Where possible, events have been listed in chronological order

Each Gospel map traces a different series of events

1. Jesus is born in Bethlehem (Mt 2:1; Lu 2:4-6)

2. Jesus is tempted by Satan in the wilderness of Judea (Mt 4:1-3; Mr 1:12, 13; Lu 4:1-4)

3. Jesus’ first preaching tour of Galilee when he brings along his first four disciples; he probably begins from the area near Capernaum (Mt 4:23; Mr 1:38, 39; Lu 4:42, 43)

4. In the vicinity of Capernaum, Jesus calls Matthew (Mt 9:9; Mr 2:14; Lu 5:27, 28)

5. Jesus delivers the Sermon on the Mount in the hilly terrain near Capernaum (Mt 5:1, 2; Lu 6:17, 20)

6. On the east side of the Sea of Galilee, Jesus meets demon-possessed men; demons are sent into swine (Mt 8:28, 31, 32; Mr 5:1, 2, 11-13; Lu 8:26, 27, 32, 33)

7. People of Jesus’ hometown, Nazareth, reject him (Mt 13:54-57; Mr 6:1-3)

8. Third preaching tour of Galilee, possibly from the area near Nazareth (Mt 9:35, 37, 38; Mr 6:6, 7; Lu 9:1, 2)

9. John the Baptist is killed, apparently in Tiberias (Mt 14:10; Mr 6:27)

10. After traveling through the region of Tyre and Sidon, Jesus feeds about 4,000 men on the east side of the Sea of Galilee (Mt 15:29, 36-38; Mr 8:1, 2, 6, 9)

11. Jesus goes to the region of Magadan; the Pharisees and Sadducees ask for a sign from heaven (Mt 15:39; 16:1, 2, 4; Mr 8:10-12)

12. In the region of Caesarea Philippi, Peter identifies Jesus as the Christ; Jesus promises Peter the keys of the Kingdom (Mt 16:13-16, 19)

13. Jesus’ transfiguration, probably on some spur of Mount Hermon (Mt 17:1, 2; Mr 9:2, 3; Lu 9:28, 29)

14. Jesus again foretells his death and resurrection, probably while in Perea (Mt 20:17-19; Mr 10:32-34; Lu 18:31-33)

15. Jesus arrives at Bethany; Mary pours oil on Jesus’ head and feet (Mt 26:6, 7, 12, 13; Mr 14:3, 8, 9; Joh 12:1, 3, 7, 8)

16. On the Mount of Olives, the disciples ask about the sign of Jesus’ presence (Mt 24:3; Mr 13:3, 4; Lu 21:7)

17. In Jerusalem, Jesus institutes the Lord’s Evening Meal (Mt 26:26-28; Mr 14:22-24; Lu 22:19, 20)

18. Judas feels remorse and hangs himself; priests purchase a field that came to be known as Field of Blood (Akeldama) (Mt 27:3-8)

19. Jesus stands before Pilate in the governor’s palace (Mt 27:11-14; Mr 15:1, 2; Lu 23:1-3; Joh 18:33, 36, 37)

20. Jesus is buried (Mt 27:57-60; Mr 15:43-46; Lu 23:50, 52, 53; Joh 19:38, 40-42)

21. In Galilee, Jesus gives the commission to make disciples (Mt 28:16-20)

In first-century Israel, construction techniques varied according to the economic circumstances of the builder and the availability of materials. Many small houses were built of sun-dried mud bricks or of rough-hewn stones. Often the interior walls were plastered. The floors were typically of beaten earth, though some were paved. A dirt roof rested on branches, reeds, and rafters, which overlaid wooden beams that were supported by posts. The dirt was pressed down, forming a plaster that made a reasonably waterproof ceiling. Occupants could access the roof by means of stairs or, in poorer homes, an outside ladder. Poor people had very little furniture.

Jesus could not have been born in December because the weather in Bethlehem is typically cold and rainy from November to March. In winter, snow may fall in this region. During this time of the year, shepherds would not be living out of doors, keeping watch over their flocks in the fields at night. (Lu 2:8) Bethlehem is located some 780 m (2,560 ft) above sea level in the Judean highlands.

In this barren region, John the Baptist began his ministry and Jesus was tempted by the Devil.

The original-language words rendered “wilderness” in the Bible (Hebrew, midh·barʹ and Greek, eʹre·mos) generally refer to a sparsely settled, uncultivated land, often steppelands with brush and grass, even pastures. Those words may also apply to waterless regions that could be called true deserts. In the Gospels, the wilderness generally referred to is the wilderness of Judea. This wilderness is where John lived and preached and where Jesus was tempted by the Devil.​—Mr 1:​12.

John wore a garment that was woven from camel’s hair and was secured at the waist by a leather belt, or girdle, that could be used to carry small items. Similar clothing was worn by the prophet Elijah. (2Ki 1:8) Camel’s haircloth was a rough fabric commonly worn by the poor. By contrast, soft garments made of silk or linen were worn by the rich. (Mt 11:​7-9) Because John was a Nazirite from birth, it is possible that his hair had never been cut. His dress and appearance likely made it immediately apparent that he lived a simple life, completely devoted to doing God’s will.

