderness to public notice before the eyes of all Israel. Placed over the men of war, David was greeted with dancing and rejoicing when he returned from a victorious expedition against the Philistines, the popular song of the day being, “Saul has struck down his thousands, and David his tens of thousands.” (1Sa 18:5-7) “All Israel and Judah were lovers of David,” and Saul’s own son Jonathan concluded with him a lifelong covenant of mutual love and friendship, the benefits of which extended to Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth and grandson Mica.​—1Sa 18:1-4, 16; 20:1-42; 23:18; 2Sa 9:1-13.

This popularity stirred up envy in Saul, who kept “looking suspiciously at David from that day forward.” Twice when David was playing as in former times, Saul hurled a spear with the intent of pinning David to the wall, and both times Jehovah delivered him. Saul had promised to give his daughter to whoever killed Goliath, but now he was reluctant to give her to David. Finally Saul agreed to the marriage of a second daughter, provided David brought him “a hundred foreskins of the Philistines,” an unreasonable demand that Saul calculated would mean David’s death. Courageous David, however, doubled the dowry, presented Saul with 200 foreskins, and was married to Michal. So now two of Saul’s children had lovingly entered covenants with David, circumstances that made Saul hate him all the more. (1Sa 18:9-29) When David was again playing before Saul, the king for the third time sought to pin him to the wall. Under the cover of night David fled, to see Saul again only under different and indeed strange circumstances.​—1Sa 19:10.

For the next several years David lived as a fugitive, constantly in flight from place to place, relentlessly pursued by an obstinate and wicked king bent on killing him. David first took refuge with the prophet Samuel in Ramah (1Sa 19:18-24), but when this ceased to be a hiding place he headed for the Philistine city of Gath, stopping on the way to see High Priest Ahimelech in Nob, where he obtained Goliath’s sword. (1Sa 21:1-9; 22:9-23; Mt 12:3, 4) However, it was only by disguising his sanity, making childish cross marks on the gate and letting saliva run down his beard, that he was able to escape from Gath. (1Sa 21:10-15) Based on this experience, David composed Psalms 34 and 56. He then fled to the cave of Adullam, where his family and about 400 unfortunate and distressed men joined him. Psalm 57 or 142, or both, may commemorate his stay in this cave. David kept on the move​—from there to Mizpeh in Moab and then back to the forest of Hereth in Judah. (1Sa 22:1-5) When living in Keilah, he learned that Saul was preparing to attack, whereupon he and his men, now numbering about 600, departed for the Wilderness of Ziph. Saul continued the chase from one place to another, from the Wilderness of Ziph at Horesh to the Wilderness of Maon. When Saul was about to seize his prey, word came of a Philistine raid, so for a period of time Saul abandoned the chase, allowing the fugitive to escape to En-gedi. (1Sa 23:1-29) Beautiful Psalms praising Jehovah for providing miraculous deliverance (Ps 18, 59, 63, 70) were born out of similar experiences.

At En-gedi, Saul entered a cave to ease nature. David, who had been hiding there in the back of the cave, crept up and cut off the skirt of Saul’s garment but spared his life, saying that it was unthinkable on his part to harm the king, “for he is the anointed of Jehovah.”​—1Sa 24:1-22.

Following Samuel’s death. After Samuel’s death, David, still in a state of exile, took up dwelling in the Wilderness of Paran. (See PARAN.) He and his men extended kindness to Nabal, a wealthy stock raiser whose work was in Carmel, to the S of Hebron, only to be rebuffed by this ingrate. Quick thinking on the part of Nabal’s wife Abigail stayed David’s hand from exterminating the males of the household, but Nabal was stricken by Jehovah and died. Thereupon David married the widow, so that now, in addition to Ahinoam from Jezreel, David had yet another wife, Abigail of Carmel; during David’s long absence, Saul had given Michal to another man.​—1Sa 25:1-44; 27:3.

For the second time David took refuge in the Wilderness of Ziph, and again the hunt was on. David likened Saul and his 3,000 men to those searching “for a single flea, just as one chases a partridge upon the mountains.” One night David and Abishai crept into the sleeping camp of Saul and made off with his spear and water jug. Abishai wanted to kill Saul, but David spared Saul’s life the second time, saying that, from Jehovah’s viewpoint, it was unthinkable for him to thrust out his hand against God’s anointed one. (1Sa 26:1-25) This occasion was the last time David saw his adversary.

David settled at Ziklag in Philistine territory, out of Saul’s reach for a period of 16 months. A number of mighty men deserted Saul’s forces and joined the exiles at Ziklag, enabling David to raid towns of Israel’s enemies on the S, thus securing Judah’s boundaries and strengthening his future position as king. (1Sa 27:1-12; 1Ch 12:1-7, 19-22) When the Philistines were preparing to assault Saul’s forces, King Achish, thinking David was “a stench among his people Israel,” invited him to go along. However, the other axis lords rejected David as a security risk. (1Sa 29:1-11) In the battle that culminated on Mount Gilboa, Saul and three of his sons, including Jonathan, died.​—1Sa 31:1-7.

Meanwhile, the Amalekites robbed and burned out Ziklag, carrying off all the women and children. Immediately David’s forces pursued, overtook the marauders, and recovered their wives and children and all the goods. (1Sa 30:1-31) Three days later an Amalekite brought the diadem and bracelet of Saul, deceitfully boasting that he had put the wounded king to death and hoping to receive a reward. Even though he lied in the matter, David ordered him killed for claiming to have “put the anointed of Jehovah to death.”​—2Sa 1:1-16; 1Sa 31:4, 5.

As King. (MAP, Vol. 1, p. 746) The tragic news of Saul’s death grieved David very much. He was not so concerned that his archenemy was dead as he was that the anointed one of Jehovah had fallen. In lamentation, David composed a dirge entitled “The Bow.” In it he bewails how his worst enemy and his best friend had fallen together in battle​—“Saul and Jonathan, the lovable ones and the pleasant ones during their life, and in their death they were not separated.”​—2Sa 1:17-27.

David now moved to Hebron, where the older men of Judah anointed him as king over their tribe in 1077 B.C.E., when he was 30 years old. Saul’s son Ish-bosheth was made king of the other tribes. About two years later, however, Ish-bosheth was assassinated, his assailants bringing his head to David hoping to receive a reward, but they too were put to death like the pretended killer of Saul. (2Sa 2:1-4, 8-10; 4:5-12) This paved the way for the tribes who had till then supported Saul’s son to join Judah, and in time, a force numbering 340,822 rallied and made David king of all Israel.​—2Sa 5:1-3; 1Ch 11:1-3; 12:23-40.

Rule at Jerusalem. David ruled at Hebron seven and a half years before moving his capital, at Jehovah’s direction, to the captured Jebusite stronghold, Jerusalem. There he built the City of David on Zion and continued to rule another 33 years. (2Sa 5:4-10; 1Ch 11:4-9; 2Ch 6:6) While living at Hebron, King David took more wives, had Michal returned, and fathered a number of sons and daughters. (2Sa 3:2-5, 13-16; 1Ch 3:1-4) After moving to Jerusalem, David acquired still more wives and concubines who, in turn, bore him more children.​—2Sa 5:13-16; 1Ch 3:5-9; 14:3-7.

When the Philistines heard that David was king of all Israel, they came up to overthrow him. As in the past (1Sa 23:2, 4, 10-12; 30:8), David inquired of Jehovah whether he should go against them. “Go up,” was the answer, and Jehovah burst upon the enemy with such overpowering destruction that David called the place Baal-perazim, meaning “Owner of Breakings Through.” In a return encounter Jehovah’s strategy shifted, and he ordered David to circle around and strike the Philistines from the rear.​—2Sa 5:17-25; 1Ch 14:8-17.

David attempted to bring the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem, but this failed when Uzzah touched it and was struck down. (2Sa 6:2-10; 1Ch 13:1-14) Some three months later, with careful preparations, including sanctifying the priests and Levites and making sure the Ark was carried on their shoulders instead of being placed on a wagon as at first, it was brought to Jerusalem. David, simply clad, showed his joy and enthusiasm on this great occasion by “leaping and dancing around before Jehovah.” But his wife Michal chided David, saying he acted “just as one of the empty-headed men.” For this unjustified complaint Michal “came to have no child down to the day of her death.”​—2Sa 6:11-23; 1Ch 15:1-29.

David also arranged for expanded worship of Jehovah at the Ark’s new location by assigning gatekeepers and musicians and seeing that there were “burnt offerings . . . constantly morning and evening.” (1Ch 16:1-6, 37-43) In addition, David thought of building a temple-palace of cedar to house the Ark, to replace its tent. But David was not permitted to build the house, for God said: “Blood in great quantity you have spilled, and great wars you have waged. You will not build a house to my name, for a great deal of blood you have spilled on the earth before me.” (1Ch 22:8; 28:3) However, Jehovah made a covenant with him promising that the kingship would everlastingly remain in his family, and in connection with this covenant God assured him that his son Solomon, whose name is from a root meaning “peace,” would build the temple.​—2Sa 7:1-16, 25-29; 1Ch 17:1-27; 2Ch 6:7-9; Ps 89:3, 4, 35, 36.

It was therefore in line with this kingdom covenant that Jehovah permitted David to expand his territorial rule from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates, securing his borders, maintaining peace with the king of Tyre, battling and conquering opponents on all sides​—Philistines, Syrians, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, and Ammonites. (2Sa 8:1-14; 10:6-19; 1Ki 5:3; 1Ch 13:5; 14:1, 2; 18:1–20:8) These God-given victories made David a most powerful ruler. (1Ch 14:17) However, David was always conscious that this position was not his by conquest or inheritance but that it was from Jehovah, who had placed him on the throne of this typical theocracy.​—1Ch 10:14; 29:10-13.

Sins bring calamity. During the continued campaign against the Ammonites, one of the saddest episodes of David’s life occurred. It all began when the king, upon observing from his rooftop beautiful Bath-sheba bathing herself, entertained wrong desires. (Jas 1:14, 15) After learning that her husband Uriah was off to war, David had the woman brought to his palace, where he had relations with her. In time the king was notified that she was pregnant. No doubt fearing that Bath-sheba would be publicly exposed and put to death for immoral conduct, David quickly sent word to the army that Uriah should report to him in Jerusalem, with the hope that Uriah would spend the night with his wife. But even though David got him drunk, Uriah refused to sleep with Bath-sheba. In desperation, David sent him back to the army with secret instructions to the commander Joab to have Uriah put in the front lines, where he would surely be killed. The scheme worked. Uriah died in battle, his widow observed the customary period of mourning, and then David married the widow before the townspeople were aware of her pregnancy.​—2Sa 11:1-27.

Jehovah was watching, however, and uncovered the whole reprehensible matter. If Jehovah had permitted the case involving David and Bath-sheba to be handled by human judges under the Mosaic Law, both of the wrongdoers would have been put to death, and of course, the unborn offspring of their adultery would have died with the mother. (De 5:18; 22:22) However, Jehovah dealt with the case himself and showed mercy to David because of the Kingdom covenant (2Sa 7:11-16), no doubt because David himself had shown mercy (1Sa 24:4-7; compare Jas 2:13) and because of repentance that God observed on the part of the wrongdoers. (Ps 51:1-4) But they did not escape all punishment. By the mouth of the prophet Nathan, Jehovah pronounced: “Here I am raising up against you calamity out of your own house.”​—2Sa 12:1-12.

And so it proved to be. The adulterine child born to Bath-sheba soon died, even though David fasted and mourned over the sick child for seven days. (2Sa 12:15-23) Then David’s firstborn son Amnon raped his own half sister Tamar, and he was subsequently murdered by her brother, to the grief of his father. (2Sa 13:1-33) Later, Absalom, the third and beloved son of David, not only attempted to usurp the throne but openly despised and publicly disgraced his father by having relations with David’s concubines. (2Sa 15:1–16:22) Finally, the humiliation reached its peak when civil war plunged the country into a struggle of son against father, ending in Absalom’s death, contrary to the wishes of David and much to his grief. (2Sa 17:1–18:33) During his flight from Absalom, David composed Psalm 3, in which he says, “Salvation belongs to Jehovah.”​—Ps 3:8.

But for all his faults and gross sins, David always showed the right heart condition by repenting and begging Jehovah’s forgiveness. This was demonstrated in the affair involving Bath-sheba, after which David wrote Psalm 51, stating, “With error I was brought forth . . . in sin my mother conceived me.” (Ps 51:5) Another instance when David humbly confessed his sins was when Satan incited him to take a census of the men qualified for the military forces.​—2Sa 24:1-17; 1Ch 21:1-17; 27:24; see REGISTRATION.

Purchase of temple site. When the pestilence that resulted from the king’s error in this last instance was stopped, David purchased the threshing floor of Ornan and, as a sacrifice to Jehovah, offered up the cattle with the sledge used for the threshing. It was on this site that Solomon later built the magnificent temple. (2Sa 24:18-25; 1Ch 21:18-30; 2Ch 3:1) David always had it in his heart to build that temple, and though not permitted to do so, he was allowed to set a great task force to hewing stones and gathering materials that included 100,000 talents of gold ($38,535,000,000) and 1,000,000 talents of silver ($6,606,000,000), and copper and iron without measure. (1Ch 22:2-16) Out of his personal fortune David contributed gold of Ophir and refined silver valued at more than $1,202,000,000. David also provided the architectural plans, received by inspiration, and organized the tens of thousands of Levites into their many divisions of service, including a great chorus of singers and musicians.​—1Ch 23:1–29:19; 2Ch 8:14; 23:18; 29:25; Ezr 3:10.

End of reign. In the closing days of David’s life, the 70-year-old king, now confined to his bed, continued to reap calamity within his family. His fourth son, Adonijah, without the knowledge or consent of his father and, more seriously, without Jehovah’s approval, attempted to set himself up as king. When this news reached David, he moved quickly to have his son Solomon, Jehovah’s choice, officially installed as king and sit upon the throne. (1Ki 1:5-48; 1Ch 28:5; 29:20-25; 2Ch 1:8) David then counseled Solomon to walk in Jehovah’s ways, keep his statutes and commandments, act prudently in everything, and then he would prosper.​—1Ki 2:1-9.

After a 40-year reign David died and was buried in the City of David, having proved worthy of inclusion in Paul’s honorable list of witnesses who were outstanding in faith. (1Ki 2:10, 11; 1Ch 29:26-30; Ac 13:36; Heb 11:32) Quoting Psalm 110, Jesus said David had written it “by inspiration.” (Mt 22:43, 44; Mr 12:36) The apostles and other Bible writers frequently acknowledged David as an inspired prophet of God.​—Compare Ps 16:8 with Ac 2:25; Ps 32:1, 2 with Ro 4:6-8; Ps 41:9 with Joh 13:18; Ps 69:22, 23 with Ro 11:9, 10; Ps 69:25 and 109:8 with Ac 1:16, 20.

Pictorial. The prophets often referred to David and his royal house, sometimes in connection with the last kings of Israel who sat on “the throne of David” (Jer 13:13; 22:2, 30; 29:16; 36:30) and sometimes in a prophetic sense. (Jer 17:25; 22:4; Am 9:11; Zec 12:7-12) In certain Messianic prophecies attention is focused on Jehovah’s kingdom covenant with David. For example, Isaiah says that the one called “Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace” will be firmly established on “the throne of David” to time indefinite. (Isa 9:6, 7; compare also 16:5.) Jeremiah likens Messiah to “a righteous sprout” whom Jehovah “will raise up to David.” (Jer 23:5, 6; 33:15-17) Through Ezekiel, Jehovah speaks of the Messianic Shepherd as “my servant David.”​—Eze 34:23, 24; 37:24, 25.

In telling Mary that she would have a son called Jesus, the angel declared that “Jehovah God will give him the throne of David his father.” (Lu 1:32) “Jesus Christ, son of David,” was both the legal and the natural heir to the throne of David. (Mt 1:1, 17; Lu 3:23-31) Paul said that Jesus was the offspring of David according to the flesh. (Ro 1:3; 2Ti 2:8) The common people also identified Jesus as the “Son of David.” (Mt 9:27; 12:23; 15:22; 21:9, 15; Mr 10:47, 48; Lu 18:38, 39) It was important to establish this, for, as the Pharisees admitted, Messiah would be David’s son. (Mt 22:42) The resurrected Jesus himself also bore witness, saying: “I, Jesus, . . . am the root and the offspring of David.”​—Re 22:16; also Re 3:7; 5:5.

The name given to “the stronghold of Zion” after its capture from the Jebusites. (2Sa 5:6-9) This section is understood to be the spur or ridge that runs S from Mount Moriah. It thus lay S of the site of the temple later built by Solomon. Today it is a narrow southern plateau considerably lower than Mount Moriah. Extensive quarrying was carried out in this area, especially during the reign of Emperor Hadrian and the construction of the Roman city Aelia Capitolina around 135 C.E. So, evidently in ancient times its height was more comparable to Mount Moriah, though still beneath the elevation of the temple site.​—PICTURES, Vol. 1, p. 747, and Vol. 2, p. 947.

This site was very suitable for a “stronghold,” since it was protected by deep valleys on three sides, on the W the Tyropoeon Valley, and on the E the Kidron Valley, which joins the Valley of Hinnom at the southern end of the spur. (1Ch 11:7) The city required major protection only from the N, and here the ridge became even narrower, making an attack extremely difficult. The northern boundary of this “City of David” has not yet been definitely established, though some scholars recommend as likely the above-mentioned narrow place. Over the centuries, debris has filled in the valleys to a great extent, making the strategic location and strength of this site less notable. The total area of the ancient City of David is estimated to have been 4 to 6 ha (10 to 15 acres).

In the Kidron Valley near the foot of the eastern flank of the spur on which the stronghold sat, there is a spring called Gihon. (1Ki 1:33) Archaeological excavations indicate that in ancient times a tunnel connecting to a shaft was cut through the rock, making access to the spring possible without leaving the city walls. It has been suggested that it was by climbing up this shaft that Joab and his men were able to penetrate the stronghold and take it.​—2Sa 5:8; 1Ch 11:5, 6.

The name “City of David” resulted from David’s making his royal residence there, after ruling for seven and a half years in Hebron. Here, with contributions from Hiram of Tyre, David’s “house of cedars” was built. (2Sa 5:5, 9, 11; 7:2) David had the ark of the covenant brought from the house of Obed-edom up to the City of David, his wife, Michal, being able to see the procession approach from a window of David’s house. (2Sa 6:10-16; 1Ch 15:1, 29) Upon his death, the king was buried in the city, a custom followed with many other monarchs of the Davidic line.​—1Ki 2:10.

From Solomon’s Reign Onward. Solomon transferred the Ark to the newly constructed temple on the more spacious plateau to the N of the City of David. The expression that they ‘brought up the ark out of the City of David’ shows that the temple area lay on higher ground, Mount Moriah being higher than the southern spur. (1Ki 8:1) After his marriage to Pharaoh’s daughter, Solomon had placed her in the City of David. (1Ki 3:1) But, upon the completion of a new residence closer to the temple area, he removed her from the City of David because it was viewed as holy, the Ark having been stationed there. (1Ki 9:24; 2Ch 8:11) Solomon did further building work in the City of David, and Hezekiah did repair work there in preparation for Assyrian Sennacherib’s attack. (1Ki 11:27; 2Ch 32:5) Hezekiah also diverted the waters of the Gihon spring, bringing them over to the W side of the City of David, evidently by means of the rock-cut tunnel that has been discovered connecting that spring with the Pool of Siloam on the SW slope of the spur. (2Ch 32:30) His son and successor, Manasseh, built an outer wall along the eastern slope facing the Kidron Valley.​—2Ch 33:14.

From the above texts it is evident that, although Jerusalem’s area expanded in course of time, the City of David remained a distinct sector. This held true even after the return from Babylonian exile, certain features of the city being mentioned in connection with the work crews repairing the city walls. (Ne 3:15, 16) “The Stairway of the City of David” apparently led down from the southern extremity of the city. (Ne 12:37) Excavations here have revealed portions of such a stairway, and a flight of steps roughly cut in the rock still leads down from the hill at this point.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures the term “David’s city” is applied to Bethlehem, the birthplace of David and of Jesus.​—Lu 2:4, 11; Joh 7:42; see JERUSALEM.

Jehovah God introduced this fundamental division of time on the first “day” of the period during which he prepared the earth for mankind, when diffused light evidently penetrated the swaddling bands, thus causing the moisture-covered earth to experience its first day and night as it rotated on its axis through the light of the sun. “God brought about a division between the light and the darkness. And God began calling the light Day, but the darkness he called Night.” (Ge 1:4, 5) Here the word “Day” refers to the daylight hours in contrast with the nighttime. However, the record thereafter goes on to use the word “day” to refer to other units of time of varying length. In both the Hebrew and the Greek Scriptures, the word “day” (Heb., yohm; Gr., he·meʹra) is used in a literal and in a figurative or even symbolic sense.

A solar day, the fundamental unit of time, is established by one complete rotation of the earth on its axis, as from the time the sun leaves a meridian, the highest point it attains at midday, until it returns to it. This solar or civil day is currently divided into two periods of 12 hours each. The forenoon period is indicated by the Latin ante meridiem (a.m.) and the afternoon period by the Latin post meridiem (p.m.). However, in Bible times various other methods were used for dividing the day.

The Hebrews began their day in the evening, after sunset, and ended it the next day at sunset. The day, therefore, ran from evening to evening. “From evening to evening you should observe your sabbath.” (Le 23:32) This follows the pattern of Jehovah’s creative days, as indicated at Genesis 1:5: “There came to be evening and there came to be morning, a first day.”​—Compare Da 8:14.

The Hebrews were not the only ones who reckoned a day from evening to evening; the Phoenicians, Numidians, and Athenians also did so. The Babylonians, on the other hand, counted the day from sunrise to sunrise; while the Egyptians and the Romans reckoned it from midnight to midnight (as is commonly done today).

Although the Hebrews officially began their day in the evening, they sometimes spoke of it as if beginning in the morning. For example, Leviticus 7:15 says: “The flesh of the thanksgiving sacrifice of his communion sacrifices is to be eaten on the day of his offering. He must not save up any of it until morning.” This usage was doubtless simply a matter of convenience of expression, to indicate overnight.

As mentioned in the creation account, the daylight period is also called day. (Ge 1:5; 8:22) In the Bible it is divided up into natural periods: the morning twilight or morning darkness, just before the day’s beginning (Ps 119:147; 1Sa 30:17); the rising of the sun or dawning (Job 3:9); the morning (Ge 24:54); noon or midday (De 28:29; 1Ki 18:27; Isa 16:3; Ac 22:6); the time of the sunset, marking the day’s close (Ge 15:12; Jos 8:29); and the evening twilight or evening darkness (2Ki 7:5, 7). The times for making certain offerings or the burning of incense by the priests were also time periods known to the people.​—1Ki 18:29, 36; Lu 1:10.

What is the time “between the two evenings”?

With reference to the slaying of the Passover lamb on Nisan 14, the Scriptures speak of “the two evenings.” (Ex 12:6) While some commentaries on Jewish tradition present this as the time from noon (when the sun begins to decline) on until sundown, it appears that the correct meaning is that the first evening corresponds with the setting of the sun, and the second evening with the time when the sun’s reflected light or afterglow ends and darkness falls. (De 16:6; Ps 104:19, 20) This understanding was also that offered by the Spanish rabbi Aben-Ezra (1092-1167), as well as by the Samaritans and the Karaite Jews. It is the view presented by such scholars as Michaelis, Rosenmueller, Gesenius, Maurer, Kalisch, Knobel, and Keil.

There is no indication that the Hebrews used hours in dividing up the day prior to the Babylonian exile. The word “hour” found at Daniel 3:6, 15; 4:19, 33; 5:5 in the King James Version is translated from the Aramaic word sha·ʽahʹ, which, literally, means “a look” and is more correctly translated a “moment.” The use of hours by the Jews, however, did come into regular practice following the exile. As to “the shadow of the steps” referred to at Isaiah 38:8 and 2 Kings 20:8-11, this may possibly refer to a sundial method of keeping time, whereby shadows were projected by the sun on a series of steps.​—See SUN (Shadow That Went Ten Steps Back).

The early Babylonians used the sexagesimal system based on a mathematical scale of 60. From this system we get our time division whereby the day is partitioned into 24 hours (as well as into two periods of 12 hours each), and each hour into 60 minutes of 60 seconds each.

In the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry, the practice of dividing the daylight period into hours was common. Thus, at John 11:9 Jesus said: “There are twelve hours of daylight, are there not?” These were generally counted from sunrise to sunset, or from about 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. So, “the third hour” would be about 9:00 a.m., and it was at this time that the holy spirit was poured out at Pentecost. (Mt 20:3; Ac 2:15) When Jesus, tired out from a journey, was sitting at Jacob’s fountain it was about “the sixth hour,” or noon, which was also the time when Peter became very hungry at Joppa. (Joh 4:6; Ac 10:9, 10) It was also about noon when darkness fell over all the earth until “the ninth hour,” or about 3:00 p.m., when Jesus expired on the torture stake. (Mt 27:45, 46; Lu 23:44, 46) This ninth hour was also called “the hour of prayer.” (Ac 3:1; 10:3, 4, 30) So, “the seventh hour” would be about 1:00 p.m. and “the eleventh hour,” about 5:00 p.m. (Joh 4:52; Mt 20:6-12) The night was also divided into hours at that time.​—Ac 23:23; see NIGHT.

There are times when the Hebrews used ‘day and night’ to mean only a portion of a solar day of 24 hours. For example, 1 Kings 12:5, 12 tells of Rehoboam’s asking Jeroboam and the Israelites to “go away for three days” and then return to him. That he did not mean three full 24-hour days but, rather, a portion of each of three days is seen by the fact that the people came back to him “on the third day.” At Matthew 12:40 the same meaning is given to the “three days and three nights” of Jesus’ stay in Sheol. As the record shows, he was raised to life on “the third day.” The Jewish priests clearly understood this to be the meaning of Jesus’ words, since, in their effort to block his resurrection, they quoted Jesus as saying: “After three days I am to be raised up,” and then they requested Pilate to issue a command for “the grave to be made secure until the third day.”​—Mt 27:62-66; 28:1-6; note other examples in Ge 42:17, 18; Es 4:16; 5:1.

No names were used by the Hebrews for the days of the week, except for the seventh day, called the Sabbath. (See SABBATH DAY.) Reference was made to the various days by their numerical order. In the days of Jesus and his apostles, the day preceding the Sabbath was called the Preparation. (Mt 28:1; Ac 20:7; Mr 15:42; Joh 19:31; see WEEK.) The practice of naming the days after the names of the planets and other heavenly bodies was pagan. The Romans named the days after the Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, but in northern Europe, four of these names were later changed into the Germanic equivalents of the Roman gods whom the days represented.

Sometimes the word “day” is used to indicate a measure of distance, as in the expressions “a day’s journey” and “a sabbath day’s journey.”​—Nu 11:31; Ac 1:12; see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

In prophecy a day is at times used to stand for one year. This can be noted at Ezekiel 4:6: “You must lie upon your right side in the second case, and you must carry the error of the house of Judah forty days. A day for a year, a day for a year, is what I have given you.”​—See also Nu 14:34.

Certain specific numbers of days given in connection with prophecies are: three and a half days (Re 11:9); 10 days (Re 2:10); 40 days (Eze 4:6); 390 days (Eze 4:5); 1,260 days (Re 11:3; 12:6); 1,290 days (Da 12:11); 1,335 days (Da 12:12); and 2,300 days (Da 8:14).

The term “day(s)” is also used with reference to a time period contemporaneous with a particular person, as for example, “the days of Noah” and “the days of Lot.”​—Lu 17:26-30; Isa 1:1.

Other cases where the word “day” is used in a flexible or figurative sense are: “the day of God’s creating Adam” (Ge 5:1), “the day of Jehovah” (Zep 1:7), the “day of fury” (Zep 1:15), “the day of salvation” (2Co 6:2), “the day of judgment” (2Pe 3:7), “the great day of God the Almighty” (Re 16:14), and others.

This flexible use of the word “day” to express units of time of varying length is clearly evident in the Genesis account of creation. Therein is set forth a week of six creative days followed by a seventh day of rest. The week assigned for observance by the Jews under the Law covenant given them by God was a miniature copy of that creative week. (Ex 20:8-11) In the Scriptural record the account of each of the six creative days concludes with the statement: “And there came to be evening and there came to be morning” a first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth day. (Ge 1:5, 8, 13, 19, 23, 31) The seventh day, however, does not have this ending, indicating that this period, during which God has been resting from his creative works toward the earth, continued on. At Hebrews 4:1-10 the apostle Paul indicated that God’s rest day was still continuing in his generation, and that was more than 4,000 years after that seventh-day rest period began. This makes it evident that each creative day, or work period, was at least thousands of years in length. As A Religious Encyclopædia (Vol. I, p. 613) observes: “The days of creation were creative days, stages in the process, but not days of twenty-four hours each.”​—Edited by P. Schaff, 1894.

The entire period of the six time units or creative “days” dedicated to the preparation of planet Earth is summed up in one all-embracing “day” at Genesis 2:4: “This is a history of the heavens and the earth in the time of their being created, in the day that Jehovah God made earth and heaven.”

Man’s situation does not compare with that of the Creator, who does not reside within our solar system and who is not affected by its various cycles and orbits. Of God, who is from time indefinite to time indefinite, the psalmist says: “For a thousand years are in your eyes but as yesterday when it is past, and as a watch during the night.” (Ps 90:2, 4) Correspondingly, the apostle Peter writes that “one day is with Jehovah as a thousand years and a thousand years as one day.” (2Pe 3:8) For man, a 1,000-year period represents some 365,242 individual time units of day and night, but to the Creator it can be just one unbroken time period in which he begins the carrying out of some purposeful activity and brings it on to its successful conclusion, much as a man begins a task in the morning and concludes it by the day’s end.

Jehovah is the Originator of our universe in which time, space, motion, mass, and energy have all been proved to be inescapably interrelated. He controls them all according to his purpose, and in dealing with his creatures on earth he makes definite time appointments for his own actions toward them, right down to the “day and hour.” (Mt 24:36; Ga 4:4) He keeps such appointments with the utmost punctuality.

The special period of time, not 24 hours, when Jehovah actively manifests himself against his enemies and in behalf of his people. With divine judgment executed against the wicked, Jehovah comes off victorious over his opposers during this “day.” It is also a time of salvation and deliverance for the righteous, the day in which Jehovah himself is highly exalted as the Supreme One. Thus, in a double way it is uniquely and exclusively Jehovah’s great day.

This day is detailed in the Scriptures as a time of battle, a great and fear-inspiring day of darkness and burning anger, a day of fury, distress, anguish, desolation, and alarm. “What, then, will the day of Jehovah mean to you people?” God asked wayward Israel by the mouth of his prophet Amos. This: “It will be darkness, and no light, just as when a man flees because of the lion, and the bear actually meets him; and as when he went into the house and supported his hand against the wall, and the serpent bit him.” (Am 5:18-20) Isaiah was told: “Look! The day of Jehovah itself is coming, cruel both with fury and with burning anger.” (Isa 13:9) “That day is a day of fury, a day of distress and of anguish, a day of storm and of desolation, a day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick gloom.” (Zep 1:15) During such a time of trouble, one’s money is absolutely worthless. “Into the streets they will throw their very silver . . . Neither their silver nor their gold will be able to deliver them in the day of Jehovah’s fury.”​—Eze 7:19; Zep 1:18.

A sense of urgency is attached to the day of Jehovah by the prophets, who repeatedly warned of its nearness. “The great day of Jehovah is near. It is near, and there is a hurrying of it very much.” (Zep 1:14) “Alas for the day; because the day of Jehovah is near.” “Let all the inhabitants of the land get agitated; for the day of Jehovah is coming, for it is near!”​—Joe 1:15; 2:1, 2.

Times of Destructive Judgment. From certain features of the prophecies, and in view of subsequent events, it appears that the expression, “the day of Jehovah,” at least in a miniature way, referred to different times of destructive judgment that occurred long ago at the hands of the Most High. For example, Isaiah envisioned what would befall unfaithful Judah and Jerusalem on “the day belonging to Jehovah of armies,” which was coming “upon everyone self-exalted and lofty” among them. (Isa 2:11-17) Ezekiel addressed himself to the unfaithful prophets of Israel, warning that they would in no way serve to fortify their cities “in order to stand in the battle in the day of Jehovah.” (Eze 13:5) By the mouth of his prophet Zephaniah, Jehovah foretold how he was about to stretch out his hand against Judah and Jerusalem, giving special attention so that not even the princes or the sons of the king would escape. (Zep 1:4-8) As the facts show, that “day of Jehovah” came upon the inhabitants of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E.

In that distressing time of trouble upon Judah and Jerusalem, her neighboring nations such as Edom showed their hatred for Jehovah and his people, causing the prophet Obadiah (vss 1, 15) to prophesy against them: “For the day of Jehovah against all the nations is near. In the way that you have done, it will be done to you.” Similarly, “the day of Jehovah” and all the fiery destruction embraced within that expression befell Babylon and Egypt just as foretold.​—Isa 13:1, 6; Jer 46:1, 2, 10.

Later, through the prophet Malachi, another “great and fear-inspiring day of Jehovah” was foretold, and it was said that it would be preceded by the coming of “Elijah the prophet.” (Mal 4:5, 6) The original Elijah had lived some 500 years before that prophecy was uttered, but in the first century C.E. Jesus indicated that John the Baptizer was the foretold counterpart of Elijah. (Mt 11:12-14; Mr 9:11-13) So at that time a “day of Jehovah” was near at hand. At Pentecost of 33 C.E., Peter explained that what was occurring was the fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy (Joe 2:28-32) concerning the outpouring of God’s spirit and that this too was due to happen before “the great and illustrious day of Jehovah.” (Ac 2:16-21) That “day of Jehovah” came in 70 C.E., when, in fulfillment of his Word, Jehovah caused the armies of Rome to execute divine judgment upon the nation that had rejected the Son of God and defiantly shouted: “We have no king but Caesar.”​—Joh 19:15; Da 9:24-27.

However, the Scriptures point forward to yet another “day of Jehovah.” After the restoration of the Jews to Jerusalem following the Babylonian exile, Jehovah caused his prophet Zechariah (14:1-3) to foretell “a day . . . belonging to Jehovah” when he would gather not merely one nation but “all the nations against Jerusalem,” at the climax of which day “Jehovah will certainly go forth and war against those nations,” bringing them to their end. The apostle Paul, under inspiration, associated the coming “day of Jehovah” with the presence of Christ. (2Th 2:1, 2) And Peter spoke of it in connection with the establishment of ‘new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness is to dwell.’​—2Pe 3:10-13.

Security and safety during the great day of Jehovah should concern everyone. After asking, “Who can hold up under it?” Joel says, “Jehovah will be a refuge for his people.” (Joe 2:11; 3:16) The invitation is graciously extended to all, but few avail themselves of this provision of refuge by following Zephaniah’s counsel: “Before the statute gives birth to anything, before the day has passed by just like chaff, before there comes upon you people the burning anger of Jehovah, before there comes upon you the day of Jehovah’s anger, seek Jehovah, all you meek ones of the earth, who have practiced His own judicial decision. Seek righteousness, seek meekness. Probably you may be concealed in the day of Jehovah’s anger.”​—Zep 2:2, 3.

See SALT SEA.

Partial or complete inability to hear, often caused by disease, accident, or loud noise, either intense and sudden or prolonged. In some cases persons are born deaf. Another cause of deafness mentioned in the Bible is demon possession. (Mr 9:25-29) The root of the Hebrew term che·reshʹ (‘deaf one’; Isa 35:5) refers to either deafness on the part of the object or silence on the part of the subject and is variously rendered “be [or become] deaf” and “keep silent.”​—Ps 28:1; 35:22, ftn; 50:3, ftn; Mic 7:16.

Jehovah, the Creator of the ear (Pr 20:12), required his people to show consideration for the deaf. The Israelites were not to ridicule or call down evil upon deaf persons, for the deaf could not defend themselves against statements they could not hear.​—Le 19:14; compare Ps 38:13, 14.

The words at Exodus 4:11, where Jehovah refers to himself as ‘appointing the deaf,’ do not mean that he is responsible for all cases of deafness. However, Jehovah can cause a person to become literally deaf, unable to speak, or blind for a particular reason or purpose. The father of John the Baptizer was temporarily made speechless because of not believing. (Lu 1:18-22, 62-64) God can also “appoint” persons to be spiritually deaf by allowing them to remain in that state if they so choose.​—Compare Isa 6:9, 10.

Jesus Christ, during his ministry, demonstrated miraculous curative powers by restoring the hearing of physically deaf individuals on several occasions. (Mt 11:5; Mr 7:32-37; Lu 7:22) This makes certain that under his rulership over the earth all afflictions, including deafness, will be eliminated.

The psalmist compared the wicked, who refuse to listen to direction, to a cobra that makes itself deaf to the voice of charmers. (Ps 58:3-5) Similarly, in Isaiah’s day, the Israelites, although having ears, were as though deaf because of being slow to listen and respond to Jehovah’s word. (Isa 42:18-20; 43:8) However, after the foretold restoration from exile, God’s people would cease to be deaf spiritually. They would hear the word of Jehovah, that is, pay attention to it. (Isa 29:18; 35:5) Jesus Christ, while on earth, opened many ears of understanding, enabling the cured ones to act upon what they heard.​—Mt 13:16, 23.

The cessation of all functions of life, hence, the opposite of life. (De 30:15, 19) In the Bible the same original-language words for “death” or “dying” are applied to humans, animals, and plants. (Ec 3:19; 9:5; Joh 12:24; Jude 12; Re 16:3) However, for humans and animals the Bible shows the vital function of the blood in maintaining life, stating that “the soul of the flesh is in the blood.” (Le 17:11, 14; Ge 4:8-11; 9:3, 4) Both humans and animals are spoken of as ‘expiring,’ that is, ‘breathing out’ the breath of life (Heb., nish·mathʹ chai·yimʹ). (Ge 7:21, 22; compare Ge 2:7.) And the Scriptures show that death in humans and animals follows the loss of the spirit (active force) of life (Heb., ruʹach chai·yimʹ).​—Ge 6:17, ftn; 7:15, 22; Ec 3:19; see SPIRIT.

From the Biblical viewpoint, what is death?

It is of interest to note the correspondency of these Biblical points with what is known scientifically of the death process. In humans, for example, when the heart stops beating, the blood ceases to circulate nourishment and oxygen (obtained by breathing) to the billions of body cells. However, The World Book Encyclopedia (1987, Vol. 5, p. 52b) pointed out: “A person whose heart and lungs stop working may be considered clinically dead, but somatic death may not yet have occurred. The individual cells of the body continue to live for several minutes. The person may be revived if the heart and lungs start working again and give the cells the oxygen they need. After about three minutes, the brain cells​—which are most sensitive to a lack of oxygen—​begin to die. The person is soon dead beyond any possibility of revival. Gradually, other cells of the body also die. The last ones to perish are the bone, hair, and skin cells, which may continue to grow for several hours.” Thus while the vital importance of breathing and of the blood in maintaining the active life-force (ruʹach chai·yimʹ) in the body cells is evident, at the same time it is also clear that it is not the cessation of breathing or of heartbeat alone but the disappearance of the life-force or spirit from the body cells that brings death as referred to in the Scriptures.​—Ps 104:29; 146:4; Ec 8:8.

Cause of Death in Humans. The first reference to death in the Scriptures occurs at Genesis 2:16, 17 in God’s command to the first man concerning the eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and bad, violation of which command would result in death. (See NW ftn.) However, death among animals as a natural process was evidently already in effect, since they are passed over completely in the Biblical presentation of the introduction of death into the human family. (Compare 2Pe 2:12.) The gravity of God’s warning about the death penalty for disobedience would therefore be understandable to his human son, Adam. Adam’s disobedience to his Creator brought death to him. (Ge 3:19; Jas 1:14, 15) Thereafter, Adam’s sin and its consequence, death, spread to all men.​—Ro 5:12; 6:23.

Certain texts are, at times, brought forth as supposed evidence that physical death was intended as a natural eventuality for humans, even as for the animals; for example, the references to man’s life span as being ‘seventy or eighty years’ (Ps 90:10) and the apostle’s statement that “it is reserved for men to die once for all time, but after this a judgment.” (Heb 9:27) Nevertheless, all such texts were written after the introduction of death among mankind, and are applied to imperfect, sinful humans. The tremendous longevity of the men living prior to the Flood must at least be considered as reflecting a remarkable potential in the human body, surpassing that found in any animal even under the most ideal conditions. (Ge 5:1-31) The Bible unmistakably relates the entrance of death into the human family to Adam’s sin, as already shown.

Alienated from God by sin, mankind in general is said to be in “enslavement to corruption.” (Ro 8:21) This enslavement is due to the workings of sin in their bodies, bringing forth its corrupting fruit, and all persons not obedient to God are under the rule of sin as its slaves “with death in view.” (Ro 6:12, 16, 19-21) Satan is stated to have “the means to cause death.” (Heb 2:14, 15) He is called “a manslayer” (Joh 8:44), not necessarily because he kills directly but because he does so by deceit and seduction to sin, by inducing or stimulating wrongdoing that leads to corruption and death (2Co 11:3), and also by fathering murderous attitudes in the minds and hearts of men. (Joh 8:40-44, 59; 13:2; compare Jas 3:14-16; 4:1, 2.) Death is therefore presented, not as the friend of man, but as man’s “enemy.” (1Co 15:26) It is generally those in extreme or unbearable pain who are shown as desiring death.​—Job 3:21, 22; 7:15; Re 9:6.

Condition of Human Dead. The dead are shown to be “conscious of nothing at all” and the death state to be one of complete inactivity. (Ec 9:5, 10; Ps 146:4) Those dying are described as going into “the dust of death” (Ps 22:15), becoming “impotent in death.” (Pr 2:18; Isa 26:14) In death there is no mention of God or any praising of him. (Ps 6:5; Isa 38:18, 19) In both the Hebrew and the Greek Scriptures, death is likened to sleep, a fitting comparison not only because of the unconscious condition of the dead but also because of the hope of an awakening through the resurrection. (Ps 13:3; Joh 11:11-14) The resurrected Jesus is spoken of as “the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep in death.”​—1Co 15:20, 21; see HADES; SHEOL.

Whereas the ancient Egyptians and other peoples of pagan nations, and particularly the Grecian philosophers, were strong in their belief in the deathlessness of the human soul, both the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures speak of the soul (Heb., neʹphesh; Gr., psy·kheʹ) as dying (Jg 16:30; Eze 18:4, 20; Re 16:3), needing deliverance from death (Jos 2:13; Ps 33:19; 56:13; 116:8; Jas 5:20), or as in the Messianic prophecy concerning Jesus Christ, being “poured out . . . to the very death” (Isa 53:12; compare Mt 26:38). The prophet Ezekiel condemns those who connived “to put to death the souls that ought not to die” and “to preserve alive the souls that ought not to live.”​—Eze 13:19; see SOUL.

Thus, The Interpreter’s Bible (Vol. II, p. 1015), commenting on 1 Samuel 25:29, observes that “the idea of man as consisting of body and soul which are separated at death is not Hebrew but Greek.” (Edited by G. Buttrick, 1953) Similarly, Edmond Jacob, Professor of Old Testament at the University of Strasbourg, points out that, since in the Hebrew Scriptures one’s life is directly related with the soul (Heb., neʹphesh), “it is natural that death should sometimes be represented as the disappearance of this nephesh (Gen. 35:18; I Kings 17:21; Jer. 15:9; Jonah 4:3). The ‘departure’ of the nephesh must be viewed as a figure of speech, for it does not continue to exist independently of the body, but dies with it (Num. 31:19; Judg. 16:30; Ezek. 13:19). No biblical text authorizes the statement that the ‘soul’ is separated from the body at the moment of death.”​—The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. Buttrick, 1962, Vol. 1, p. 802.

Redemption From Condemnation of Death. Psalm 68:20 states: “To Jehovah the Sovereign Lord belong the ways out from death.” By means of the sacrifice of his human life, Christ Jesus became God’s “Chief Agent” of life and salvation (Ac 3:15; Heb 2:10), and through him the abolishing of death is assured. (2Ti 1:10) By suffering death, Jesus ‘tasted death for every man’ and provided “a corresponding ransom for all.” (Heb 2:9; 1Ti 2:6) By means of Jesus’ “one act of justification,” a cancellation of the condemnation of death that sin brings now became possible, so that men of all sorts might enjoy “a declaring of them righteous for life.” (Ro 5:15, 16, 18, 19; Heb 9:27, 28; see DECLARE RIGHTEOUS; RANSOM.) Thus, concerning Jesus’ true followers, it could be said that they had, in effect, “passed over from death to life.” (Joh 5:24) Those disobeying the Son and not exercising love, however, ‘remain in death’ and under God’s condemnation. (1Jo 3:14; Joh 3:36) Those who want to be free from condemnation and free from “the law of sin and of death” must be guided by God’s spirit and produce its fruits, for “the minding of the [sinful] flesh means death.”​—Ro 8:1-6; Col 1:21-23.