As used in the Bible, the term “locusts” can refer to any of a variety of grasshoppers with short antennas, or feelers, especially grasshoppers that migrate in great swarms. According to an analysis made in Jerusalem, desert locusts consist of 75 percent protein. When used for food today, they are prepared by roasting, boiling, frying, or drying. Usually, the legs and wings are removed. These insects are said to taste something like shrimp or crab and are rich in protein.

Pictured here are a hive built by wild honey bees (1) and a honey-filled comb (2). The honey that John ate may have been produced by a wild species of bee known as Apis mellifera syriaca, which is native to the area. This aggressive species is well-adapted to living in the hot, dry climate of the Judean wilderness but is not suited to being farmed by man. However, as early as the ninth century B.C.E., people living in Israel kept honey bees in clay cylinders. A large number of the remains of these hives were discovered in the middle of what was an urban area (now known as Tel Rehov), located in the Jordan Valley. Honey from these hives was produced by a species of bee that seems to have been imported from what is now known as Türkiye.

The Pharisees took the statements found at De 6:6-8 and 11:18 literally. Motivated by self-righteousness and superstition, they strapped a scripture-containing case to their left arm and, at times, bound one to their forehead. In addition, the Pharisees not only wore fringes on their garments, as directed in the Law, but also lengthened the fringes so that they were more conspicuous.—Nu 15:38; Mt 23:5.

Both John the Baptist and Jesus called the religious leaders of that time “offspring of vipers” because they inflicted spiritual harm that was like deadly poison to unsuspecting people. (Mt 3:7; 12:34) Here pictured is the horned viper, distinguished by a small pointed horn above each eye. Other dangerous vipers native to Israel are the sand viper (Vipera ammodytes) of the Jordan Valley and the Palestine viper (Vipera palaestina).

In Bible times, sandals consisted of flat soles made of leather, wood, or other fibrous material strapped to the foot by leather laces. Sandals were used as symbols in some types of transactions and as a word picture. For example, a widow under the Law removed a sandal from the man who refused to perform brother-in-law marriage with her, and his name was reproachfully called “The house of the one who had his sandal removed.” (De 25:9, 10) The transfer of property or of right of repurchase was represented by a person’s handing his sandal to another. (Ru 4:7) To untie another’s sandal laces or to carry his sandals was considered a menial task often done by slaves. John the Baptist referred to this practice to denote his inferiority to the Christ.

A farmer used a winnowing shovel to hurl threshed grain into the air. The heavy grain fell to the floor, and the lighter chaff blew away in the breeze. He repeated the action over and over until all the grain was separated.

Two of the replica threshing sledges (1) shown here are turned upside down, exposing the sharp stones that were embedded in the underside of the sledge. (Isa 41:15) As shown in the second photo (2), a farmer would spread sheaves of grain on a threshing floor, stand on the sledge, and have an animal, such as a bull, pull him across the grain. The hooves of the animal and the sharp stones on the underside of the sledge would cut and break down the grain stalks, releasing the grain. The farmer would then use a winnowing fork, or shovel (3), to throw the threshed grain into the air. The wind would carry off the chaff, leaving the heavier grain to fall to the ground. Threshing is used in the Bible as a fitting symbol of how Jehovah’s enemies will be beaten and cut to pieces. (Jer 51:33; Mic 4:12, 13) John the Baptist used threshing to illustrate how the righteous would be separated from the wicked.

John baptized Jesus in the Jordan River; the exact location of the baptism is unknown.

Satan may literally have stationed Jesus “on the battlement [or “highest point”] of the temple” and told him to throw himself down, but the specific location where Jesus might have stood is not known. Since the term for “temple” used here may refer to the entire temple complex, Jesus may have been standing on the southeastern corner (1) of the temple area. Or he may have stood on another corner of the temple complex. A fall from any of these locations would have resulted in certain death unless Jehovah had intervened.

1. Plain of Gennesaret. This was a fertile triangle of land, measuring about 5 by 2.5 km (3 by 1.5 mi). It was along the shoreline in this area that Jesus invited the fishermen Peter, Andrew, James, and John to join him in his ministry.​—Mt 4:18-22.

2. Tradition locates Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount here.​—Mt 5:1; Lu 6:​17, 20.

3. Capernaum. Jesus took up residence in this city, and it was in or near Capernaum that he found Matthew.​—Mt 4:13; 9:1, 9.

Fishermen on the Sea of Galilee used two types of casting nets; one was made of finely woven mesh to catch small fish and the other was made of larger mesh to catch bigger ones. Unlike a dragnet, which usually required the use of at least one boat and took a team of men to maneuver, a casting net could be handled by one person in a boat or standing on or near the shore. A casting net might have been 6 m (18 ft) or more in diameter and had stones or lead weights fastened to its perimeter. If thrown correctly, it hit the water as a flat disc. The weighted rim sank first, and fish were trapped as the net drifted to the sea floor. A fisherman might dive in and retrieve fish from the submerged net, or he might carefully draw the net to the shore. It took great skill and strenuous effort to use the net effectively.