Jesus’ sacrificial course, terminating in his death and resurrection, was likened by him to baptism. (Mr 10:38, 39; Lu 12:50; compare Eph 4:9, 10.) The apostle Paul showed that Jesus’ anointed followers also would go through a similar baptism into death, their resurrection to heavenly glory ensuing. (Ro 6:3-5; Php 3:10, 11) In expressing his earnest desire to take up heavenly life, Paul showed that it was not death itself that was wanted by spirit-begotten Christians, nor to lie “naked” in death, but the ‘putting on’ of a heavenly body in order to be at “home with the Lord.” (2Co 5:1-8; compare 2Pe 1:13-15.) In the meantime, death “is at work” in them, while, by their ministry, they bring a message of life to those to whom they minister.​—2Co 4:10-14; Pr 18:21; see BAPTISM (Baptism Into Christ Jesus, Into His Death).

Those who benefit from that ministry include the great crowd that have the prospect of surviving the great tribulation and enjoying eternal life on a paradise earth. Because of their faith in the sin-atoning value of Jesus’ sacrifice, they, too, come to have a clean standing before God.​—1Jo 2:2; Re 7:9, 14.

Jesus speaks of himself as having “the keys of death and of Hades” (Re 1:18), and he uses these in releasing those held by death. (Joh 5:28, 29; Re 20:13) Jehovah God’s release of Jesus from Hades serves as a “guarantee to all men” of God’s future day of judgment or reckoning and provides assurance that there will be a resurrection of those in Hades. (Ac 17:31; 1Co 15:20, 21) Those inheriting God’s Kingdom in immortality are described as triumphing over death in their resurrection, so that its “sting” is overcome.​—1Co 15:50, 54-56; compare Ho 13:14; Re 20:6.

The Destruction of Death. At Isaiah 25:8 the prophetic promise is made that God “will actually swallow up death forever, and the Sovereign Lord Jehovah will certainly wipe the tears from all faces.” The sting producing death is sin (1Co 15:56), and thus all having sin and its accompanying imperfection have death working in their bodies. (Ro 7:13, 23, 24) The abolition of death, therefore, would require the abolition of that which produces death: sin. By the removal of the last trace of sin from obedient mankind, the authority of death will be abolished and death itself will be destroyed, and this is to be accomplished during the reign of Christ. (1Co 15:24-26) Thereby death, brought upon the human race by Adam’s transgression, “will be no more.” (Ro 5:12; Re 21:3, 4) Its destruction is figuratively likened to its being hurled into a “lake of fire.”​—Re 20:14; see LAKE OF FIRE.

Second Death. “The lake of fire” into which death, Hades, the symbolic “wild beast” and “the false prophet,” Satan, his demons, and the persistent practicers of wickedness on earth are cast is shown to mean “the second death.” (Re 20:10, 14, 15; 21:8; Mt 25:41) Initially death resulted from and was passed on to mankind as a result of Adam’s transgression; hence “the second death” must be distinct from this inherited death. It is evident from the cited texts that there is no release possible from “the second death.” The situation of those in “the second death” corresponds to the outcome warned of in such texts as Hebrews 6:4-8; 10:26, 27; and Matthew 12:32. On the other hand, those represented as gaining “the crown of life” and having part in “the first resurrection” are free from any possibility of harm by the second death. (Re 2:10, 11) These, who are to reign with Christ, receive immortality (deathlessness) and incorruption and hence are beyond the “authority” of the second death.​—1Co 15:50-54; Re 20:6; compare Joh 8:51.

Illustrative Use. Death is personified as a “king” ruling over mankind from the time of Adam (Ro 5:14), along with the rule of King Sin. (Ro 6:12) Thus, these kings are spoken of as exercising their “law” over those subject to their dominion. (Ro 8:2) With Christ’s coming and the provision of the ransom, undeserved kindness began exercising a superior kingship over those accepting God’s gift, “with everlasting life in view.”​—Ro 5:15-17, 21.

Though men, disregarding God’s purposes, may try to make their own pact or covenant with King Death, it will fail. (Isa 28:15, 18) Like a horseman riding behind war and famine, death is pictured as bringing mass mortality to earth’s inhabitants.​—Re 6:8; compare Jer 9:21, 22.

Those spiritually sick or distressed are described as “arriving at the gates of death” (Ps 107:17-20; compare Job 38:17; Ps 9:13), and those passing through such “gates” enter the figurative “house of meeting for everyone living” (Job 30:23; compare 2Sa 12:21-23), with its “interior rooms” (Pr 7:27) and a capacity for victims that is never completely filled. (Hab 2:5) Those going into Sheol are like sheep shepherded by death.​—Ps 49:14.

“The pangs of death.” At Acts 2:24 the apostle Peter spoke of Jesus as being ‘loosed from the pangs of death, for it was not possible for him to continue to be held fast by it.’ The Greek word (o·dinʹ) here translated “pangs” is elsewhere used to mean the pains of childbirth (1Th 5:3) but may also mean travail, pain, calamity, or distress generally. (Mt 24:8) Additionally, it was used by the translators of the Greek Septuagint in rendering the Hebrew word cheʹvel in texts where the evident meaning is “rope.” (2Sa 22:6; Ps 18:4, 5) A related Hebrew word means “birth pangs,” leading some commentators and lexicographers to suggest that the Greek term (o·dinʹ) used by Luke at Acts 2:24 also had this double meaning, at least in Hellenistic Greek of apostolic times. Thus some translations render the phrase in this verse as “the bands [or bonds] of death.” (NC [Spanish]; Segond, Ostervald [French]) In numerous texts the danger of death is represented as reaching out to snare the threatened one (Pr 13:14; 14:27) with ropes that encircle him and bring him down into “the distressing circumstances of Sheol.” (Ps 116:3) Whereas other texts, already considered, show that there is no consciousness in death, and it is obvious that Jesus was not in any literal pain while dead, nonetheless death is presented as a bitter and distressing experience (1Sa 15:32; Ps 55:4; Ec 7:26) not only in the pain usually preceding it (Ps 73:4, 5) but in the loss of all activity and freedom that its paralyzing grip brings. So, it may be that it is in this sense that Jesus’ resurrection ‘loosed’ him from “the pangs of death,” freeing him from its distressing grip.

Change in spiritual state or condition. The death state is used to illustrate the spiritually dead condition of the world in general, so Jesus could speak of ‘the dead burying the dead,’ and the apostle Paul could refer to the woman living for sensual gratification as “dead though she is living.” (Lu 9:60; 1Ti 5:6; Eph 2:1) And since physical death discharges one from any debts or obligations existing up to that time (Ro 6:7), a Christian’s being freed or liberated from sin (Ro 6:2, 11) and from the condemnation of the Mosaic Law (Ro 7:2-6) is also likened to death, such one having ‘died’ to his former situation and obligations. The one figuratively dying in such a way, of course, is still alive physically and is now free to follow Christ as a slave to righteousness.​—Ro 6:18-20; Ga 5:1.

The use of death to represent a change in one’s state or condition throws light on prophetic visions, such as that in the book of Ezekiel wherein God’s people in exile in Babylon are likened to dried-out bones and to persons dead and buried. (Eze 37:1-12) They were to “come to life” again and be settled on their own soil once more. (Eze 37:13, 14) Comparable illustrations are found at Revelation 11:3, 7-12 and Luke 16:19-31.

(Deʹbir) [Innermost; Hindmost].

1. The king of Eglon, one of four petty kingdoms allied with the king of Jerusalem to attack the city of Gibeon for making peace with Joshua. (Jos 10:1-5) Gibeon’s surrender to Joshua caused fear, since it likely weakened any united front against Israel (Jos 9:1, 2) and at the same time apparently gave Joshua greater mobility between northern and southern parts of the Promised Land, allowing for conquest of the land section by section. Gibeon’s siege brought Joshua’s army to its rescue, and aided by miracles, Joshua routed the Canaanite military, forcing Debir and the other kings to take refuge in a cave. Here they were trapped until later executed.​—Jos 10:6-27.

2. A royal Canaanite city (Jos 10:38, 39), also known as Kiriath-sepher and Kiriath-sannah. (Jos 15:15, 49; Jg 1:11) It was in the inheritance of Judah but became a Levitical city of the Kohathites.​—Jos 21:9, 15; 1Ch 6:54, 58.

There are apparently two accounts of Israel’s first conquest of Debir as part of Joshua’s military operations. The first account simply states that Debir’s population was annihilated. (Jos 10:38, 39) The second, Joshua 11:21-23, is likely a recapitulation of the same conquest (since verse 18 refers to the ‘many days when Joshua waged war with all these kings’), while supplying the additional information that Joshua “cut off the Anakim . . . from Debir” and other cities. This supplementary material may have been included to show that even the tall Anakim, who had struck such fear in the hearts of Israel’s spies more than 40 years earlier (Nu 13:28, 31-33; De 9:2), had not proved invulnerable.

Nevertheless, it appears that the Anakim reestablished themselves in the city of Debir, perhaps coming in from the Philistine coast (Jos 11:22) while Israel was temporarily at its Gilgal camp or was warring in the N. (Jos 10:43–11:15) Though Joshua’s initial campaigns had served to subdue the unified resistance of enemy forces in the land of Canaan, rapidly demolishing all major strongholds, apparently this type of warfare did not allow for the establishing of garrisons to hold the sites of all the destroyed cities. So, a second conquest or “mopping up” operation was effected at Debir by Othniel, who, because of distinguishing himself in the city’s conquest, was given Achsah, the daughter of veteran warrior Caleb, as a wife.​—Jos 15:13-19; Jg 1:11-15.

It cannot be ascertained precisely when in Israel’s history this second conquest occurred. The book of Judges opens with the phrase “after the death of Joshua,” and the account of Caleb’s taking Debir follows thereafter. (Jg 1:11-15) This, according to some, would make Judah’s conquest of Debir subsequent to Joshua’s death and would mean that the similar account found at Joshua 15:13-19 was a later addition to the book bearing Joshua’s name. However, others view Judges 1:1 as only a formal introduction to connect it with the book of Joshua, arguing that Caleb would hardly wait for years until Joshua died before driving the Anakim from his promised possession. Hence, they consider the Judges account to be a restatement of that in Joshua.

Various suggestions have been put forth by Biblical scholars regarding the location of Debir in the mountainous region of Judah. In the past it was identified with Tell Beit Mirsim, about 20 km (12 mi) WSW of Hebron. However, now it is identified with Khirbet Rabud, about 13 km (8 mi) SW of Hebron.

Debir’s ancient name, Kiriath-sepher (Jos 15:15; Jg 1:11), means “Town of the Book.” This has led some to conjecture that Debir was the center of Canaanite religious and legal learning and a place where public registers were kept.

3. A site “at the low plain of Achor” appearing in Judah’s boundary list. (Jos 15:7) Though its exact location is not now known, some geographers believe the name has survived in Thogheret ed-Debr, SW of Jericho, and in Wadi Debr, closer to the tentative location of the Valley of Achor.

4. A location on the boundary of Gad in Gilead. (Jos 13:26) This Debir is usually considered to be the same as Lo-debar, where the home of Machir (who hosted Mephibosheth and, later, David) was located. (2Sa 9:4-6; 17:27-29) Some tentatively identify Debir in Gad with Umm ed-Dabar, 16 km (10 mi) S of the Sea of Galilee.

(Debʹo·rah) [Bee].

1. Rebekah’s nurse. When Rebekah left the household of her father Bethuel to move to Palestine and marry Isaac, Deborah accompanied her. (Ge 24:59) After years of service in Isaac’s household, Deborah came to be in Jacob’s household, perhaps after the death of Rebekah. Evidently some 125 years after Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac, Deborah died and was buried under a big tree at Bethel. The name given to the tree (Allon-bacuth, meaning “Massive Tree of Weeping”) indicates how beloved she had become to Jacob and his family.​—Ge 35:8.

2. A prophetess in Israel; the wife of Lappidoth. (Jg 4:4) There is no evidence that Lappidoth and Barak were the same person, as some suggest. The association of Deborah and Barak was purely because of their common interest in liberating Israel from Canaanite oppression. Deborah dwelt under a palm tree located in the mountainous region of Ephraim between Ramah and Bethel; “the sons of Israel would go up to her for judgment.”​—Jg 4:5.

Jehovah used Deborah to summon Barak from Kedesh-naphtali and inform him of God’s purpose to use 10,000 men in defeating the huge army of Canaanite King Jabin under his army chief Sisera. Barak had Jehovah’s promise that He would give the enemy into his hand. But in addition, as he gathered the troops and led them to Mount Tabor, he insisted on the presence of Deborah as God’s representative, even though Deborah was a woman. Deborah proved willing to leave her place of greater security and to join Barak. However, she prophesied that “the beautifying thing” of the victory would go to a woman. These words were fulfilled when the woman Jael put Sisera to death.​—Jg 4:6-10, 17-22.

Deborah and Barak joined in singing a song on the day of victory. Part of the song is written in the first person, indicating that Deborah was its composer, in part, if not in its entirety. (Jg 5:7) It was a custom for the women to celebrate victories with song and dance. (Ex 15:20, 21; Jg 11:34; 1Sa 18:6, 7; Ps 68:11) The song gives all credit and praise to Jehovah for the victory in behalf of his people. It adds considerably to the narrative that precedes it, and to get a full picture the two must be viewed side by side. After describing Jehovah’s might and majesty and recalling the condition of Israel prior to Barak’s fight, it commends the tribes who responded to the call and inquires about others who did not. It graphically adds details concerning the battle and the rout of the Canaanites, the courageous act of Jael in killing Sisera, and the disappointment of Sisera’s mother, who waited in vain for spoils and slaves of Israel to be brought back after the expected victory of her son Sisera.​—Jg 5.

A debt refers to that which is owed, an obligation to pay or render something. In ancient Israel, debts were incurred primarily because of financial reverses. For an Israelite to become a debtor was a misfortune; the borrower, in effect, became the lender’s servant. (Pr 22:7) God’s people were therefore commanded to be generous and unselfish in lending to needy fellow Israelites, not seeking to profit from their adversity by charging them interest. (Ex 22:25; De 15:7, 8; Ps 37:26; 112:5) But foreigners could be required to pay interest. (De 23:20) Jewish commentators understand this provision to apply to business loans, not to cases of need. Ordinarily foreigners were in Israel only temporarily, often as merchants, and could reasonably be expected to pay interest, especially since they would also be lending to others on interest.

At times a third party would assume responsibility, or go surety, for a debtor. This practice is repeatedly warned against in the book of Proverbs (6:1-3; 11:15; 17:18; 22:26), since the one going surety would be the loser in case of the debtor’s default.

The first-century Christian view of debts is expressed at Romans 13:8: “Do not you people be owing anybody a single thing, except to love one another.”

Law Protected Creditors and Debtors. Under the Mosaic Law, even a thief was required to pay off the debt he incurred through his wrongdoing. If unable to do so, he was to be sold into slavery. (Ex 22:1, 3) Thus the victim was certain of being compensated for his loss.

Faithful Israelites recognized that meeting their debts was a divine requirement. (Ps 37:21) So the creditor could rest assured of receiving repayment. An Israelite with no material assets could sell himself or his children into slavery to care for his debts.​—Ex 21:7; Le 25:39; compare 2Ki 4:1-7.

On the other hand, the Law also protected the debtor. The creditor could not enter the house of the debtor and seize a pledge but had to wait outside until the debtor brought it to him. (De 24:10, 11) Neither the garment of a widow nor necessities, such as a hand mill or the upper grindstone thereof, could be seized as a pledge. (De 24:6, 17) Since it was common for the poor to have only one outer garment (mantle), in which they also slept, this garment, if taken as a pledge, had to be returned by the creditor at sunset.​—Ex 22:26, 27; De 24:12, 13.

According to Deuteronomy 15:1-3, it appears that during the Sabbath year (every seventh year) a creditor could not press a fellow Israelite for payment of a debt. Unlike the Sabbath-keeping Israelite who realized virtually no return from his land, the foreigner continued to have an income from his nonagricultural work. Reasonably, therefore, he could be pressed for payment of a debt during the Sabbath year. At the approach of the Sabbath year, some Israelites, knowing that they would not be able to press matters, may have refrained from lending to their needy brothers. But the Law condemned such selfishness.​—De 15:9.

During the Jubilee year (every 50th year) Hebrew slaves were set free; all hereditary possessions, with the exception of houses in walled cities not formerly belonging to Levites, were returned to their original owners. This arrangement prevented Israelite families from sinking into hopeless debt and poverty. Even one who mismanaged his assets could not permanently lose his inheritance for his family.​—Le 25:10-41.

Strict adherence to God’s law would have resulted in a stable economy free from great national and internal debts. The Israelites were assured: “For Jehovah your God will indeed bless you just as he has promised you, and you will certainly lend on pledge to many nations, whereas you yourself will not borrow.”​—De 15:6.

Abuses. As Israel lapsed into a course of unfaithfulness, needy debtors were among those that suffered. The fact that debtors joined themselves to David while he was outlawed suggests that they were hard pressed by their creditors. (1Sa 22:2) Lending on interest to fellow Israelites appears to have become common. (Isa 24:2) Through his prophet Amos, Jehovah condemned Israel for selling “someone poor for the price of a pair of sandals.” (Am 2:6) And by means of Ezekiel, He denounced the Israelites for charging interest and fraudulently profiting from their companions.​—Eze 22:12.

After the return from Babylonian exile, a deplorable situation developed among the Jews because of their failure to obey God’s law about making interest-free loans to needy fellow Israelites. In the time of Nehemiah, many Jews had been forced to put up their houses, fields, and even their sons and daughters as security. However, after Nehemiah’s exhortation to rectify matters, the creditors agreed to make restoration to their debtors and to lend without interest.​—Ne 5:1-13.

Jesus’ Illustrations. In the first century C.E., the relationship of creditors and debtors was very familiar to the Jews, and Jesus at times drew on this for his illustrations. He emphasized the need to be forgiving by telling about a wicked slave who, although having been released from a 60,000,000-denarius (c. $40,000,000) debt, had a fellow slave thrown into prison for a 100-denarius (c. $70) debt. (Mt 18:23-33) The illustration of two debtors, one of whom was forgiven a 500-denarius (c. $350) debt and the other a 50-denarius (c. $35) debt, highlighted the principle: “He who is forgiven little, loves little.” (Lu 7:41-47) Wise use of “unrighteous” (material) riches to make friends with God is illustrated by the unrighteous steward who, when about to lose his position, shrewdly used his authority to make friends with the debtors of his master by reducing their debts.​—Lu 16:1-9.

Other Debts. In the Scriptures, the words “debt” and “debtor” are also used with reference to obligations other than those accrued by borrowing. The wage due a worker is counted as a “debt.” (Ro 4:4) Sinners are “debtors” to those against whom they have transgressed and therefore must seek their forgiveness. God’s forgiveness of “debts” depends on whether a person has forgiven his personal “debtors.” (Mt 6:12, 14, 15; Lu 13:4) In view of his obligation to preach “the good news,” the apostle Paul spoke of himself as a “debtor” to all persons. (Ro 1:14, 15) Gentile believers were, in effect, “debtors” to the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem because of having benefited spiritually from them. Therefore, it was only proper that they assist their poor Jewish brothers materially.​—Ro 15:26, 27.

See TEN WORDS.

(De·capʹo·lis) [Ten-City Region].

A league or confederation of ten cities (from Greek deʹka, meaning “ten,” and poʹlis, “city”). The name also applied to the region in which most of these cities were centered.​—Mt 4:25.

Following the conquest by Alexander the Great in about 332 B.C.E., Greek colonies developed in Syria and Palestine, apparently settled by veterans from Alexander’s armies who were thereafter followed by Greek-speaking immigrants. In many cases these colonies grew on the sites of earlier Jewish towns, while in others they were built on fresh sites, particularly E of the Jordan River. They flourished during the rule of the Seleucids of Syria and the Ptolemies of Egypt, but the rise of the Maccabean-Jewish state (starting c. 168 B.C.E.) greatly jeopardized their relatively independent position. While the populations of these cities doubtless included many Jews, still these cities were centers of Greek culture and organization and hence were very much out of step with the Maccabean aims. When Pompey conquered and reorganized Palestine in 63 B.C.E., these Hellenistic cities were given Roman protection and a favored status. They were allowed to mint their own coins and, to a great extent, to exercise self-government, although they still owed allegiance to Rome and to the Syrian provincial government and were required to pay taxes and provide men for military service.

Formation of the League. Likely sometime between Pompey’s conquest and the death of Herod the Great (c. 1 B.C.E.) ten of these Hellenistic cities formed themselves into the loose federation known as the Decapolis. The motive underlying this union seems to have been a mutual interest in close trade relations and also defense against either anti-Hellenistic forces within Palestine or aggressive nomadic tribes in the desert regions to the E. The term “Decapolis” first appears in the Christian Greek Scriptures and in the writings of Josephus and Pliny the Elder (both of the first century C.E.). Pliny, while acknowledging that some difference of opinion already existed, listed the following cities as among the original ten: Damascus, Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippo (Hippos), Dion, Pella, Galasa (Gerasa), and Canatha. (Natural History, V, XVI, 74) Of these, only Scythopolis (Beth-shean) lay W of the Jordan; because of the strategic position of the Valley of Esdraelon (Jezreel), it served as an important link with the Mediterranean Coast and seaports. Damascus, far to the N in Syria, was evidently included because of its importance as a trade center. Philadelphia (ancient Rabbah, modern ʽAmman) was the southernmost of the ten cities, only about 40 km (25 mi) NE of the northern end of the Dead Sea. The remainder of the cities were in the fertile region of Gilead or neighboring Bashan. Most of them are believed to have been on or near the main roads of that region. Canatha is likely the Kenath of Numbers 32:42.

In the second century C.E., Ptolemy names 18 cities as in the “Decapolis,” which may indicate that the name came to be used in a general way and that the number of cities varied. Some scholars would put Abila, listed by Ptolemy, in place of Raphana as among the original ten. It seems evident, at any rate, that the Decapolis region did not have precisely defined boundaries and that the authority of the cities of the Decapolis did not embrace all the intervening territory but applied only within the district of each particular city.

Jesus’ Ministry and the Decapolis. While people from the Decapolis were among the crowds that flocked to hear Jesus’ teaching in Galilee (Mt 4:25), there is no specific mention of his having devoted time to any of its Hellenistic cities. Jesus did enter the region of Decapolis during his Galilean ministry when he crossed the Sea of Galilee and entered the country of the Gerasenes (or Gadarenes according to Mt 8:28). (Mr 5:1) But here, after he had cast out demons and permitted them to enter a herd of swine, resulting in the herd’s destruction, the people from the nearby city and countryside urged Jesus to ‘get out of their districts.’ He complied, but the man he had freed from demon possession obeyed Jesus’ instruction to go witness to his relatives, and he proclaimed Jesus’ healing works in the Decapolis. (Mr 5:2-20) Some scholars believe the herd of swine there was a further evidence of the non-Jewish influence prevalent in that region.

After the Passover of 32 C.E., and upon returning from a trip to the regions of Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia, Jesus came “to the sea of Galilee up through the midst of the regions of Decapolis.” (Mr 7:31) Somewhere in this region he healed a deaf man having a speech impediment and later miraculously fed a crowd of 4,000.​—Mr 7:32–8:9.

Later History. According to Eusebius, prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Christians of Judea fled to the Decapolitan city of Pella in the mountainous region of Gilead, thereby giving heed to Jesus’ prophetic warning.​—Lu 21:20, 21; The Ecclesiastical History, III, V, 3.

By no means alone among the cities of Palestine in their Hellenistic leanings, the cities of the Decapolis reflected the most powerful expression of Greek influence. They are believed to have reached their peak during the second century C.E., and in the following century the league began to break up. Evidence of the strong Greek influence, as well as the wealth of the Decapolitan cities, can be seen in the impressive remains of theaters, amphitheaters, temples, baths, aqueducts, and other structures at Gerasa (modern Jarash) as well as at other cities.

The Hebrew verb tsa·dheqʹ (related to tseʹdheq, meaning “righteousness”) at times is rendered “declare righteous” and “pronounce righteous.” (Ex 23:7; De 25:1) This Biblical expression is also rendered as “justify,” and the noun forms are translated “justification.” The original words (di·kai·oʹo [verb], di·kaiʹo·ma and di·kaiʹo·sis [nouns]) in the Christian Greek Scriptures, where the fullest explanation of the matter is found, basically carry the idea of absolving or clearing of any charge, holding as guiltless, and hence acquitting, or pronouncing and treating as righteous.​—See W. Bauer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (revised by F. W. Gingrich and F. Danker), 1979, pp. 197, 198; also A Greek-English Lexicon, by H. Liddell and R. Scott (revised by H. Jones), Oxford, 1968, p. 429.

Thus the apostle Paul speaks of God as being “proved righteous [form of di·kai·oʹo]” in His words and winning when being judged by detractors. (Ro 3:4) Jesus said that “wisdom is proved righteous by its works” and that, when rendering an account on Judgment Day, men would be “declared righteous [form of di·kai·oʹo]” or condemned by their words. (Mt 11:19; 12:36, 37) Jesus said that the humble tax collector who prayed repentantly in the temple “went down to his home proved more righteous” than the boastful Pharisee praying at the same time. (Lu 18:9-14; 16:15) The apostle Paul states that the person who dies is “acquitted [form of di·kai·oʹo] from his sin,” having paid the penalty of death.​—Ro 6:7, 23.

However, in addition to such usages, these Greek words are used in a special sense as referring to an act of God whereby one is accounted guiltless (Ac 13:38, 39; Ro 8:33) and also to God’s act in declaring a person perfect in integrity and judged worthy of the right to life, as will be seen.

In Pre-Christian Times. Originally, Adam was perfect, a righteous man, a human “son of God.” (Lu 3:38) He was righteous by virtue of God’s creation of him and was declared “very good” by his Creator. (Ge 1:31) But he failed to maintain integrity before God and lost righteousness for himself and for his future offspring.​—Ge 3:17-19; Ro 5:12.

Nevertheless, from among his descendants there came men of faith who “walked with the true God,” such as Noah, Enoch, and Job. (Ge 5:22; 6:9; 7:1; Job 1:1, 8; 2:3) Of Abraham, it is stated that he exercised faith in God and was “declared righteous”; also, it is written that Rahab of Jericho manifested her faith by her works and so was “declared righteous,” her life being spared when the city of Jericho was destroyed. (Jas 2:21-23, 25) It may be noted that in James’ epistle (as cited) and also in Paul’s letter to the Romans (4:3-5, 9-11), in which he quotes Genesis 15:6, it is stated that Abraham’s faith was “counted to him as righteousness.” Understanding of this expression is aided by considering the sense of the Greek verb lo·giʹzo·mai, “count,” here used.

How “counted” righteous. This Greek verb lo·giʹzo·mai was used regularly in ancient times for numerical calculations or computations such as in accounting, being used when referring both to something that was entered on the debit side of an account and also to something entered on the credit side thereof. In the Bible it is used to mean “reckon, credit, count, or take into account.” Thus 1 Corinthians 13:5 says that love “does not keep account [form of lo·giʹzo·mai] of the injury” (compare 2Ti 4:16); and the psalmist David is quoted as saying: “Happy is the man whose sin Jehovah will by no means take into account.” (Ro 4:8) Paul showed to those who looked at things according to their face value the need to make a proper evaluation of matters, to look at both sides of the ledger, as it were. (2Co 10:2, 7, 10-12) At the same time, Paul was concerned that “no one should put to [his] credit [form of lo·giʹzo·mai]” more than was correct as regards his ministry.​—2Co 12:6, 7.

The word lo·giʹzo·mai may also mean “esteem, appraise, count, rate, or reckon (with a group, class, or type).” (1Co 4:1) Thus Jesus said that he would be “reckoned [form of lo·giʹzo·mai] with lawless ones,” that is, counted or classed as in among them or as if one of them. (Lu 22:37) In his letter to the Romans, the apostle says that in the case of the uncircumcised person keeping the Law, his “uncircumcision will be counted as circumcision,” that is, estimated or looked upon as if it were circumcision. (Ro 2:26) In a similar sense, Christians were urged to ‘reckon themselves to be dead as regards sin but alive as regards God by Christ Jesus.’ (Ro 6:11) And anointed Christians from among the Gentiles, though not fleshly descendants of Abraham, were “counted as the seed” of Abraham.​—Ro 9:8.

How could Abraham be declared righteous before the death of Christ?

So, also, Abraham’s faith, combined with works, was “counted [reckoned, credited, or attributed] to him as righteousness.” (Ro 4:20-22) This, of course, does not mean that he and other faithful men of pre-Christian times were perfect or free from sin; yet, by virtue of their exercise of faith in God’s promise concerning the “seed” and because they were striving to follow God’s commands, they were not classed as unrighteous with no standing before God, like the rest of the world of mankind. (Ge 3:15; Ps 119:2, 3) Jehovah lovingly accounted them guiltless, when compared with the world of mankind alienated from God. (Ps 32:1, 2; Eph 2:12) Thus, God could, by reason of their faith, have dealings with such imperfect men and bless them, doing so while still remaining true to his own perfect standards of justice. (Ps 36:10) However, such ones recognized their need for redemption from sin and were awaiting God’s due time to provide it.​—Ps 49:7-9; Heb 9:26.

Christ Jesus’ “One Act of Justification.” The Scriptures show that Jesus Christ when on earth was actually perfect in human organism (1Pe 1:18, 19) and that he maintained his perfection by continuing to retain and strengthen his integrity under test. This was in accord with God’s purpose to make the Chief Agent of salvation “perfect through sufferings.” (Heb 2:10) That is, Jesus was perfected as to obedience and integrity keeping and was perfected for his position as God’s High Priest of salvation, as Paul shows at Hebrews 5:7-10. Finishing his earthly course free from flaw in any sense of the word, Jesus was acknowledged by God as justified. He was thus the only man who, through test, stood firmly and positively just, or righteous before God on his own merit. By this “one act of justification [form of di·kaiʹo·ma],” that is, by Jesus’ proving himself perfectly righteous through his entire flawless course, including his sacrifice, he provided the basis for declaring righteous those persons having faith in Christ.​—Ro 5:17-19; 3:25, 26; 4:25.

In the Christian Congregation. With the coming of God’s Son as the promised Redeemer, a new factor existed upon which God could base his dealings with his human servants. The followers of Jesus Christ who are called to be his spiritual brothers, with the prospect of being joint heirs with him in the heavenly Kingdom (Ro 8:17), are first declared righteous by God on the basis of their faith in Jesus Christ. (Ro 3:24, 28) This is a judicial act of Jehovah God; therefore before him as the Supreme Judge no one can “file accusation” against his chosen ones. (Ro 8:33, 34) Why does God take this action toward them?

First, it is because Jehovah is perfect and holy (Isa 6:3); hence, in harmony with his holiness, those whom he accepts as his sons must be perfect. (De 32:4, 5) Jesus Christ, God’s chief Son, showed himself perfect, “loyal, guileless, undefiled, separated from the sinners.” (Heb 7:26) His followers, however, are taken from among the sons of Adam, who, because of sin, fathered an imperfect, sinful family. (Ro 5:12; 1Co 15:22) Thus, as John 1:12, 13 shows, Jesus’ followers were not, to begin with, sons of God. By his undeserved kindness, Jehovah God arranged a process of “adoption” through which he accepts such favored ones and brings them into a spiritual relationship as part of his family of sons. (Ro 8:15, 16; 1Jo 3:1) Consequently, God lays the basis for their entry into or their adoption to sonship by declaring them righteous through the merit of Christ’s ransom sacrifice in which they exercise faith, acquitting them of all guilt due to sin. (Ro 5:1, 2, 8-11; compare Joh 1:12.) They are, therefore, “counted,” or credited, as being completely righteous persons, all their sins being forgiven and not charged against them.​—Ro 4:6-8; 8:1, 2; Heb 10:12, 14.

This declaring of such Christians righteous, therefore, goes much farther than in the case of Abraham (and other pre-Christian servants of Jehovah), previously discussed. Indicating the scope of Abraham’s justification, the disciple James wrote: “The scripture was fulfilled which says: ‘Abraham put faith in Jehovah, and it was counted to him as righteousness,’ and he came to be called ‘Jehovah’s friend.’” (Jas 2:20-23) So, because of his faith, Abraham was declared righteous as a friend of God, not as a son of God because of being “born again” with heavenly life in view. (Joh 3:3) The Scriptural record makes clear that prior to Christ’s coming neither such sonship nor such a heavenly hope had been opened up to men.​—Joh 1:12, 17, 18; 2Ti 1:10; 1Pe 1:3; 1Jo 3:1.

It can be seen that, though enjoying the status of righteous persons before God, these Christians do not possess actual or literal perfection in the flesh. (1Jo 1:8; 2:1) In view of the prospect of heavenly life for these followers of Christ, such literal perfection in fleshly organism now is not actually needed. (1Co 15:42-44, 50; Heb 3:1; 1Pe 1:3, 4) However, by their being declared righteous, having righteousness “counted,” or credited, to them, God’s requirements of justice are satisfied, and he brings the adopted ones into the “new covenant” validated by the blood of Jesus Christ. (Lu 22:20; Mt 26:28) These adopted spirit-begotten sons in the new covenant that is made with spiritual Israel are ‘baptized into Christ’s death,’ eventually dying a death like his.​—Ro 6:3-5; Php 3:10, 11.

Although Jehovah forgives their sins of fleshly weakness and imperfection, nevertheless, a conflict exists in these Christians, as illustrated in Paul’s letter to the Romans (7:21-25). It is between the law of their renewed mind (Ro 12:2; Eph 4:23), or “God’s law,” and “sin’s law” that is in their members. This is because their fleshly bodies are not perfected, even though they are counted righteous and their sins are forgiven. This conflict contributes to the test of their integrity toward God. They can win this conflict by the help of God’s spirit and with the assistance of their merciful High Priest, Christ Jesus. (Ro 7:25; Heb 2:17, 18) To win, however, they must constantly exercise faith in Christ’s ransom sacrifice and follow him, thus maintaining their righteousness in God’s eyes. (Compare Re 22:11.) Thereby they ‘make their calling and choosing sure’ for themselves. (2Pe 1:10; Ro 5:1, 9; 8:23-34; Tit 3:6, 7) If, on the other hand, they take up the practice of sin, falling away from the faith, they lose their favored standing before God as righteous persons because they “impale the Son of God afresh for themselves and expose him to public shame.” (Heb 6:4-8) Such ones face destruction. (Heb 10:26-31, 38, 39) Thus, Jesus spoke of the sin that has no forgiveness, and the apostle John distinguished between the sin that “does not incur death” and the sin that “does incur death.”​—Mt 12:31, 32; 1Jo 5:16, 17.

Jesus Christ, after maintaining his faithfulness until death, was “made alive in the spirit,” given immortality and incorruption. (1Pe 3:18; 1Co 15:42, 45; 1Ti 6:16) He was thus “declared [or pronounced] righteous in spirit” (1Ti 3:16; Ro 1:2-4) and sat down at the right hand of God in the heavens. (Heb 8:1; Php 2:9-11) The faithful footstep followers of Christ await a resurrection like his (Ro 6:5), looking forward to becoming recipients of “divine nature.”​—2Pe 1:4.

Other Righteous Ones. In one of Jesus’ illustrations, or parables, relating to the time of his coming in Kingdom glory, persons likened to sheep are designated as “righteous ones.” (Mt 25:31-46) It is notable, however, that in this illustration these “righteous ones” are presented as separate and distinct from those whom Christ calls “my brothers.” (Mt 25:34, 37, 40, 46; compare Heb 2:10, 11.) Because these sheeplike ones render assistance to Christ’s spiritual “brothers,” thus demonstrating faith in Christ himself, they are blessed by God and are called “righteous ones.” Like Abraham, they are accounted, or declared, righteous as friends of God. (Jas 2:23) This righteous standing will mean survival for them when the “goats” depart “into everlasting cutting-off.”​—Mt 25:46.

A parallel situation may be noted in the vision recorded at Revelation 7:3-17. Here, a “great crowd” of indefinite number are shown as distinct from the 144,000 ‘sealed ones.’ (Compare Eph 1:13, 14; 2Co 5:1.) That this “great crowd” enjoys a righteous standing before God is indicated by the fact that they are described as having “washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb.”​—Re 7:14.

The “great crowd,” who survive the “great tribulation,” are not yet declared righteous for life​—that is, as worthy of the right to everlasting life on earth. They need to continue partaking of the “fountains of waters of life,” as guided by the Lamb, Christ Jesus. They will need to do this during the Millennial Reign of Christ. (Re 7:17; 22:1, 2) If they prove loyal to Jehovah through a final test at the end of the thousand years, they will have their names permanently retained in God’s book of life, Jehovah thus declaring, or acknowledging, that they finally are righteous in the complete sense.​—Re 20:7, 8; see LIFE (Trees of Life).

God Proved Righteous in All His Acts. It can be seen that in his dealings with imperfect humans, God never violates his own standards of righteousness and justice. He does not declare sinful persons righteous on their own merit, thereby overlooking or condoning sin. (Ps 143:1, 2) As the apostle Paul explains: “All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, and it is as a free gift that they are being declared righteous by his undeserved kindness through the release by the ransom paid by Christ Jesus. God set him forth as an offering for propitiation through faith in his blood. This was in order to exhibit his own righteousness, because he was forgiving the sins that occurred in the past while God was exercising forbearance; so as to exhibit his own righteousness in this present season, that he might be righteous even when declaring righteous the man that has faith in Jesus.” (Ro 3:23-26) Thus God, through undeserved kindness, has provided a legal arrangement on the basis of Christ’s sacrifice by which he can be completely just and righteous in forgiving the sins of those exercising faith.

Attempts at Proving Oneself Righteous. Since God alone can declare a man righteous, attempts to prove oneself righteous on the basis of one’s own merit or by acceptance of the judgment of others as to one’s righteousness are of no value. Job was reproved because, though not charging God with any wrong, he was “declaring his own soul righteous rather than God.” (Job 32:1, 2) The man versed in the Law who questioned Jesus about the way to everlasting life was indirectly reproved by Jesus for his attempt to prove himself righteous. (Lu 10:25-37) Jesus condemned the Pharisees for seeking to declare themselves righteous before men. (Lu 16:15) The apostle Paul, in particular, showed that, because of the imperfect, sinful state of all mankind, none could be declared righteous through trying to establish their own righteousness by works of the Mosaic Law. (Ro 3:19-24; Ga 3:10-12) Instead, he stressed faith in Christ Jesus as the true basis for such declaration of righteousness. (Ro 10:3, 4) The inspired letter of James complements Paul’s statement by showing that such faith must be made to live, not by works of Law, but by works of faith, as in the cases of Abraham and Rahab.​—Jas 2:24, 26.

Certain men, falsely claiming to be apostles, unjustly challenged the apostleship and Christian works of Paul, seeking thereby to draw away the Corinthian congregation to themselves. (2Co 11:12, 13) Paul, knowing that he was faithfully carrying out a stewardship for Christ, stated that he was not concerned with the judgment of men who, wholly unauthorized, sat in effect as a “human tribunal” to judge him. He did not even rely on his own judgment of himself, but he looked to Jehovah as his Examiner. (1Co 4:1-4) Thus the principle is set forth that reliance cannot be put in the judgment of men as to one’s righteousness or lack of it, unless their judgment is backed up by God’s Word. The person must look into God’s Word and let it examine him. (Heb 4:12) However, where the backing of God’s Word is evident, a person being reproved by a Christian brother, especially by an elder in the congregation, would not properly turn aside such reproof by trying to prove himself righteous. (Pr 12:1; Heb 12:11; 13:17) And anyone in a position of responsibility who sits in judgment of a matter or a dispute would be condemned by God if he pronounced “the wicked one righteous in consideration of a bribe.”​—Isa 5:23; Jas 2:8, 9.

(Deʹdan).

1. A Cushite in the line of Raamah. (Ge 10:7; 1Ch 1:9) His posterity apparently settled part of Arabia.

2. A descendant of Abraham through Jokshan. (Ge 25:3; 1Ch 1:32) The Dedanites descending from Jokshan apparently settled S and SE of the Promised Land in the same general vicinity to which Abraham sent all his offspring through Keturah.​—Ge 25:6.

Since both families of Dedanites (those of Raamah and of Jokshan) evidently settled in sections of Arabia, there is some question as to which Dedan is meant when the name occurs in later Biblical writings. However, the connection that is sometimes made with other Semitic peoples such as Edom, Tema, and Buz indicates Dedan through Jokshan. For example, Dedan is listed as at one extremity of Edom, whose land was due to be ravaged. (Eze 25:13) Dedan, in “the desert plain,” is also told to flee before the invading forces. The Dedanite caravans are to seek quarters in the woods, while Tema, through whose territory they apparently make their flight, is called on to provide food and drink for the fugitives’ sustenance. (Isa 21:11-15; Jer 49:8) Like Edom, Dedan would also ultimately be forced to taste of the cup of the wine of Jehovah’s rage.​—Jer 25:15, 21, 23.

Scholars link Dedan with the oasis of el-Ula, about 120 km (75 mi) SW of Taima.

Other references to Dedan give no indications as to whether a Hamitic or a Semitic people is meant. For instance, Dedan is named at Ezekiel 27:15, 20 as a trader with Tyre. Dedan also views with selfish interest the planned plundering of God’s people by Gog of Magog.​—Eze 38:13.

A separation or setting apart for a sacred purpose. The Hebrew verb na·zarʹ (dedicate) has the basic meaning “keep separate; be separated; withdraw.” (Le 15:31; 22:2; Eze 14:7; compare Ho 9:10, ftn.) The related Hebrew word neʹzer refers to the sign or symbol of holy dedication worn as a crown upon the sanctified head of a high priest or on the head of an anointed king; it also referred to Naziriteship.​—Nu 6:4-6; compare Ge 49:26, ftn.

At Aaron’s installation as high priest, a turban made of fine linen was placed on his head. Fastened with a string of blue thread on the front of this turban for all to see was the holy “sign of dedication [neʹzer],” a shining plate of pure gold engraved as a seal with the words, in Hebrew, “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.” The holy anointing oil was next poured upon the high priest in the installation ceremony. (Ex 29:6, 7; 39:30, 31, ftn; Le 8:9, 12) Consistently the high priest had to be careful to avoid doing anything that would profane the sanctuary, “because the sign of dedication, the anointing oil of his God, is upon him.”​—Le 21:12.

Similarly, the word neʹzer had reference to the “diadem,” an official headpiece worn by the anointed kings of Israel as a symbol of their holy office.​—2Sa 1:10; 2Ki 11:12; 2Ch 23:11; Ps 89:39; 132:18; Pr 27:24.

When a person took the Nazirite vow to Jehovah he was not to cut his hair or shave his beard as long as the vow was upon him. So his long hair became a crowning sign of his Naziriteship (neʹzer). (Nu 6:4-21) In personifying Jerusalem as one who had broken her sacred vows of holiness to Jehovah, the prophet Jeremiah exclaimed: “Shear off your uncut hair [or “dedicated hair”; niz·rekhʹ, a form of neʹzer] and throw it away.” (Jer 7:29) By another prophet, Jehovah describes how wayward Israel “went in to Baal of Peor, and they proceeded to dedicate themselves [wai·yin·na·zeruʹ, a form of the verb na·zarʹ] to the shameful thing.”​—Ho 9:10.

In the Christian Greek Scriptures reference is made to certain dedicated things. The winter “festival of dedication” (en·kaiʹni·a) is mentioned in connection with Jesus’ earthly ministry. (Joh 10:22; see FESTIVAL OF DEDICATION.) This Greek word en·kaiʹni·a has the same root as en·kai·niʹzo, which at Hebrews 9:18 is rendered “dedicate” by certain translations (AS, KJ, Dy, Sp), but “inaugurate” by others. (CC, Mo, NE, NW, We) Similarly, at Hebrews 10:20 some translate it “dedicate” (AS, Dy, Sp), others, “inaugurate.” (CC, Mo, NW) Jesus called attention to the traditional teachings of the Pharisees in regard to “corban,” that is, a gift dedicated to God. (Mr 7:11; Mt 15:5; see CORBAN.) Jesus also warned that the time was coming when Herod’s temple, together with its “fine stones and dedicated things [a·na·theʹma·sin],” would be thrown down.​—Lu 21:5, 6.

A written agreement duly signed and sometimes sealed, containing the legal terms for the accomplishment of an intended purpose; the documented instrument for the transfer of real estate. The Bible’s only use of the Hebrew word seʹpher in this particular sense concerns Jeremiah’s purchase of a field from his cousin Hanamel.​—Jer 32:6-15.

The details surrounding the drawing up of this deed are interesting. The money for the purchase, “seven shekels and ten silver pieces,” was weighed out in the presence of witnesses. (Jer 32:9) If this stipulation of ‘seven and ten’ is assumed to be a legal form meaning 17 silver shekels (c. $37), it would be a reasonable price, considering the time and circumstances under which the property was sold. It was a time of war and famine (not many months before Jerusalem was captured by Nebuchadnezzar).

When the money was paid, two deeds, presumably identical, were drafted ‘according to the judicial commandment and legal regulations.’ One of these was known as “the deed of purchase, the one sealed,” and the other was called “the one left open.” (Jer 32:11) Only the first one is said to have been signed by witnesses, the whole transaction taking place “before the eyes of all the Jews who were sitting in the Courtyard of the Guard.” (Jer 32:12) Both deeds were then placed in an earthenware jar for safekeeping.​—Jer 32:14.

The custom of making duplicate deeds but sealing only one was very practical. Leaving one copy open permitted it to be referred to by the interested parties. If it was ever damaged, or its authenticity called into question, or if there was suspicion that it had been altered, then the sealed copy could be presented to the city judges who, after examining the seal, would break it open and make a comparison of the two copies.

See BLEMISH.

(Deʹker) [Piercing].

Father of one of Solomon’s 12 deputies. Deker’s son provided food for Solomon and his household one month out of the year apparently from the region of southern Dan.​—1Ki 4:7, 9.

(De·laʹiah) [Jehovah Has Drawn Up [in deliverance]].

1. An Aaronic priest of David’s time designated by lot as the head of the 23rd priestly division.​—1Ch 24:1, 5, 18.

2. Son of Shemaiah; one of the princes in the court of King Jehoiakim who heard Baruch read the book written by Jeremiah and thereafter apparently made report to the king. Then, at the time the roll was read before Jehoiakim, Delaiah and two other princes vainly pleaded with the king not to burn it.​—Jer 36:11-26.

3. The forefather of certain ones that came to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel in 537 B.C.E. but who were unable to prove that they were Israelites.​—Ezr 2:1, 59, 60; Ne 7:61, 62.

4. Son of Mehetabel and the father of the Shemaiah who was hired by Sanballat and Tobiah to intimidate Nehemiah the governor.​—Ne 6:10-13.

5. One of Elioenai’s seven sons; descendant of David through Solomon.​—1Ch 3:10, 24.

(De·liʹlah) [possibly, Dangling].

A woman living in the torrent valley of Sorek. Delilah is introduced into the Bible account toward the final part of Samson’s 20-year judgeship as the object of his love.​—Jg 16:31.

The axis lords of the Philistines, anxious to destroy Samson, each offered Delilah 1,100 pieces of silver (if shekels, $2,422) to find out for them wherein Samson’s great power lay. She cooperated by questioning Samson as to what would render him powerless. Each time Samson answered, she notified the Philistines and hid in her house Philistine warriors who were ready to take advantage of Samson in the event he lost his strength. After three misleading answers by Samson, Delilah continued to pester him and “pressured him with her words all the time and kept urging him, [so that] his soul got to be impatient to the point of dying.” Then he told her of his Naziriteship and that no razor had ever touched his head. Certain of having the truth this time, she sent for the Philistine axis lords, and they came to bring her the money. While Samson slept upon her knees, an attendant cut off the seven braids of his hair. Upon awakening, Samson found that this time his divinely provided power was not there. The hiding Philistines grabbed hold of him, blinded him, and took him prisoner. (Jg 16:4-21) Delilah is mentioned no more in the Bible account.

The Bible does not say that sexual relationship took place between Delilah and Samson or that she was a prostitute. The prostitute mentioned at Judges 16:1, 2 is not the same as Delilah. This prostitute lived at Gaza, whereas Delilah lived in the torrent valley of Sorek. Also, the following evidence indicates Delilah possibly was an Israelitess, not a Philistine: When the axis lords presented their proposal it was based on an extravagant sum of money and not on patriotic sentiment.​—Jg 16:5.

The catastrophic destruction of men and animals by an overwhelming flood in the days of Noah, 2370 B.C.E. This greatest cataclysm in all human history was sent by Jehovah because wicked men had filled the earth with violence. The survival of righteous Noah and his family, eight souls in all, together with selected animals, was by means of a huge ark, or chest.​—Ge 6:9–9:19; 1Pe 3:20; see ARK No. 1; NOAH No. 1.

Extent of the Deluge. This was no local flash flood or cloudburst. In fact, the Greek word used in the Bible to refer to the Flood, or Deluge, is ka·ta·kly·smosʹ, a cataclysm. (Lu 17:27, ftn) Local floods come and go in a matter of days; this one lasted over a year, the greater portion of which was required for the water to subside. How unreasonable to believe that Noah spent perhaps 50 years building a huge vessel of approximately 40,000 cu m (1,400,000 cu ft) for the survival of his family and a few animals through a mere local flood! If only a comparatively small area was affected, why the need of bringing into the ark specimens of “every living creature of every sort of flesh” in order to “preserve offspring alive on the surface of the entire earth”? (Ge 6:19; 7:3) Definitely this was a global deluge, the like of which had never occurred before nor has since. “The waters overwhelmed the earth so greatly that all the tall mountains that were under the whole heavens came to be covered. Up to fifteen cubits [c. 6.5 m; 22 ft] the waters overwhelmed them and the mountains became covered.” (Ge 7:19, 20) “The end of all flesh has come before me,” Jehovah said, hence “I will wipe every existing thing that I have made off the surface of the ground.” And it was just so. “Everything in which the breath of the force of life was active in its nostrils, namely, all that were on the dry ground, died . . . only Noah and those who were with him in the ark kept on surviving.”​—Ge 6:13; 7:4, 22, 23.

Timing of the Deluge. The Deluge did not come suddenly without warning. Years of time were spent building the ark, time that Noah the “preacher of righteousness” also used in warning that wicked generation. (2Pe 2:5) Finally the time limit was up “in the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month.” The “male and female of every sort of flesh” had been brought into the ark with Noah’s family, as well as a sufficient food supply for all, and “after that Jehovah shut the door.” Then “the floodgates of the heavens were opened.” (Ge 7:11, 16) There was an incessant torrential downpour for “forty days and forty nights”; “the waters continued overwhelming the earth” a hundred and fifty days. (Ge 7:4, 12, 24) Five months after the downpour began, the ark “came to rest on the mountains of Ararat.” (Ge 8:4) It was nearly two and a half months later before “the tops of the mountains appeared” (Ge 8:5), another three months before Noah removed the ark’s covering to see that the earth had practically drained (Ge 8:13), and nearly two months later when the door was opened and the survivors set foot on dry ground once again.​—Ge 8:14-18.

Noah and his family entered the ark in the 600th year of Noah’s life, the 2nd month (October-November), the 17th day. (Ge 7:11) One year later (a year consisting of 360 days) was the 17th day, 2nd month, 601st year. Ten days after that would be the 27th day of the 2nd month, when they came out; a total of 370 days, or parts of 371 separate days, spent in the ark. (Ge 8:13, 14) In the log that Noah kept, it appears he used months of 30 days each, 12 of them equaling 360 days. In this way he avoided all the complicated fractions involved had he used strictly lunar months consisting of slightly more than 29 1⁄2 days. That such calculations were used in the account is evident from the fact that a five-month period consisted of 150 days.​—Ge 7:11, 24; 8:3, 4.

The Floodwaters. It has been said that if all the moisture in the atmosphere were suddenly released as rain it would not amount to even a couple of inches if spread over the earth’s surface. So from what source was this vast deluge of Noah’s day? According to the Genesis account, God said to Noah: “Here I [Jehovah] am bringing the deluge [or, “heavenly ocean”; Heb., mab·bulʹ] of waters upon the earth.” (Ge 6:17, ftn) Describing what happened, the next chapter says: “All the springs of the vast watery deep were broken open and the floodgates of the heavens were opened.” (Ge 7:11) So overwhelming was the Deluge that “all the tall mountains that were under the whole heavens came to be covered.”​—Ge 7:19.

Where did this “heavenly ocean” come from? The Genesis account of creation tells how on the second “day” Jehovah made an expanse about the earth, and this expanse (called “Heaven”) formed a division between the waters below it, that is, the oceans, and the waters above it. (Ge 1:6-8) The waters suspended above the expanse evidently remained there from the second “day” of creation until the Flood. This is what the apostle Peter was talking about when he recounted that there “were heavens from of old and an earth standing compactly out of water and in the midst of water by the word of God.” Those “heavens” and the waters above and beneath them were the means that God’s word called into operation, and “by those means the world of that time suffered destruction when it was deluged with water.” (2Pe 3:5, 6) Various explanations have been offered as to how the water was held aloft until the Flood and as to the processes that resulted in its falling. But these are only speculative. The Bible says simply that God made the expanse with waters above it and that he brought the Deluge. His almighty power could easily accomplish it.

Since, as the Genesis account says, “all the tall mountains” were covered with water, where is all that water now? Evidently it is right here on the earth. It is believed that there was a time when the oceans were smaller and the continents were larger than they are now, as is evidenced by river channels extending far out under the oceans. It should also be noted that scientists have stated that mountains in the past were much lower than at present, and some mountains have even been pushed up from under the seas. As to the present situation, it is said that “there is ten times as much water by volume in the ocean as there is land above sea level. Dump all this land evenly into the sea, and water would cover the entire earth, one and one-half miles deep.” (National Geographic, January 1945, p. 105) So, after the floodwaters fell, but before the raising of mountains and the lowering of seabeds and before the buildup of polar ice caps, there was more than enough water to cover “all the tall mountains,” as the inspired record says.​—Ge 7:19.

Effect on the Earth. With the Deluge great changes came, for example, the life span of humans dropped very rapidly. Some have suggested that prior to the Flood the waters above the expanse shielded out some of the harmful radiation and that, with the waters gone, cosmic radiation genetically harmful to man increased. However, the Bible is silent on the matter. Incidentally, any change in radiation would have altered the rate of formation of radioactive carbon-14 to such an extent as to invalidate all radiocarbon dates prior to the Flood.

With the sudden opening of the ‘springs of the watery deep’ and “the floodgates of the heavens,” untold billions of tons of water deluged the earth. (Ge 7:11) This may have caused tremendous changes in earth’s surface. The earth’s crust, which is relatively thin and varied in thickness, is stretched over a rather plastic mass thousands of kilometers in diameter. Hence, under the added weight of the water, there was likely a great shifting in the crust. In time new mountains evidently were thrust upward, old mountains rose to new heights, shallow sea basins were deepened, and new shorelines were established, with the result that now about 70 percent of the surface is covered with water. This shifting in the earth’s crust may account for many geologic phenomena, such as the raising of old coastlines to new heights. It has been estimated by some that water pressures alone were equal to “2 tons per square inch,” sufficient to fossilize fauna and flora quickly.​—See The Biblical Flood and the Ice Epoch, by D. Patten, 1966, p. 62.

What evidence proves that there truly was a global deluge?

Other possible evidence of a drastic change: Remains of mammoths and rhinoceroses have been found in different parts of the earth. Some of these were found in Siberian cliffs; others were preserved in Siberian and Alaskan ice. (PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 328) In fact, some were found with food undigested in their stomachs or still unchewed in their teeth, indicating that they died suddenly. It is estimated, from the trade in ivory tusks, that bones of tens of thousands of such mammoths have been found. The fossil remains of many other animals, such as lions, tigers, bears, and elk, have been found in common strata, which may indicate that all of these were destroyed simultaneously. Some have pointed to such finds as definite physical proof of a rapid change in climate and sudden destruction caused by a universal flood. Others, however, favor explanations for the death of these animals that do not involve an earth-wide catastrophe. Proof that the Flood occurred is not dependent on such fossils and frozen animal remains.

Flood Legends. Such a cataclysm as the Deluge, which washed the whole world of that time out of existence, would never be forgotten by the survivors. They would talk about it to their children and their children’s children. For 500 years after the Deluge, Shem lived on to relate the event to many generations. He died only ten years before the birth of Jacob. Moses preserved the true account in Genesis. Sometime after the Flood, when God-defying people built the Tower of Babel, Jehovah confused their language and scattered them “over all the surface of the earth.” (Ge 11:9) It was only natural that these people took with them stories of the Flood and passed them on from father to son. The fact that there are not merely a few but perhaps hundreds of different stories about that great Deluge, and that such stories are found among the traditions of many primitive races the world over, is a strong proof that all these people had a common origin and that their early forefathers shared that Flood experience in common.​—CHART, Vol. 1, p. 328.

These folklore accounts of the Deluge agree with some major features of the Biblical account: (1) a place of refuge for a few survivors, (2) an otherwise global destruction of life by water, and (3) a seed of mankind preserved. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Chinese, the Druids of Britain, the Polynesians, the Eskimos and Greenlanders, the Africans, the Hindus, and the American Indians​—all of these have their Flood stories. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (Vol. 2, p. 319) states: “Flood stories have been discovered among nearly all nations and tribes. Though most common on the Asian mainland and the islands immediately south of it and on the North American continent, they have been found on all the continents. Totals of the number of stories known run as high as about 270 . . . The universality of the flood accounts is usually taken as evidence for the universal destruction of humanity by a flood and the spread of the human race from one locale and even from one family. Though the traditions may not all refer to the same flood, apparently the vast majority do. The assertion that many of these flood stories came from contacts with missionaries will not stand up because most of them were gathered by anthropologists not interested in vindicating the Bible, and they are filled with fanciful and pagan elements evidently the result of transmission for extended periods of time in a pagan society. Moreover, some of the ancient accounts were written by people very much in opposition to the Hebrew-Christian tradition.”​—Edited by G. Bromiley, 1982.

In times past, certain primitive people (in Australia, Egypt, Fiji, Society Islands, Peru, Mexico, and other places) preserved a possible remnant of these traditions about the Flood by observing in November a ‘Feast of Ancestors’ or a ‘Festival of the Dead.’ Such customs reflected a memory of the destruction caused by the Deluge. According to the book Life and Work at the Great Pyramid, the festival in Mexico was held on the 17th of November because they “had a tradition that at that time the world had been previously destroyed; and they dreaded lest a similar catastrophe would, at the end of a cycle, annihilate the human race.” (By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, Edinburgh, 1867, Vol. II, pp. 390, 391) Notes the book The Worship of the Dead: “This festival [of the dead] is . . . held by all on or about the very day on which, according to the Mosaic account, the Deluge took place, viz., the seventeenth day of the second month​—the month nearly corresponding with our November.” (By J. Garnier, London, 1904, p. 4) Interestingly, the Bible reports that the Flood began “in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month.” (Ge 7:11) That “second month” corresponds to the latter part of October and the first part of November on our calendar.

Scriptural Confirmation. Stronger evidence of the historicalness of the Deluge than the pagan traditions of primitive people is the endorsement other Bible writers gave under inspiration. The only other place where the same Hebrew word (mab·bulʹ, deluge) occurs outside the Genesis account is in David’s melody where he describes Jehovah as seated “upon the deluge.” (Ps 29:10) However, other writers make reference to and confirm the Genesis account, as, for example, Isaiah. (Isa 54:9) Ezekiel also endorses the historicity of Noah. (Eze 14:14, 18, 20) Peter draws heavily upon the Deluge account in his letters. (1Pe 3:20; 2Pe 2:5; 3:5, 6) Paul testifies to the great faith Noah displayed in constructing the ark for the survival of his household. (Heb 11:7) Luke lists Noah in the lineage of Messiah’s forebears.​—Lu 3:36.

Even more significant is what Jesus said about the days of the Deluge, as recorded by both Luke and Matthew. Far more than just a simple endorsement of the veracity of the Deluge account, Jesus’ words show the pictorial and prophetic significance of those ancient events. In answer to the disciples’ question, “What will be the sign of your presence and of the conclusion of the system of things?” Jesus said, among other things: “For just as the days of Noah were, so the presence of the Son of man will be. For as they were in those days before the flood, eating and drinking, men marrying and women being given in marriage, until the day that Noah entered into the ark; and they took no note until the flood came and swept them all away, so the presence of the Son of man will be.” (Mt 24:3, 37-39; Lu 17:26, 27) There is, therefore, abundant evidence from the inspired Holy Scriptures themselves to support the authenticity and genuineness of the Deluge account. It does not rest on mere traditions of men, on the folklore of primitive people, or on geologic and archaeological findings.

(Deʹmas) [possibly a shortened form of “Demetrius,” meaning “Of (Belonging to) Demeter”].

A onetime fellow worker of the apostle Paul. Demas was in Rome with the apostle during his first imprisonment there, his greetings being included in letters to the Colossians and to Philemon. (Col 4:14; Phm 24) When Paul wrote to Timothy during his second imprisonment, Demas had forsaken the apostle and departed to Thessalonica, perhaps his hometown.​—2Ti 4:10.

The exact nature of Demas’ forsaking Paul ‘because of his love for the present system of things’ is not disclosed. The apostle does not say Demas became an apostate or opposer. Perhaps Demas’ love for material things and worldly pleasures became stronger than that for spiritual things. Fear of martyrdom with Paul may have caused Demas to seek a safer place and thus preserve his life in the then-existing system of things. In any event, when conditions became unfavorable, Demas failed to use his marvelous opportunity to strengthen his brother Paul.

(De·meʹtri·us) [Of (Belonging to) Demeter [Greek goddess of agriculture]].

1. A silversmith of the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor who stirred up a riot against the apostle Paul and his companions at the close of Paul’s stay of between two and three years in Ephesus (c. 53-55 C.E.), in the course of his third missionary journey. Paul’s preaching had been blessed with success, many turning from the practice of magic and burning their books. Demetrius, who conducted a flourishing business of making silver shrines of the goddess Artemis, becoming alarmed at the prospect of loss of income through Paul’s success in making disciples of Christ, roused the craftsmen and others. With a twofold argument of threatened loss of business and the danger of disrepute to the temple of Artemis, he succeeded in causing the entire city to be thrown into confusion.

After about two hours the city recorder managed to quell the disturbance; he pointed out that if Demetrius and the craftsmen had a charge against Paul and his companions, there were courts to handle the matter legally but that this disorderly demonstration made the city liable to a charge of sedition by the Roman government. The crowd then quieted down, releasing Paul’s fellow workers and leaving the theater, the scene of the disgraceful riot. Shortly afterward Paul set forth for Macedonia.​—Ac 19:18, 19, 23-41; 20:1.

2. A Christian mentioned favorably by the apostle John in a letter to Gaius, about 98 C.E. Demetrius may have delivered the letter to Gaius. John’s recommendation of Demetrius may have been to encourage hospitality on the part of Gaius, as it seems to have been a custom of the congregations to assist in providing food and lodging for the faithful brothers who traveled in behalf of the good news.​—3Jo 1, 12.

An invisible, wicked, spirit creature having superhuman powers. The common Greek word for demon (daiʹmon) occurs only once in the Christian Greek Scriptures, in Matthew 8:31; elsewhere the word dai·moʹni·on appears. Pneuʹma, the Greek word for “spirit,” at times is applied to wicked spirits, or demons. (Mt 8:16) It also occurs qualified by terms such as “wicked,” “unclean,” “speechless,” and “deaf.”​—Lu 7:21; Mt 10:1; Mr 9:17, 25; see SPIRIT (Spirit Persons).

The demons as such were not created by God. The first to make himself one was Satan the Devil (see SATAN), who became the ruler of other angelic sons of God who also made themselves demons. (Mt 12:24, 26) In Noah’s day disobedient angels materialized, married women, fathered a hybrid generation known as Nephilim (see NEPHILIM), and then dematerialized when the Flood came. (Ge 6:1-4) However, upon returning to the spirit realm, they did not regain their lofty original position, for Jude 6 says: “The angels that did not keep their original position but forsook their own proper dwelling place he has reserved with eternal bonds under dense darkness for the judgment of the great day.” (1Pe 3:19, 20) So it is in this condition of dense spiritual darkness that they must now confine their operations. (2Pe 2:4) Though evidently restrained from materializing, they still have great power and influence over the minds and lives of men, even having the ability to enter into and possess humans and animals, and the facts show that they also use inanimate things such as houses, fetishes, and charms.​—Mt 12:43-45; Lu 8:27-33; see DEMON POSSESSION.

The purpose of all such demonic activity is to turn people against Jehovah and the pure worship of God. Jehovah’s law, therefore, strictly forbade demonism in any form. (De 18:10-12) However, wayward Israel went so far astray as to sacrifice their sons and daughters to the demons. (Ps 106:37; De 32:17; 2Ch 11:15) When Jesus was on earth demon influence was very prevalent, and some of his greatest miracles consisted of expelling wicked spirits from victimized persons. (Mt 8:31, 32; 9:33, 34; Mr 1:39; 7:26-30; Lu 8:2; 13:32) Jesus gave this same power to his 12 apostles and to the 70 that he sent out, so that in the name of Jesus they too could cast out the demons.​—Mt 10:8; Mr 3:14, 15; 6:13; Lu 9:1; 10:17.

Demon influence in human affairs is no less manifest today. It is still true that “the things which the nations sacrifice they sacrifice to demons.” (1Co 10:20) In the last book of the Bible, the “revelation by Jesus Christ, which God gave him, to show his slaves the things that must shortly take place,” prophetic warning is given concerning accelerated demon activity on the earth. (Re 1:1) “Down the great dragon was hurled, the original serpent, the one called Devil and Satan, who is misleading the entire inhabited earth; he was hurled down to the earth, and his angels [demons] were hurled down with him. On this account . . . woe for the earth and for the sea, because the Devil has come down to you, having great anger, knowing he has a short period of time.” (Re 12:9, 12) Unclean, froglike expressions “are, in fact, expressions inspired by demons and perform signs, and they go forth to the kings of the entire inhabited earth, to gather them together to the war of the great day of God the Almighty.”​—Re 16:13, 14.

Christians must, therefore, put up a hard fight against these unseen wicked spirits. James, in arguing that belief alone is not sufficient, says: “You believe there is one God, do you? You are doing quite well. And yet the demons believe and shudder.” (Jas 2:19) “In later periods of time,” warned Paul, “some will fall away from the faith, paying attention to misleading inspired utterances and teachings of demons.” (1Ti 4:1) One cannot eat of Jehovah’s table and at the same time feed from the table of demons. (1Co 10:21) The faithful, therefore, must put up a hard fight against the Devil and his demons, “against the world rulers of this darkness, against the wicked spirit forces in the heavenly places.”​—Eph 6:12.

To the Greeks to whom Paul preached, what were demons?

This use of the word “demon” is narrow and specific compared with the notions of ancient philosophers and the way the word was used in classical Greek. In this regard the Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by G. Kittel (Vol. II, p. 8) remarks: “The meaning of the adj[ective dai·moʹni·os] brings out most clearly the distinctive features of the G[ree]k conception of demons, for it denotes that which lies outwith human capacity and is thus to be attributed to the intervention of higher powers, whether for good or evil. [To dai·moʹni·on] in pre-Christian writers can be used in the sense of the ‘divine.’” (Translated and edited by G. Bromiley, 1971) When speaking controversially with Paul, some Epicurean and Stoic philosophers concluded: “He seems to be a publisher of foreign deities [Gr., dai·mo·niʹon].”​—Ac 17:18.

When speaking to the Athenians, Paul used a compound of the Greek word daiʹmon, saying: “You seem to be more given to the fear of the deities [Gr., dei·si·dai·mo·ne·steʹrous; Latin Vulgate, ‘more superstitious’] than others are.” (Ac 17:22) Commenting on this compound word, F. F. Bruce remarks: “The context must decide whether this word is used in its better or worse sense. It was, in fact, as vague as ‘religious’ in Eng[lish], and here we may best translate ‘very religious’. But AV ‘superstitious’ is not entirely wrong; to Paul their religion was mostly superstition, as it also was, though on other grounds, to the Epicureans.”​—The Acts of the Apostles, 1970, p. 335.

When speaking to King Herod Agrippa II, Festus said that the Jews had certain disputes with Paul concerning their “worship of the deity [Gr., dei·si·dai·mo·niʹas; Latin Vulgate, ‘superstition’].” (Ac 25:19) It was noted by F. F. Bruce that this Greek word “might be less politely rendered ‘superstition’ (as in AV). The corresponding adjective appears with the same ambiguity in [Acts] 17:22.”​—Commentary on the Book of the Acts, 1971, p. 483.

See GOAT-SHAPED DEMON.

The captive control and influence of a person by an invisible wicked spirit. In Bible times demonized persons were afflicted in various ways: some were unable to speak, some were blind, some acted insane, and some possessed superhuman strength. All were woefully mistreated by these invisible bullies. (Mt 9:32; 12:22; 17:15; Mr 5:3-5; Lu 8:29; 9:42; 11:14; Ac 19:16) Men, women, and children were their victims. (Mt 15:22; Mr 5:2) Sometimes the agony was compounded when many demons gained possession of a person at the same time. (Lu 8:2, 30) When the demon was expelled, the person returned to a normal, sane state of mind. There is a difference between demon possession and ordinary physical sickness and disease, for Jesus cured both types of disorder.​—Mt 8:16; 17:18; Mr 1:32, 34.

Some of Jesus’ greatest miracles involved the setting of possessed persons free from captivity to the demons. They were powerless against him. But not everyone was happy with his demon-expelling work. The Pharisees accused him of being in league with the ruler of the demons, Beelzebub, whereas in reality, as Jesus pointed out, they themselves were the offspring of the Devil. (Mt 9:34; 12:24; Mr 3:22; Lu 11:15; Joh 7:20; 8:44, 48-52) Jesus knew the source of the power that gave him mastery over the demons, and he openly confessed that it was Jehovah’s spirit. (Mt 12:28; Lu 8:39; 11:20) The demons themselves recognized Jesus’ identity and addressed him as the “Son of God,” “the Holy One of God,” and “Jesus, Son of the Most High God.” (Mt 8:29; Mr 1:24; 3:11; 5:7; Lu 4:34, 41; Ac 19:15; Jas 2:19) However, at no time would Jesus allow them to witness in his behalf. (Mr 3:12) On the other hand, a man who was set free from the power of the demons was encouraged to publish to his relatives ‘all the things Jehovah had done for him.’​—Mr 5:18-20.

Jesus also gave authority over the demons to his 12 apostles, and later to the 70 that he sent out, so that in the name of Jesus they too were able to cure the demon-possessed. (Mt 10:8; Mr 3:15; 6:13; Lu 9:1; 10:17) Even one not an immediate associate of Jesus or his apostles was able to exorcise a demon on the basis of Jesus’ name. (Mr 9:38-40; Lu 9:49, 50) After the death of Jesus, the apostles continued to have this power. Paul ordered “a demon of divination” out of a slave girl, much to the anger of her money-loving owners. (Ac 16:16-19) But when certain impostors, the seven sons of priest Sceva, attempted to cast out a demon in the name of “Jesus whom Paul preaches,” the demon-possessed man seized and severely mauled the seven of them and stripped them naked.​—Ac 19:13-16.

Often the wild and uncontrolled conduct of mentally unbalanced persons is due to possession by these invisible minions of Satan. Sometimes it is reported that spirit mediums have cast these demons out; this calls to mind what Jesus said: “Many will say to me in that day, ‘Lord, Lord, did we not . . . expel demons in your name . . . ?’ And yet then I will confess to them: I never knew you!” (Mt 7:22, 23) Compelling reasons, then, for heeding the counsel, “Be watchful,” and, “Put on the complete suit of armor from God that you may be able to stand firm against the machinations of the Devil” and his demons.​—1Pe 5:8; Eph 6:11.

A Roman silver coin that weighed about 3.85 g (0.124 oz t) and hence would have a modern value of 74 cents. It bore a likeness of the head of Caesar and was “the head tax coin” exacted by the Romans from the Jews. (Mt 22:19-21) In the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry, agricultural laborers commonly received a denarius for a 12-hour workday. (Mt 20:2) Hence, Revelation 6:6 depicts an extreme condition in stating that a quart of wheat or three quarts of barley would cost a denarius (a full day’s wage).

If the costly nard that Mary, Lazarus’ sister, used in greasing Jesus Christ had been sold for 300 denarii (nearly a year’s wages), likely this would have meant that a sizable amount of money would have gone into the money box kept by Judas Iscariot. Little wonder that dishonest Judas Iscariot raised strong objections, since he would be unable to embezzle even a fraction of this large sum.​—Joh 12:3-6; 13:29; Mr 14:3-11.

The neighborly Samaritan of Jesus’ illustration spent two denarii (two days’ wages) to help an unknown stranger, and he declared himself willing to care for additional expenses in his behalf. (Lu 10:33-35) By contrast, in one of Jesus’ illustrations emphasizing the need of being forgiving, a slave whose debt of 60,000,000 denarii had been canceled was unwilling to pardon the 100-denarius debt of a fellow slave.​—Mt 18:24-33.

Small towns in the neighborhood of a larger town or city. The capital or primary city of a district was the metropolis, or “mother” city, as at 1 Chronicles 18:1: “Gath and its dependent towns” (literally, “Gath and her daughters”). Tyre is called the “daughter” of Sidon, a city evidently older than Tyre, which seems to have been originally a colony of Sidon. (Isa 23:8, 12; Ge 10:19; Jos 11:8) The towns of Judah were dependent on Jerusalem. (Ps 48:11; 97:8; La 3:51) Other “mother” cities with dependent towns were Samaria and Sodom (Eze 16:53), Rabbah of Ammon (Jer 49:3), Kenath (Nu 32:42), Ekron (Jos 15:45), Ashdod and Gaza (Jos 15:47), Beth-shean, Ibleam, Dor, En-dor, Taanach, and Megiddo (Jos 17:11).

The “daughter” towns either originated from or were politically, economically, and sometimes religiously dependent on the “mother” city. In some cases the dependent towns were unwalled or less fortified, and in times of siege the inhabitants would seek safety in the “mother” city.​—Jer 4:5; 8:14.

The ancient city of Jerusalem as the “mother” of the dependent towns of Judah is used symbolically to picture “heavenly Jerusalem,” Jehovah’s Messianic Kingdom through Jesus Christ, in which those seeking righteousness will find refuge in “the day of Jehovah against all the nations.”​—Heb 12:22, 28; Ob 15, 17; Ps 48:11-13; Joe 2:32.

Babylon the Great is pictured in Revelation, chapter 17, as a prostitute woman and as a city, with daughters. These are organizations springing from the mother organization. Dependent on her, they will fall to destruction with her.​—See CITY.

The Hebrew participle translated “deputy” (nits·tsavʹ) has the basic meaning of one “stationed,” ‘put in position,’ or “set” by appointment to fulfill a duty. (1Sa 22:9; Ex 7:15; Ru 2:5) During the reign of Solomon (1037-998 B.C.E.), 12 deputies were appointed to high-ranking administrative positions. Each was responsible for providing food and other supplies for the royal household one month during the year, on a rotational basis.​—1Ki 4:7.

In lieu of a general tax for the support of the government, foodstuffs were taken from the produce of the land. The deputies were therefore overseers of production, harvesting, storage, and delivery of the monthly quotas, which amounted to a considerable tonnage. (1Ki 4:22, 23) These deputies may also have served as civil administrators in their assigned territories, in addition to their work of supervising the commissary supplies.

There was equity in this system, for it appears that the districts were set up with due consideration to population and productivity of the land, rather than according to the fixed tribal boundaries. Nine of the administrative districts were located W of the Jordan; the other three, E. Since the listing of the districts is not in any sequence according to location, they may be listed according to the monthly order in which each deputy furnished his supplies.

The personal names of only seven deputies are given in the Masoretic text; the other five are listed only as “son of” so-and-so. (1Ki 4:8-19) Some translations (AS; AT; 3Ki, Dy; Ro; RS) simply prefix “Ben” (meaning “son of”) to the father’s name, as “Ben-hur,” “Ben-deker,” “Ben-hesed,” “Ben-abinadab,” “Ben-geber.” So that all ran smoothly, with no shortages, the 12 deputies were placed under the supervision of one of Solomon’s leading princes, “Azariah the son of Nathan.”​—1Ki 4:5.

“Princely deputies” also served as foremen and overseers of the labor force engaged in construction during Solomon’s reign. It seems that the two accounts of these deputies in First Kings and Second Chronicles differed only in methods of classification, the first listing 3,300 plus 550 for a total of 3,850 (1Ki 5:16; 9:23), and the second giving 3,600 plus 250, which also totals 3,850. (2Ch 2:18; 8:10) Scholars (Ewald, Keil, Michaelis) suggest that the Chronicles figures distinguish between the 3,600 non-Israelite and the 250 Israelite deputies, whereas in Kings the distinction in deputies is between 3,300 subordinate foremen and 550 chief supervisors, this latter figure including 300 non-Israelites.

During the rule of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (936-c. 911 B.C.E.), “a deputy was king” in Edom, which, at the time, was under Judean control. (1Ki 22:47) This indicates that a vicegerent had been appointed or approved to act in the place of the king.

“Deputy rulers” (Heb., segha·nimʹ, always used in the plural) occurs 17 times in the Bible, as, for example, at Ezra 9:2; Nehemiah 2:16; Isaiah 41:25; Jeremiah 51:23; and Ezekiel 23:6. It meant subordinate rulers or petty officials, as distinguished from nobles, princes, and governors. Some translators render it “deputies.”​—Mo, Ro.

(Derʹbe).

A ‘city of Lycaonia’ in Asia Minor, personally visited two times, or perhaps three, by the apostle Paul.

Probably sometime prior to the winter of 47-48 C.E., during his first missionary journey, Paul arrived at Derbe after a severe stoning at nearby Lystra. At Derbe, he and Barnabas ‘declared the good news’ and made “quite a few disciples,” including, possibly, “Gaius of Derbe,” who is later mentioned as a traveling companion of the apostle. While secular history indicates that after 41 C.E. Derbe was the easternmost city of the political province of Galatia, Luke’s description of it in this account as a ‘city of Lycaonia’ is apparently in a regional or ethnographic sense. (Ac 14:6, 19-21; 20:4) A number of months later, after the Jerusalem council concerning circumcision (c. 49 C.E.), and while on his second tour, Paul returned to Derbe. (Ac 15:36; 16:1) Though not singled out by name, Derbe may also have been a stop on Paul’s third tour when he strengthened the disciples in “the country of Galatia.” (Ac 18:23) There is no record of Paul’s meeting physical resistance at Derbe, and he makes no mention of the city many years later when recounting his sufferings at other places in its vicinity.​—2Ti 3:11.

Derbe is now identified with Kerti Hüyük 21 km (13 mi) NNE of Karaman (ancient Laranda) and about 100 km (62 mi) SE of Konya (ancient Iconium). As to whether Derbe was included in Paul’s letter addressed “to the congregations of Galatia,” see GALATIANS, LETTER TO THE.​—Ga 1:2.

See WILDERNESS.

The act of destroying, ruining, or annihilating. Destruction usually refers to the physical end of an object or a living creature. (2Ki 21:3; Jer 18:7; Da 2:12, 14, 18) It may also refer to spiritual ruin.​—1Co 3:17; see TEMPLE (Anointed Christians​—A Spiritual Temple).

A Hebrew word commonly translated “destroy” is ʼa·vadhʹ. (Le 23:30; Ps 21:8, 10) It has the basic meaning “be lost,” or “perish,” and corresponds to the Greek term a·polʹly·mi. (Ex 10:7; 1Sa 9:20; Mr 3:6; 4:38; Lu 15:4) The noun form of ʼa·vadhʹ is ʼavad·dohnʹ, meaning “destruction.” (Job 26:6, ftn; see ABADDON; APOLLYON.) The Hebrew term cha·ramʹ means “devote to destruction,” or place under a sacred ban, that is, restrict from common or profane use.​—Ex 22:20, ftn; see DEVOTED THING.

At times, Jehovah has found it necessary to execute judgment upon those meriting destruction in order to uphold his name and his standards of righteousness. As a result of the wicked conduct of the people in Noah’s day, Jehovah executed a judgment of destruction when he caused a global flood to destroy the world of that time. (2Pe 3:5, 6) Similarly, because of the ‘loud cry of complaint about Sodom and Gomorrah’ and their ‘heavy sin,’ Jehovah destroyed the cities and their inhabitants. (Ge 18:20; 19:13, 24, 25) In addition to natural forces, Jehovah at times used human agents to accomplish a sentence of destruction. In the case of the wicked nations of Canaan, Jehovah used his people Israel as principal executioners of his condemnatory decree.​—De 9:1, 3, 4; 20:15-18.

Jehovah justly destroys deliberate lawbreakers, liars, and those showing hostility to his servants. (Le 23:30; Ps 5:6; 143:12) He acts against false religion and its idols. (Nu 33:52; De 12:2, 3) Jehovah even took destructive action against his people Israel when they proved disobedient to his covenant.​—De 8:19, 20; 28:63; Jer 31:28.

Will all persons who were destroyed by God in times past be dead forever?

The Bible indicates that not all destruction is eternal. This is demonstrated by the fact that the Hebrew word ʼavad·dohnʹ (destruction) is used twice to parallel “Sheol.” (Job 26:6; Pr 15:11) The prophet Zephaniah spoke of the destruction of Assyria, whereas Ezekiel said that the Assyrians would go down to Sheol. (Zep 2:13; Eze 32:21, 22) When speaking of the destruction of the rebels Dathan and Abiram, Moses wrote that they went down “alive into Sheol.” (Nu 16:31, 33) Since Sheol in the Bible denotes the common grave of mankind from which there will be a resurrection, it is evident that not all destruction​—not even all destruction at the hand of God—​is necessarily eternal.

Everlasting Destruction. The Bible does not indicate that all the dead will be resurrected. Jesus implied this when he spoke of “those who have been counted worthy of gaining that system of things and the resurrection from the dead.” (Lu 20:35) The possibility of eternal destruction for some is also indicated by Jesus’ words at Matthew 10:28: “Do not become fearful of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul; but rather be in fear of him that can destroy both soul and body in Gehenna.” Regarding this text, The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (edited by C. Brown, 1978, Vol. 3, p. 304) states: “Matt. 10:28 teaches not the potential immortality of the soul but the irreversibility of divine judgment on the unrepentant.” Also, Bauer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (revised by F. W. Gingrich and F. Danker, 1979, p. 95) gives the meaning “eternal death” with reference to the Greek phrase in Matthew 10:28 translated “destroy both soul and body in Gehenna.” Thus, being consigned to Gehenna refers to utter destruction from which no resurrection is possible.​—See GEHENNA.

“Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities about them . . . are placed before us as a warning example by undergoing the judicial punishment of everlasting fire.” (Jude 7) That punishment evidently applies not merely to the physical cities but to their inhabitants as well, because it was the people themselves who committed the gross sins that led to their annihilation.

The possibility of eternal destruction is particularly an issue during the conclusion of the system of things. When Jesus was asked by his disciples what would be ‘the sign of his presence and of the conclusion of the system of things,’ he included as part of his answer the parable of the sheep and the goats. (Mt 24:3; 25:31-46) Concerning “the goats” it was foretold that the heavenly King would say: “Be on your way from me, you who have been cursed, into the everlasting fire prepared for the Devil and his angels,” and Jesus added, “These will depart into everlasting cutting-off.” Clearly the attitude and actions of some individuals will result in their permanent destruction.

However, Jehovah “does not desire any to be destroyed but desires all to attain to repentance.” (2Pe 3:9; compare Eze 18:23, 32.) In fact, Jehovah loved humans so much that he provided the ransom sacrifice of his own Son, Jesus Christ. (Joh 3:16; compare Jas 4:12.) Despite this loving provision, the majority refuse to follow “the road leading off into life,” but they remain on “the road leading off into destruction.”​—Mt 7:13, 14.

The Bible indicates that a number of things, individuals, and organizations are to be everlastingly destroyed. Jesus referred to Judas as “the son of destruction.” (Joh 17:12) Judas’ deliberate betrayal of the Son of God made him subject to eternal destruction. The same is true of those who blaspheme the holy spirit. They are guilty of “everlasting sin” and are forgiven neither “in this system of things nor in that to come.” (Mr 3:28, 29; Mt 12:32; see BLASPHEMY.) Permanent destruction also awaits those who by choice “do not know God and those who do not obey the good news.” (2Th 1:8, 9) The composite apostate “man of lawlessness” is also termed “the son of destruction.” (2Th 2:3; see MAN OF LAWLESSNESS.) A judgment of eternal destruction has been determined for Satan, his demons, the symbolic “wild beast” and “false prophet,” and even death and Hades. (Mt 25:41; Re 20:10, 14, 15; 21:8) All of these are consigned to “the lake of fire,” that is, they are everlastingly destroyed.​—See LAKE OF FIRE.

Fire was used in Bible times as the most thorough means of destruction. Hence, Jesus used fire to illustrate the complete destruction of the wicked.​—Mt 13:40-42, 49, 50; see FIRE.

The word ta·ʽavʹ (detest) and the related toh·ʽe·vahʹ (detestable thing) occur some 140 times in the Hebrew Scriptures. Their usage in the Bible indicates strong aversion to or rejection of things or persons on the basis of their violating certain principles or not meeting definite standards held by the one so viewing them.

Thus at Genesis 43:32 we read that it was “a detestable thing” (“abomination,” KJ; “abhorrent,” AT) for Egyptians to eat with Hebrews, and at Genesis 46:34 that “every herder of sheep is a detestable thing [“abomination,” KJ; “abhorrent,” AT] to Egypt.” According to G. Rawlinson, this aversion was based on the Egyptian contempt for foreigners in general and for herdsmen in particular. Again, at Exodus 8:25-27, we find Moses, fully aware of the Egyptians’ adoration of certain animals (and particularly of the cow) as sacred, insisting that Pharaoh allow the Israelites to withdraw into the wilderness to make their sacrifices because these would be “a thing detestable to the Egyptians.” (Egypt and Babylon From Sacred and Profane Sources, 1885, p. 182) Such Egyptian standards, of course, were not divinely set or approved by Jehovah God.​—See ABHORRENT THING.

God’s own declared standards, principles, and requirements are shown to be the proper basis for detestation. (Le 18:1-5; De 23:7) Thus, Psalm 14:1 says: “The senseless one has said in his heart: ‘There is no Jehovah.’ They have acted ruinously, they have acted detestably [a form of ta·ʽavʹ] in their dealing. There is no one doing good.” Examination of the texts using the Hebrew words ta·ʽavʹ and toh·ʽe·vahʹ, therefore, gives insight into God’s mind on matters. It also shows why there is a marked contrast or open conflict between the position or mental attitude of those who follow God’s Word and those ignoring or rejecting it in preference to their own standards or those of others.​—Pr 29:27.

Among the Canaanites. Before Israel’s entry into Canaan, Jehovah made plain to them the practices and customs of the peoples of Canaan that were detestable to him, and these they were to detest. (Le 18:26-30) Outstanding was their practice of idolatry. God said: “The graven images of their gods you should burn in the fire. You must not desire the silver and the gold upon them, nor indeed take it for yourself, for fear you may be ensnared by it; for it is a thing detestable [thoh·ʽavathʹ] to Jehovah your God. And you must not bring a detestable thing [thoh·ʽe·vahʹ] into your house and actually become a thing devoted to destruction like it. You should thoroughly loathe it and absolutely detest it [wetha·ʽevʹ tetha·ʽavenʹnu], because it is something devoted to destruction.” (De 7:25, 26) Any Israelite guilty of making images for religious worship was to be accursed. (De 27:15) Regardless of the craftsmanship they reflected, such images were to be morally repugnant to God’s people.​—Eze 7:20; compare Isa 44:18-20.

Other practices of the Canaanites to be detested by Israel were: spiritism with its seances, casting of spells, fortune-telling (De 18:9-12), offering children up in fire to their gods (De 12:31; Jer 32:35; 2Ki 16:3), incest, sodomy, and bestiality. (Le 18:6, 22-30; 20:13) Doubtless the morally repugnant practice of sodomy was the reason for the severity of the rule declaring the wearing of apparel of the opposite sex to be “detestable.” (De 22:5) The Canaanites also practiced “sacred” prostitution by male and female temple prostitutes, but Jehovah prohibited the bringing of “the hire of a harlot or the price of a dog” into his house, “because they are something detestable.”​—De 23:17, 18; 1Ki 14:24.

On the basis of these and other “abominable” or “detestable” practices, Jehovah God ordered Israel to devote the Canaanites to destruction so that no contamination by false religion would result. (De 20:17, 18) Any Israelite practicing the same things or advocating such apostasy was to receive precisely the same penalty.​—De 13:12-15; 17:2-7; Ezr 9:1, 11-14.

Israel Infected. In the rest of the Hebrew Scriptures, ta·ʽavʹ and toh·ʽe·vahʹ are used to describe commercial cheating or fraud (De 25:13-16; Pr 11:1; 20:10, 23), lying (Ps 5:6; 119:163; Pr 12:19, 22), adultery (Eze 33:26), robbery, greed, oppression of the poor (Eze 18:10-13), pride, shedding of innocent blood, hurtful scheming, bearing false witness, and causing contention among brothers; all such are termed “detestable” by God.​—Pr 3:32; 6:16-19; 11:20; 15:26; 24:9; 26:24-26.

The practice of these things also makes a person’s worship unacceptable to God, causing the sacrifices and even the prayers of that person to be “detestable” to God. (Pr 15:8, 9; 21:27; 28:9) For this reason Jehovah later called the apostate Israelites’ sacrifices, incense, as well as new moon and Sabbath celebrations, “detestable.” (Isa 1:11-17) He asked them: “Can there be stealing, murdering and committing adultery and swearing falsely and making sacrificial smoke to Baal and walking after other gods whom you had not known, and must you come and stand before me in this house upon which my name has been called, and must you say, ‘We shall certainly be delivered,’ in the face of doing all these detestable things [“abominations,” KJ]? Has this house upon which my name has been called become a mere cave of robbers in your eyes?” (Jer 7:9-11) They came to be past shame or humiliation for their detestable acts.​—Jer 6:15; 8:12.

Even though Israel’s leaders, the kings and the priests, were guilty of these acts or condoned them (1Ki 21:25, 26; 2Ki 21:2-12; 2Ch 28:1, 3; 33:2-6; 36:8, 14; Eze 8:6-17; 43:7, 8), God’s faithful prophets were ordered to cause the people to know Jehovah’s detestation of their rebellious course and warn them of the consequences. (Eze 16:2, 51, 52; 20:4; 22:2; 23:36) The people were urged to reject such detestable practices and return to God’s statutes and standards of conduct. (Eze 14:6) To continue practicing what God detests could only lead to eventual desolation and destruction. (Jer 44:4, 22; Eze 6:11; 7:3-9; 11:21; 12:16; 33:29) After the exile some would become ashamed of their bad ways, and Jehovah would give them “a new spirit.”​—Eze 6:9; 11:18-21; 36:31.

Job’s experience shows that those who uphold God’s standards may be mocked (Job 30:9, 10) and rejected by former acquaintances (Job 19:19; Ps 88:8), because such ones “have hated a reprover, and a speaker of perfect things they detest.” (Am 5:10) “It is something detestable to the stupid ones to turn away from bad.” (Pr 13:19) But God detests those who twist his standards so as to pronounce “the wicked one righteous” and “the righteous one wicked.” (Pr 17:15) He promises a complete reversal of circumstances in the future for his servants who are thus detested.​—Isa 49:7; compare Mt 5:10-12; 1Pe 3:16; 4:1-5; see DISGUSTING THING, LOATHSOME THING.

(Deuʹel) [God’s Knowledge; God Knows].

One whose son Eliasaph served as the chieftain of the tribe of Gad during Israel’s wilderness wanderings. (Nu 1:14; 7:42, 47; 10:20) In the Masoretic text and the Syriac Peshitta, he is called “Reuel” at Numbers 2:14. This may be due to a scribal error, since the Hebrew letters for “D” and “R” are very similar and the name “Deuel” does, in fact, appear at Numbers 2:14 in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Latin Vulgate, and over a hundred Hebrew manuscripts.

The Hebrew name of this fifth book of the Pentateuch is Deva·rimʹ (Words), drawn from the opening phrase in the Hebrew text. The name “Deuteronomy” comes from the Septuagint Greek title Deu·te·ro·noʹmi·on, literally meaning “Second Law; Repetition of the Law.” This comes from the Greek rendering of a Hebrew phrase in Deuteronomy 17:18, mish·nehʹ hat·toh·rahʹ, correctly rendered ‘copy of the law.’

The authenticity of Deuteronomy as a book of the Bible canon and the writership of Moses are well established by the fact that Deuteronomy has always been considered by the Jews as a part of the Law of Moses. The evidence for the authenticity of Deuteronomy is, in general, the same as that for the other four books of the Pentateuch. (See PENTATEUCH; also books under individual names.) Jesus is the foremost authority for the authenticity of Deuteronomy, quoting from it three times in turning away the temptations of Satan the Devil. (Mt 4:1-11; De 6:13, 16; 8:3) Also, Jesus answered the question as to what was the greatest and first commandment by quoting from Deuteronomy 6:5. (Mr 12:30) And Paul quotes from Deuteronomy 30:12-14; 32:35, 36.​—Ro 10:6-8; Heb 10:30.

The time covered by the book of Deuteronomy is somewhat over two months in the year 1473 B.C.E. It was written on the Plains of Moab and consists of four discourses, a song, and a blessing by Moses as Israel camped on Canaan’s borders prior to entering the land.​—De 1:3; Jos 1:11; 4:19.

Purpose. Despite the meaning of the name Deuteronomy, this book is not a second law nor a repetition of the entire Law but, rather, an explanation of it, as Deuteronomy 1:5 says. It exhorts Israel to faithfulness to Jehovah, using the generation of the 40 years’ wandering as an example to avoid. Moses explains and elaborates on some of the essential points of the Law and the principles therein, with a view to the altered circumstances of Israel when they would be settled permanently in the land. He adjusts some of the laws accordingly and gives further regulations concerning the administration of government in their settled condition in the Promised Land.

In exhorting them and calling on them to enter into this renewed covenant with Jehovah through Moses, the book of Deuteronomy places the emphasis strikingly on knowledge, teaching, and instruction. The words “teach,” “teaching,” and “taught” occur much more often in Deuteronomy than in Exodus, Leviticus, or Numbers. Moses explained that Jehovah was teaching Israel by feeding them with manna. (De 8:3) He told the Israelites to place Jehovah’s law, figuratively speaking, as frontlets between their eyes and on the doorposts of their houses and on their gates. (6:8, 9) He commanded them to inculcate his law in their sons. (6:6, 7) Instructions were given to read the Law every seventh year, during the time of the (annual) Festival of Booths. (31:10-13) Special instructions were given for the king that Israel might have in the future. He was to write a copy of the Law for himself and read in it every day. (17:18-20) Each time Israel went out to battle, the priests were to admonish the people to faith and courage and to assure them of victory, for Jehovah their God was marching with them. (20:1-4) When they should enter the Promised Land, they were to divide the tribes into two groups, with one group on Mount Ebal and the other on Mount Gerizim, and then they were to have God’s Law read to them.​—27:11-26; compare Jos 8:33-35.

Love Highlighted. Love, kindness, and consideration are also highlighted in Deuteronomy. The word “love” itself, either as a noun or as a form of the verb, occurs more than five times as often in Deuteronomy as in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers combined. Here we also have the greatest commandment, to which Jesus referred (Mt 22:36, 37), uniquely stated: “You must love Jehovah your God with all your heart and all your soul and all your vital force.” (De 6:5; see also 10:12; 11:13.) Jehovah repeatedly expresses his love for Israel. (7:7-9; 23:5; 33:3) The very tone of Deuteronomy highlights Jehovah’s love for his people: “If only they would develop this heart of theirs to fear me and to keep all my commandments always, in order that it might go well with them and their sons to time indefinite!” (5:29) In fact, we find such expressions as “that it may go well with you” and “that you may keep alive” time and again in Deuteronomy.​—4:40; 5:16; 6:3; 22:7; 30:19, 20.

Even though warfare was ahead of Israel in taking the land, Jehovah did not overlook loving consideration. Victory was not so important or urgent that ruthless demands were to be made. An engaged man was exempt. (De 20:7) Exemption was made for a newly married man, so that he could cherish his wife and she have her husband for at least a full year. (24:5) If a man planted a vineyard and had not eaten the fruit of it or built a house and had not inaugurated it, he was excused from warfare so that he might enjoy the fruits of his labors.​—20:5, 6.

Explicit details were given with respect to waging war and taking the land of Canaan. The fearful were to be sent home, lest they make the hearts of their brothers also weak. (De 20:8) The cities of the specified nations of Canaan whose wickedness had come to the full were to be devoted to destruction without fail, but the cities not of these specified nations were to be given the alternative of surrender or destruction. If they surrendered, they were to be put to forced labor, but the Law required that even slaves be treated with kindness, and its commandments protected the women from being molested even in cities taken in war. In cases of cities that refused to surrender, all the males were put to death, only the little children and the women who had not had relations with men being spared. (20:10-18; compare Nu 31:17, 18.) In building siegeworks around a city, the Israelites were not permitted to cut down fruit trees.​—De 20:19, 20.

Animals were also given loving consideration in the book of Deuteronomy. The Israelites were prohibited from taking a bird sitting on a nest, for it was the protective instinct for her offspring that made her vulnerable. She was allowed to escape, but the young could be claimed by the Israelites for themselves. The mother was thus free to raise more young. (De 22:6, 7) The farmer was not permitted to hitch an ass with a bull, to prevent hardship on the weaker animal. (22:10) The bull was not to be muzzled while threshing the grain so that he would not be tormented with hunger while grain was so close at hand and he was exerting his energy in work to thresh it.​—25:4.

In family and social life consideration was shown. The firstborn son was to receive the double portion, regardless of whether he was the son of the favorite wife or not. (De 21:15-17) Brother-in-law marriage was stated as a law for the first time, and penalties were outlined in order to give it force. (25:5-10) Honest weights and measures were mandated. (25:13-16) The value of life was stressed by the command to build a parapet around the roof of a house. (22:8) Consideration even for the wrongdoer that was to be given strokes was indicated by the Law that limited the strokes to 40. (25:1-3) All these regulations gave more detail to the Law, while also showing great consideration. At the same time there was more strictness.

Warnings and Laws. Deuteronomy is filled with warnings against false worship and unfaithfulness as well as instructions on how to deal with it so that pure worship might be preserved. The exhortation to holiness was an outstanding thing in Deuteronomy. The Israelites were admonished not to intermarry with the nations round about, because this would present a threat to pure worship and loyalty to Jehovah. (De 7:3, 4) They were warned against materialism and self-righteousness. (8:11-18; 9:4-6) Strong laws were made regarding apostasy. They were to watch themselves so that they would not turn to other gods. (11:16, 17) They were warned against false prophets. Instructions were given in two places as to how to identify a false prophet and how he should be dealt with. (13:1-5; 18:20-22) Even if a member of one’s own family should become apostate, the family was not to have pity but was to share in stoning such a one to death.​—13:6-11.

Cities of Israel that turned apostate were to be devoted to destruction, and nothing was to be preserved for personal benefit by anyone. The city was never to be rebuilt. (De 13:12-17) Delinquents whose parents could not control them were to be stoned to death.​—21:18-21.

Holiness and freedom from bloodguilt were emphasized by the law concerning the way to handle an unsolved murder. (De 21:1-9) Indicative of the zeal for pure worship, Deuteronomy contained regulations as to who could become a member of Jehovah’s congregation and when. No illegitimate son to the tenth generation, no Moabite or Ammonite to time indefinite, and no eunuch could be admitted. However, Egyptians and Edomites of the third generation could become members of the congregation.​—23:1-8.

Deuteronomy outlines the judicial arrangement for Israel when settled in the Promised Land. It sets forth the qualifications for judges and the arrangement of courts in the city gates, with the sanctuary as the supreme court of the land, whose judgments were to be followed by all Israel.​—De 16:18–17:13.

Deuteronomy emphasizes Jehovah’s position as the unique God (De 6:4), Israel’s position as his unique people (4:7, 8), and the establishment of one central place of worship (12:4-7). It foretells the one who would be raised up as a prophet like Moses and who would speak in Jehovah’s name, one to whom all must be subject.​—18:18, 19.

[Box on page 619]

HIGHLIGHTS OF DEUTERONOMY

Discourses explaining portions of the Law and exhorting Israel to love and obey Jehovah in the land that they were about to enter

Written by Moses just before Israel entered the Promised Land in 1473 B.C.E.

Exhortation to remember what Jehovah has done and to serve only him (1:1–4:49)

Moses recalls the sending out of spies, the faithless and rebellious response to their report, Jehovah’s oath that that generation would die in the wilderness

Israel was not to molest the sons of Esau (descended from Jacob’s brother) or Moab and Ammon (offspring of Abraham’s nephew Lot); but Jehovah gave Israel the land held by Amorite Kings Sihon and Og, E of the Jordan

Moses begs Jehovah to let him cross the Jordan; instead, Jehovah tells him to commission and strengthen Joshua to lead the nation

Moses reminds nation of Jehovah’s burning anger regarding Baal of Peor; must not forget what they witnessed in Horeb, never make a carved image for worship; Jehovah, the only true God, exacts exclusive devotion

Admonition to love Jehovah and to obey all of his commandments (5:1–26:19)

Moses recounts giving of the Law at Horeb, restates the Ten Words, urges Israel to do just as Jehovah commanded

Must love Jehovah with all one’s heart, soul, and vital force; God’s commands to be kept constantly before them; should explain to their sons the reason for Jehovah’s regulations

Seven nations to be destroyed out of the land, along with their altars and images; no marriage alliances with them

Should not forget how God dealt with them in the wilderness so as to make them know that man lives not by bread alone but by every expression of Jehovah’s mouth

Must remember how they provoked Jehovah by making molten calf; now should fear, serve, and cling to him; keep the whole commandment

Regulations to be obeyed in Promised Land: Wipe out false religion of Canaan; worship at the place that Jehovah chooses; do not eat blood; put apostates to death; eat clean food; give tenth of produce to Jehovah; show consideration for the poor; keep annual festivals; pursue justice; shun spiritism; listen to the one Jehovah raises up as prophet; respect boundary marks; keep land clean from bloodguilt; show compassion; keep clean from sexual immorality; give the firstfruits of the land to Jehovah; prove holy to Jehovah

Blessings for obeying Jehovah, curses for disobedience (27:1–28:68)

After nation crosses the Jordan, the Law is to be written on great stones

Cursings for disobedience to be pronounced on Mount Ebal

Blessings for obedience to all of Jehovah’s commands to be pronounced on Mount Gerizim

Covenant made on Plains of Moab (29:1–30:20)

Recounts Jehovah’s care in Egypt and during Israel’s 40 years in the wilderness; warns against stubborn disobedience

Foretells Jehovah’s mercy for those repenting

Sets before them choice between life and death; urges them to choose life by loving Jehovah, listening to his voice, and sticking to him

Transfer of leadership to Joshua, and Moses’ final blessings (31:1–34:12)

Joshua is commissioned to lead Israel

Moses teaches Israel a song that will be a witness against them when they forsake Jehovah

Moses blesses the tribes of Israel, then he dies on Mount Nebo

This descriptive name was given to Satan because he is the chief and foremost slanderer and false accuser of Jehovah, his good word, and his holy name. The Greek di·aʹbo·los means “slanderer.” (Compare Lu 16:1, where the related verb di·a·balʹlo occurs.)​—See SATAN.

Down through the centuries the Devil has demonstrated that he is the arch-opposer of both God and man. He disputed with Michael over the body of Moses (Jude 9); showed he has power to ensnare others (1Ti 3:7; 2Ti 2:26); used people such as the false religious leaders, Judas Iscariot, and Bar-Jesus as his children (Joh 8:44; 13:2; Ac 13:6, 10); oppressed persons beyond the cure of the physicians (Ac 10:38); had righteous ones thrown into prison (Re 2:10); and even had the means to cause untimely death (Heb 2:14). Christians are, therefore, admonished not to give this Slanderer of God an opening by continuing in a provoked state. (Eph 4:27) “Keep your senses, be watchful,” Peter warns. “Your adversary, the Devil, walks about like a roaring lion, seeking to devour someone.”​—1Pe 5:8.

There are other instances in the original text of the Christian Greek Scriptures where the word di·aʹbo·los occurs but does not refer to Satan, so the word is properly rendered “slanderer.” For example, in referring to Judas, Jesus said to the 12, “One of you is a slanderer” (Joh 6:70); women in the congregation were cautioned not to be slanderous (1Ti 3:11; Tit 2:3); that “men will be . . . slanderers” is one of the evidences of “the last days.”​—2Ti 3:1-5.

Jehovah’s law to the nation of Israel forbade them to slander one another. (Le 19:16) The tenor of the entire Bible is against such misuse of the tongue.​—2Sa 19:27; Ps 15:3; 101:5; Pr 11:13; 20:19; 30:10; Jer 6:28; 9:4.

In his dealings with the nation of Israel, Jehovah God decreed that certain things, persons, or even entire cities be placed under a sacred ban, thereby restricting them from any common or profane use. Koehler and Baumgartner define cheʹrem as a “thing or person devoted (to destruction or sacred use a[nd] therefore secluded from profane use),” and the causative form of the verb cha·ramʹ as “banish (by banning . . . seclude from society a[nd] life, devote to destruction).” (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden, 1958, p. 334) Such devoted things in a sense, therefore, became “taboo” for the Israelites. The related word in Arabic retains a similar meaning till this day. To the Arab Muslims, the sacred territory of Mecca and Medina is considered haram; and the harim of a sheik has long been forbidden ground to all persons other than the master of the harem or his eunuchs.

It was in the declaration of the Law that sacred banning was first expressed. At Exodus 22:20 we read: “One who sacrifices to any gods but Jehovah alone is to be devoted to destruction [a form of cha·ramʹ].” This decree was applied impartially against the Israelites themselves, as in the case of the idolatry carried on at Shittim that resulted in the death of some 24,000 of the nation. (Nu 25:1-9) The possession of a thing devoted to destruction could also make the possessor subject to such ban. Thus, concerning the religious images of the nations of Canaan, God warned the Israelites: “You must not bring a detestable thing [image] into your house and actually become a thing devoted to destruction [cheʹrem] like it. You should thoroughly loathe it and absolutely detest it, because it is something devoted to destruction.”​—De 7:25, 26.

The sacred ban did not always mean destruction. Articles, animals, and even fields could be devoted to Jehovah and thus become holy items for sacred use by the priesthood or in temple service. However, persons who came under sacred ban were to be put to death without fail. No devoted thing was redeemable at any price, and this was a major distinction between a devoted thing and something otherwise sanctified.​—Le 27:21, 28, 29; compare with verses 19, 27, 30, 31; Nu 18:14; Jos 6:18, 19, 24; Eze 44:29; Ezr 10:8.

Canaanites. It was in the conquest of Canaan that this sacred banning reached its greatest prominence. Prior to the official entry into the land, when the Canaanite king of Arad attacked Israel down in the Negeb, Jehovah approved the Israelites’ vow to devote the cities of his kingdom to destruction. (Nu 21:1-3) Following their attacks on Israel, the kingdoms of Sihon and Og, E of the Jordan, next came under ban, resulting in the destruction of all persons in their cities and the preservation of only the domestic animals and other spoil. (De 2:31-35; 3:1-7) Later, on the Plains of Moab, just before the crossing of the Jordan by the Israelites, Jehovah reemphasized the vital need for clean worship and the avoidance of all corrupting influences. He decreed that seven nations in the Promised Land were to be placed under sacred ban and that their idolatrous populations were to be devoted to destruction by the Israelites, who were to act as his executioners. (De 7:1-6, 16, 22-26) Only faraway cities not of these nations were to be given the option of seeking peace; but those nations designated by God as devoted to destruction were to be annihilated, “in order that they may not teach you to do according to all their detestable things, which they have done to their gods, and you may indeed sin against Jehovah your God.” (De 20:10-18) The sparing of any of them would lead inevitably to infection and contamination by their false religions. Their extermination could serve to preserve the lives of the Israelites themselves; but, of greater importance, it would maintain the purity of the worship of the Universal Sovereign, Jehovah God. The same ban was to apply to any apostatizing member of their families or to the future inhabitants of any of the Israelite cities that might be established in the Promised Land.​—De 13:6-17.

West of the Jordan, Jericho was the first city devoted to destruction, with nothing being preserved except the metal articles for temple use. Because of her faith, Rahab and her family were granted exemption from the ban. In spite of Joshua’s strong warning that failure to observe the ban could result in the whole nation’s being devoted to destruction, Achan took some of the banned articles and thus made himself “a thing devoted to destruction.” Only his death relieved the entire nation from coming under the same ban.​—Jos 6:17-19; 7:10-15, 24-26.

Gibeonites. Thereafter, numerous cities were devoted to destruction. (Jos 8:26, 27; 10:28-42; 11:11, 12) Concerning such cities, the record states: “There proved to be no city that made peace with the sons of Israel but the Hivites inhabiting Gibeon. All the others they took by war. For it proved to be Jehovah’s course to let their hearts become stubborn so as to declare war against Israel, in order that he might devote them to destruction, that they might come to have no favorable consideration, but in order that he might annihilate them, just as Jehovah had commanded Moses.”​—Jos 11:19, 20.

Assyrian Failure. The Assyrian Sennacherib boasted that no god had been able to save the nations whom his forefathers had devoted to destruction. (2Ch 32:14) Assyria’s false gods, however, were unable to make effective such a ban on Jerusalem, and the true God Jehovah proved Sennacherib’s threat to be impotent. Nevertheless, the very land of Judah, because of the stubbornness and rebellion of the people, did eventually become a land devoted by God to destruction, and it suffered devastation at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar. (Jer 25:1-11; Isa 43:28) Babylon thereafter came in for a devoting to destruction in the full sense of the expression.​—Jer 50:21-27; 51:1-3; compare Re 18:2-8.

Other Mention. After Israel settled in the land, the Israelites residing in Jabesh-gilead came under ban for failing to support a united action against the tribe of Benjamin in punishment for its wickedness. (Jg 21:8-12) King Saul failed to carry out completely the terms of a ban on Amalek and its king, offering the pretext that the things preserved were to be offered in sacrifice to Jehovah. He was told that “to obey is better than a sacrifice” and that the kingship would now be given to another. (1Sa 15:1-23) King Ahab was guilty of a similar action with regard to the Syrian Ben-hadad II. (1Ki 20:42) The inhabitants of Mount Seir were devoted to destruction by the Ammonites and Moabites.​—2Ch 20:22, 23.

Sacred bans figure in a number of prophecies. Malachi 4:5, 6 foretells the work of “Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and fear-inspiring day of Jehovah,” in order that Jehovah “may not come and actually strike the earth with a devoting of it to destruction.” (Compare Mt 24:21, 22.) Daniel 11:44 describes the symbolic “king of the north” going forth in great rage “to annihilate and to devote many to destruction.” Jehovah, because of his indignation, is described as devoting “all the nations” to destruction. (Isa 34:2; compare Re 19:15-21.) The triumphant “daughter of Zion” is said to devote, by a ban, the unjust profit and the resources of the enemy peoples to “the true Lord of the whole earth.” (Mic 4:13) It is foretold that Jerusalem, delivered from all her enemies, will be inhabited and that henceforth there will occur “no more any banning to destruction.”​—Zec 14:11; compare Re 22:3.

These scriptures all serve to emphasize the divine statement at Deuteronomy 7:9, 10: “And you well know that Jehovah your God is the true God, the faithful God, keeping covenant and loving-kindness in the case of those who love him and those who keep his commandments to a thousand generations, but repaying to his face the one who hates him by destroying him. He will not hesitate toward the one who hates him; he will repay him to his face.” God’s Son, who gave his life as a ransom, declared: “He that exercises faith in the Son has everlasting life; he that disobeys the Son will not see life, but the wrath of God remains upon him.” (Joh 3:36) The cursed “goats” of the prophetic parable at Matthew 25:31-46 are clearly such persons upon whom the wrath of God remains and who are therefore devoted to everlasting destruction.

In the Septuagint the word cheʹrem is generally translated by the Greek a·naʹthe·ma.​—See CURSE; VOW.

See EXCLUSIVE DEVOTION; GODLY DEVOTION.

Small drops of water produced by the condensation of moisture in the air, of water vapor arising from the ground, and of moisture exuded by plants. The Hebrew word for “dew,” tal, also signifies “light rain.” (Pr 3:20) Dew becomes silvery-white, icy hoarfrost when the lower air strata drop in temperature to 0° C. (32° F.). Jehovah is responsible for the dewdrops and is said to scatter the hoarfrost “just like ashes.”​—Ps 147:16; Job 38:28.

Dew forms when night air laden with water vapor cools, depositing the vapor, condensed to liquid form, on cooler objects. It also develops when warm watery vapor rising from the ground comes in contact with the cooling air. The Bible explains that early in earth’s history, before it rained on earth, “a mist [vapor] would go up from the earth and it watered the entire surface of the ground.” (Ge 2:6 and ftn) Dew is also produced when moisture from vegetation evaporates into the air. A plant continues to draw water that has been absorbed by its roots until a balance is obtained between the temperature at the tip of the leaves and that at the plant’s roots. The great amount of dew thus produced by some trees can often be heard dripping from them at night. Most morning dew seems to have this source. Job said, “My root is opened for the waters, and dew itself will stay overnight upon my bough.”​—Job 29:19.

In Israel there is normally little if any rain from mid-April to mid-October. However, dew forms and waters the vegetation during these months. The Geography of the Bible by D. Baly (1974, p. 45) says: “The value of the dew was well appreciated by the Israelites, . . . for it swells the grapes during the drought of summer.” Isaiah refers to the “dew in the heat of [grape] harvest.” (Isa 18:4, 5) After this came the “autumn,” or “early,” rains. (Joe 2:23; Jas 5:7) Night dews in certain areas are so heavy that trees and other plants thereby obtain more than enough moisture to compensate for loss through evaporation during the day. Hence, nocturnal dews may well account for a bountiful harvest where drought and starvation would otherwise prevail.

The importance of dew is emphasized by the discovery that when plants have wilted from the heat, they have recovered more rapidly when moisture condensed on their leaves at night than they did when the ground was watered. They absorbed so much moisture that they functioned normally during the succeeding day without any watering of the ground. The amount of water absorbed from dew and later excreted through the roots into the soil for storage sometimes equaled the plant’s entire weight.

During Israel’s 40-year wilderness trek, the divinely provided manna regularly descended with the dew, remaining upon the earth after the dew’s evaporation. (Ex 16:13-18; Nu 11:9) By two signs involving dew, Gideon obtained proof of divine support before going forth to fight the Midianites. First, he kept a fleece of wool exposed on a threshing floor overnight, the dew developing only on the fleece while the earth was dry. In the second test, matters were reversed. It is not revealed whether this was the rainless season when dew could be expected.​—Jg 6:36–7:1.

Figurative Use. Dew is Scripturally associated with blessing, fertility, and abundance. (Ge 27:28; De 33:13, 28; Zec 8:12) A return to Jehovah would result in blessing, God saying: “I shall become like the dew to Israel.” (Ho 14:1, 5) Through Micah, God foretold that “the remaining ones of Jacob” would “become in the midst of many peoples like dew from Jehovah, like copious showers upon vegetation,” foretelling that the remnant of spiritual Jacob (Israel) would be a blessing from God to the people.​—Mic 5:7.

Conversely, lack or the withholding of dew is associated with a disfavored condition. (Ge 27:39; Hag 1:10) When God withheld dew and rain from the land of Israel in the days of King Ahab and Elijah, famine resulted.​—1Ki 17:1; Lu 4:25.

Morning clouds and dew in Israel vanished rapidly in the sun’s heat. What little loving-kindness there was in Ephraim (Israel) and Judah had vanished similarly. (Ho 6:4) And because of wrongdoing, the inhabitants of Ephraim (Israel) would be taken into exile, becoming “like the dew that early goes away.”​—Ho 13:1-3, 16.

Dewdrops are quiet and numerous. Perhaps to denote stealthiness or a multitude as numerous as dewdrops, Hushai told Absalom: “We ourselves will be upon [David] just as the dew falls upon the ground.” (2Sa 17:12) Jehovah’s King has his “company of young men just like dewdrops,” perhaps as to number.​—Ps 110:3.

Dew is also gentle and refreshing. It is aptly applied to Moses’ farewell prophetic song. (De 32:2) A king’s goodwill is likened to the refreshing effect of dew on vegetation. (Pr 19:12) The loving unity prevailing among God’s people is refreshing “like the dew of Hermon that is descending upon the mountains of Zion.” Mount Hermon’s forest-covered and perpetually snow-streaked heights caused night vapors to arise that could be carried so far by cold air currents coming down over Hermon from the N that these vapors could condense upon Zion’s mountains many miles to the south.​—Ps 133:1-3; PICTURE, Vol. 1, p. 332.

See CROWN.

A brilliant precious stone, the hardest natural mineral yet discovered and among the most valuable of gems. Although diamonds are generally colorless, some have such tints as yellow, green, red, brown, blue, and black. Most uncut diamonds are eight-sided transparent or translucent crystals and are composed of nearly pure carbon. Diamonds are thought to have been formed long ago when the earth’s carbon was subjected to great pressure and heat. Early diamonds were found in streambeds, but in modern times they are usually mined from rock formations deep in the earth.

The Hebrew word sha·mirʹ (translated “diamond” twice, “emery stone” once in NW) is evidently related to the Akkadian word ashmur, meaning “emery.” Some suggest that sha·mirʹ may apply to a very hard mineral loosely identified by the general term “adamant” (from Gr. a·daʹmas, meaning “unconquerable”), which may refer to diamond or to a number of very hard substances, such as corundum and emery.

Jehovah referred to the use of diamonds for scratching or engraving hard materials when he said: “The sin of Judah is written down with an iron stylus. With a diamond point it is engraved on the tablet of their heart, and on the horns of their altars.” (Jer 17:1, 2) The house of Israel also became obstinate and hardhearted. Therefore, Jehovah said to Ezekiel: “Look! I have made your face exactly as hard as their faces and your forehead exactly as hard as their foreheads. Like a diamond, harder than flint, I have made your forehead.” (Eze 3:7-9) Similarly, because of the Jews’ stubbornness, Jehovah declared through Zechariah: “Their heart they set as an emery stone [Heb., sha·mirʹ] to keep from obeying the law and the words that Jehovah of armies sent by his spirit, by means of the former prophets.”​—Zec 7:12; see JEWELS AND PRECIOUS STONES.

(Dibʹlah).

A site mentioned by Ezekiel (6:14) when recording Jehovah’s prophecy of the desolation to come upon the land of Israel as recompense for its idolatrous worship. Any ancient location by this name is unknown, and most modern scholars, therefore, hold that “Diblah” is a copyist’s error for “Riblah,” the initial Hebrew letter for “R” (ר) being easily mistaken for the Hebrew letter for “D” (ד). If this is the case, it may be identified with the Biblical Riblah (ruins near modern Ribleh) at the Orontes River, “in the land of Hamath” (2Ki 23:33), and “the wilderness toward Diblah [Riblah]” could have reference to the gravelly unbroken plain of the Syrian Desert that lies to the S and SE of Riblah. Some translators, however, render Ezekiel’s words to read “from the wilderness to Riblah.” (RS) According to such rendering, the meaning might be that Jehovah’s judgment would extend from “the wilderness,” the Promised Land’s traditional southern boundary (Ex 23:31), to the region of “Hamath” (represented by Riblah) far to the north. (1Ki 8:65) Ezekiel’s use of such a phrase would then be the equivalent of the better known “from Dan down to Beer-sheba.”​—Jg 20:1; see RIBLAH No. 2.

(Dib·laʹim) [Two Cakes of Pressed Figs].

Parent of Hosea’s wife Gomer.​—Ho 1:2, 3.

(Diʹbon).

1. A city E of the Dead Sea, wrested from the Moabites by Sihon the Amorite but later taken from him by Israel at the time of the Israelite entry into the land under Moses.​—Nu 21:25-30.

Ancient Dibon is today identified with Dhiban, 5 km (3 mi) N of the Arnon, 21 km (13 mi) E of the Dead Sea. It has been the site of recent intensive archaeological investigations and has achieved some fame as the scene of the discovery of the famous Moabite Stone in 1868. Statements on this stele, set up by Mesha, the king of Moab, have been interpreted by some to identify Dibon as his capital city (including Qarhah) and as “the chief city of Moab” at one time.

Soon after the initial Israelite conquest of this area, the tribe of Gad lived there and “proceeded to build [or, rebuild] Dibon,” apparently giving it the lengthened name of Dibon-gad, a location listed as one of the nation’s camping sites. (Nu 32:34; 33:45, 46) However, Dibon was considered part of the inheritance of Reuben. (Nu 32:2, 3; Jos 13:8, 9, 15-17) Dibon probably suffered under the revival of Moabite power during the reign of King Eglon, until it gained relief as a result of Judge Ehud’s victory. (Jg 3:12-30) Mesha, king of Moab, revolted against Israelite domination many centuries later, “as soon as Ahab died,” according to the Bible account at 2 Kings 3:4, 5. The Bible does not say precisely how long this uprising lasted, and it is possible that, as Mesha boasts on the Moabite Stone, he managed to annex several Israelite cities to “Qarhah” at that time. Nevertheless, unlike Mesha’s propagandistic inscription, the Scriptural record makes it clear that Moab was soundly defeated when its forces entered into battle against the combined armies of Israel, Judah, and Edom.​—2Ki 3:4-27.

Less than 200 years later Dibon was once more known as a Moabite city, and against it Isaiah (15:2) uttered a pronouncement of doom. The inhabitants of the region are therefore spoken of prophetically as going “up to The House and to Dibon, to the high places,” mourning the desolation of Moab.

Certain scholars have theorized that Isaiah alluded to the threatening Assyrian menace as causing the “weeping” at “the high places” near Dibon; however, there is no record of an Assyrian devastation of that region. When Jehovah’s servant Jeremiah prophesied about a hundred years later that Dibon would “get down from glory, and sit down in thirst” (Jer 48:18), Isaiah’s earlier prophecy had apparently not yet been fulfilled. Therefore the later prophet was evidently presenting anew a similar message and thereby making the prediction of doom on Moab doubly certain. Sometime after the fall of Jerusalem in 607 B.C.E., when Nebuchadnezzar thoroughly devastated Moab, he may have left Dibon’s citizens, not only ‘thirsting’ for the luxuries of its previous glory but also forsaken as humbled captives, literally thirsting for water and other common necessities.​—Jer 25:9, 17-21.

The finding of large stores of remarkably preserved grain at Dibon, which grain is considered to date back to sometime in the latter half of the first millennium B.C.E., seems to confirm the view of some that the Dibon region, even today an agriculturally productive area, may have at one time been a breadbasket of Palestine.

Some commentators consider Dibon to be the same as Dimon mentioned in Isaiah 15:9.​—See DIMON.

2. A location in Judah (Ne 11:25), thought by some to be the same as Dimonah.​—Jos 15:22; see DIMONAH.

See DIBON No. 1.

(Dibʹri) [probably, Wordy].

An Israelite of the tribe of Dan whose daughter Shelomith married an Egyptian. Shortly after the Exodus from Egypt, the son of this union was stoned to death for abusing Jehovah’s name.​—Le 24:10-16, 23.

A Greek silver coin having the value of two drachmas, or $1.31 according to modern values. The Jews paid a yearly temple tax of two drachmas, or a didrachma.​—Mt 17:24, ftn.

(Dikʹlah).

A descendant of Shem through Joktan. (Ge 10:21, 26, 27; 1Ch 1:17, 20, 21) Some scholars believe his tribe settled in southern Arabia. This, however, cannot be determined with any certainty.

(Diʹle·an).

A Judean city in the Shephelah. (Jos 15:20, 33, 38) Though its exact location is uncertain, some geographers place it at Tell en-Najileh (Tel Nagila), about 10 km (6 mi) SW of Lachish.

[Gr., aʹne·thon].

Modern lexicographers agree that the plant referred to by the Greek term aʹne·thon is the dill (Anethum graveolens) rather than the anise (Gr., anʹne·son), as in older translations (KJ, Dy). The dill is more commonly cultivated than the anise in the Palestine region today, and evidence indicates that it was cultivated from ancient times in the Middle East, as well as by the Greeks and Romans. Dill was among the plants the hypocritical Pharisees punctiliously tithed, while failing to observe the weightier matters of the Law. (Mt 23:23) The Jewish Mishnah (Maʽaserot 4:5) prescribed that not only the seeds but also the plant and pods were subject to tithe.

The plant is weedlike in growth, resembles anise, and attains a height of about 0.5 m (2 ft) with finely cut, clear green leaves and sprays of small yellow flowers. It is cultivated for its aromatic seeds, which are much valued for flavoring foods and also medicinally for treatment of stomach ailments.

(Dimʹnah).

Evidently the same as Rimmon (Jos 19:13) and Rimmono (1Ch 6:77), a city on the E border of Zebulun’s territory given to the Merarite Levites. (Jos 21:34, 35) Dimnah is commonly identified with modern Rummana (Rimmon) about 10 km (6 mi) N of Nazareth.

(Diʹmon).

A site mentioned in Isaiah’s pronouncement of doom upon Moab; the slaughter of the Moabites causes the waters of Dimon to become “full of blood.”​—Isa 15:9.

Some commentators consider Dimon to be another form of Dibon (mentioned in verse 2 of the prophecy), Dimon being used to provide an alliteration, or play on the sound, of the Hebrew word for “blood” (dam), thus “Dimon . . . full of dam.” In favor of such a view is the fact that the Dead Sea Scrolls read “Dibon” instead of “Dimon” here in verse 9, and Jerome’s statement that in his day (c. 347-420 C.E.) the two names were used interchangeably.

Others, however, consider it improbable that the name of Dibon would be presented in two different ways within the brief pronouncement, and they also note that no other place in the pronouncement receives double mention. They further point out that Dibon did not stand by any large “waters,” it being a considerable distance from the nearest wadi, the Arnon. They suggest, therefore, that Dimon may be a scribal alteration of Madmen, mentioned in Jeremiah’s condemnation of Moab (Jer 48:2), and usually identified with Dimna, about 4 km (2.5 mi) WNW of Rabbath-Moab, on a height dominating the waters of the ʽAin el-Megheisil to the SE.

Both views are conjectural, the latter having in its favor identification with a site associated with waters, which the context seems to require.

(Di·moʹnah).

A southern city of Judah near the border of Edom. (Jos 15:21, 22) It is suggested by some to be the same as “Dibon” mentioned at Nehemiah 11:25, but its exact location remains uncertain.

(Diʹnah) [Judged [that is, acquitted; vindicated]].

Daughter of Jacob by Leah. Dinah may have been about six years of age when Jacob returned to Canaan and settled at Succoth, she having been born at Haran when her father was residing there.​—Ge 30:21, 22, 25; 31:41.

At the time Jacob and his family were tenting outside the city of Shechem, young Dinah unwisely made it a practice to visit the Canaanite girls there. On one of these visits she was violated by Shechem the son of the Hivite chieftain Hamor. Shechem fell in love with her, and Dinah remained in his home until avenged by her full brothers Simeon and Levi. (Ge 34:1-31) Some contend that Dinah must have been just a child when she was violated. However, it must be borne in mind that before coming to Shechem, Jacob built a house and booths at Succoth, indicating that he resided there for some time. (Ge 33:17) At Shechem he bought a tract of land and apparently became established there for a while. All of this, together with the fact that Shechem fell in love with Dinah, the “young woman,” would argue that Dinah, though still young, was not a mere child at the time of her association with Shechem.​—Ge 33:18, 19; 34:12.

Years later, Dinah, with the rest of Jacob’s household, came into Egypt at the invitation of Joseph.​—Ge 46:7, 15.

(Dinʹha·bah).

The city of Bela, king of Edom. (Ge 36:32; 1Ch 1:43) Its present-day location is unknown.

(Di·o·nysʹi·us) [Of (Belonging to) Dionysus [the god of wine]].

An Areopagite, or judge of the Athenian Areopagus, who heard Paul’s defense and became a Christian.​—Ac 17:34; see AREOPAGUS.

(Di·otʹre·phes) [Fed by Zeus].

A man mentioned by the apostle John in his letter to Gaius. In addition to being ambitious, proud, disrespectful of apostolic authority, rebellious, and inhospitable, Diotrephes tried to hinder those desiring to show hospitality to the brothers and to expel these from the congregation.​—3Jo 9, 10.

(Diʹphath).

A descendant of Noah through Japheth and Gomer; called Riphath in the Latin Vulgate, the Greek Septuagint, and about 30 Hebrew manuscripts, as well as at Genesis 10:3. (1Ch 1:4-6, ftn) The spelling “Diphath” found in the Masoretic text at 1 Chronicles 1:6 may have arisen through a copyist’s error, since the Hebrew letters for “R” (ר) and “D” (ד) look very much alike.

A composition, lyrical or musical, expressing deep sorrow, such as the grief occasioned by the death of a friend or loved one; an elegy. In the New World Translation the rendering “dirge” usually is from the Hebrew word qi·nahʹ, which denotes a mournful composition, an elegy, or a lamentation.

The Hebrew term shig·ga·yohnʹ in the superscription of Psalm 7 is also translated “dirge” and may denote a highly emotional song with rapid changes of rhythm. (NW ftn) A plural form of the Hebrew word appears in Habakkuk 3:1, where it is rendered “dirges.” Because of their nature, dirges are associated with moaning and wailing (Eze 2:10), and at least some of them were written down and preserved. Second Chronicles 35:25 reports that Jeremiah chanted over deceased King Josiah and indicates that there once existed a collection of dirges (Heb., qi·nohthʹ), for it is there stated: “All the male singers and female singers keep talking about Josiah in their dirges down till today; and they have them set as a regulation over Israel, and there they are written among the dirges.”

Dirges are linked with mourning, as when Jehovah told unfaithful Israel: “I will turn your festivals into mourning and all your songs into a dirge.” (Am 8:10) Hence, taking up a dirge signified intoning an elegy, or mournful composition, perhaps one denoting rejection by Jehovah or contrasting earlier favorable circumstances with a later unhappy situation. (Jer 7:29; Eze 19:1-14) A dirge would be chanted, often by women.​—Eze 27:32; Jer 9:20.

Some dirges were of the historical type, being composed after an event, such as the death of a cherished acquaintance. An example of this kind is the dirge David chanted in sorrow over Saul and Jonathan, who had fallen in death upon Mount Gilboa during warfare with the Philistines. (2Sa 1:17-27; 1Sa 31:8) King David also chanted over Abner after that one’s burial. (2Sa 3:31-34) While dirges relating to a person’s death may have been composed partly to afford some consolation to survivors, among faithful servants of God these were not for the purpose of glorifying the deceased.​—Ec 9:5, 10.

The book of Lamentations is a dirge written by Jeremiah after the destruction of Jerusalem at Babylonian hands in 607 B.C.E. While it expresses grief over that desolation, it also reflects faith and hope in Jehovah; and the fifth chapter opens with an appeal to God to remember his people who had become “mere orphans without a father.”​—La 3:22-27; 5:1-3; see LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF.

Some Biblically recorded dirges are prophetic and graphically portray coming calamity, sometimes as though it had already been accomplished. Prophetic dirges were raised up against Tyre and its king (Eze 26:17; 27:1, 2; 28:11-19), as well as against Pharaoh and Egypt. (Eze 32:2-16) The raising up of a dirge over Judah and Jerusalem is mentioned in connection with their desolation.​—Jer 9:9-11.

A Biblical expression applicable to conditions of the genital organs of men and women. (Le 15:2, 19, 25; Nu 5:2, 3; 2Sa 3:29) In the case of men, it related to an unhealthy state, in which there was a flow of matter from the genital organ or the organ was obstructed by such matter. (Le 15:2, 3) No male offspring of Aaron was permitted to eat of “the holy things” while unclean because of a running discharge.​—Le 22:4.

The expression “running discharge” sometimes applied to a woman’s regular, normal menstrual flow. (Le 15:19-24) Yet it was also used to designate a diseased, extended, and thus abnormal, flow of blood. (Le 15:25-30) In the latter sense, it applied to the chronic “flow of blood” from which one woman suffered for 12 years before Jesus Christ cured her.​—Mt 9:20-22.

According to the Law, a person having a running discharge was unclean, made articles and persons he or she touched unclean, and so forth. After a diseased discharge ceased, the individual took specified steps for purification.​—Le 15; see CLEAN, CLEANNESS.

A taught one, a learner, a pupil. The Hebrew word for a disciple (lim·mudhʹ) basically refers to one who learns, is taught, or is trained. (Compare Isa 8:16, ftn.) The related word mal·madhʹ denotes a “goad” used to train cattle. (Jg 3:31; compare Ho 10:11.) The Greek word ma·the·tesʹ (disciple) primarily denotes one who directs his mind to something.

In the Greek Scriptures we read of disciples of Jesus, of John the Baptizer, of the Pharisees, and of Moses. (Mt 9:14; Lu 5:33; Joh 9:28) Jesus’ first disciples came from among the disciples of John. (Joh 1:35-42) The 12 chosen as apostles are called disciples at Matthew 10:1 and 11:1. In a wide sense the word “disciple” applied to those believing Jesus’ teaching, at least one of such being a secret disciple. (Lu 6:17; Joh 19:38) However, in the Gospel accounts it usually applies to the body of intimate followers of Jesus who traveled with him on his preaching tours and who were taught and instructed by him. The principal application of the term is to all those who not only believe Christ’s teachings but also follow them closely. They must be taught to “observe all the things” Jesus commands.​—Mt 28:19, 20.

Jesus’ purpose in teaching his disciples was to make them like himself, preachers and teachers of the good news of the Kingdom. “A pupil is not above his teacher, but everyone that is perfectly instructed will be like his teacher,” Jesus said. (Lu 6:40) The effectiveness of Christ’s teaching was proved by subsequent history. His disciples continued in the work he had taught them and made disciples throughout the Roman Empire, in Asia, Europe, and Africa, before the close of the first century. This was their principal work, in accord with Jesus Christ’s command at Matthew 28:19, 20.

That Christians to this very day are obligated to make disciples of the people of the nations is made clear by the closing words of Jesus’ command: “And, look! I am with you all the days until the conclusion of the system of things.” They are not making disciples for themselves, as those taught are really disciples of Jesus Christ, for it is the teaching, not of men, but of Christ, that they follow. For this reason the disciples were by divine providence called Christians. (Ac 11:26) Similarly, the prophet Isaiah had disciples but not for himself. Isaiah’s disciples knew Jehovah’s law, and with them the testimony of the law resided.​—Isa 8:16.

Being a disciple of Jesus is not the taking of a course of ease in life. Jesus did not please himself, but he followed a path that involved the greatest resistance from the Devil and his agents. (Ro 15:3) He said that his disciples must love him more than their closest relatives on earth and even more than their own souls. They must love their Christian fellow disciples. They must bear spiritual fruitage. A person who wants to be a disciple of Jesus has to take up his torture stake and follow the path that Christ traveled. In doing this, he will have to “say good-bye to all his belongings,” but he will receive many more valuable things now, with persecutions, and with everlasting life to come.​—Lu 14:26, 27, 33; Joh 13:35; 15:8; Mr 10:29, 30; see CHRISTIAN.