The Bible contains many references to fish, fishing, and fishermen in connection with the Sea of Galilee. About 18 species of fish live in the Sea of Galilee. Of that number, only about ten have been sought by fishermen. These ten can be divided into three commercially important groups. One group is the binny, also known as the barbel (Barbus longiceps is shown) (1). Its three species display barbs at the corners of the mouth; hence, its Semitic name biny, meaning “hair.” It feeds on mollusks, snails, and small fish. The longheaded barbel reaches a length of 75 cm (30 in.) and can weigh over 7 kg (15 lb). The second group is called musht (Tilapia galilea is shown) (2), which means “comb” in Arabic, because its five species display a comblike dorsal fin. One variety of musht reaches a length of about 45 cm (18 in.) and can weigh some 2 kg (4.5 lb). The third group is the Kinneret sardine (Acanthobrama terrae sanctae is shown) (3), which resembles a small herring. From ancient times, this fish has been preserved by pickling.

Fishing nets were expensive, and maintaining them required hard work. Much of a fisherman’s time was spent mending, washing, and drying nets​—chores he did at the end of every fishing trip. (Lu 5:2) Matthew used three Greek terms to describe fishing nets. The general term, diʹkty·on, can evidently embrace various types of nets. (Mt 4:21) The term sa·geʹne refers to a large dragnet that was let down from a boat. (Mt 13:47, 48) A smaller net, am·phiʹble·stron, which means “something thrown,” was evidently cast into shallow water by fishermen who were on or near the shore.​—Mt 4:18.

This rendering is based on the remains of a first-century fishing boat found buried in mud near the shores of the Sea of Galilee and on a mosaic discovered in a first-century home in the seaside town of Migdal. This kind of boat may have been rigged with a mast and sail(s) and may have had a crew of five​—four oarsmen and one helmsman, who stood on a small deck at the stern. The boat was approximately 8 m (26.5 ft) long and at midpoint was about 2.5 m (8 ft) wide and 1.25 m (4 ft) deep. It seems that it could carry 13 or more men.

A 1985/1986 drought caused the water level in the Sea of Galilee to fall, exposing part of the hull of an ancient boat that was buried in the mud. The remains of the boat are 8.2 m (27 ft) long and 2.3 m (7.5 ft) wide and have a maximum height of 1.3 m (4.3 ft). Archaeologists say that the boat was built sometime between the first century B.C.E. and the first century C.E. This video animation reconstructs the boat, which is now displayed in a museum in Israel, showing what it may have looked like as it traversed the waters some 2,000 years ago.

This reconstruction, which incorporates some features of the first-century synagogue found at Gamla, located about 10 km (6 mi) northeast of the Sea of Galilee, gives an idea of what an ancient synagogue may have looked like.

Today, the water in the Dead Sea (Salt Sea) is about nine times as salty as the water in the world’s oceans. (Ge 14:3) Evaporation of the Dead Sea waters produced an ample supply of salt for the Israelites, although this salt was of poor quality because it was contaminated with other minerals. The Israelites may also have acquired salt from the Phoenicians, who, it is said, obtained it from the Mediterranean by means of evaporation. The Bible mentions salt as a seasoning for food. (Job 6:6) Jesus was a master at using illustrations based on things related to the everyday lives of the people, so he used salt to illustrate important spiritual lessons. For example, in the Sermon on the Mount, he told his disciples: “You are the salt of the earth,” having a preserving influence on others, preventing spiritual corruption and moral decay.

The common clay lamps used in homes and other buildings were filled with olive oil. A wick was used to draw up the oil to feed the flame. Lamps were often set on clay, wood, or metal lampstands to provide indoor light. They were also placed in wall niches or on shelves, or they were suspended from the ceiling by means of a cord.

This domestic lampstand (1) is an artist’s concept based on first-century artifacts found in Ephesus and Italy. A lampstand of this kind was likely used in a wealthy household. In poorer homes, a lamp was hung from the ceiling, placed in a niche in the wall (2), or put on a stand made of earthenware or wood.

The Valley of Hinnom, called Gehenna in Greek, is a ravine to the south and southwest of ancient Jerusalem. In Jesus’ day, it was a place for the burning of refuse, making it a fitting symbol of complete destruction.

The Valley of Hinnom (1), called Gehenna in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The Temple Mount (2). The first-century Jewish temple complex was located here. The most prominent present-day structure on the temple mount is the Muslim shrine known as the Dome of the Rock.​—See map in Appendix B12.

This certificate of divorce, dated 71 or 72 C.E., was written in Aramaic. It was found on the north side of Wadi Murabbaat, a dry riverbed in the Judean Desert. It states that in the sixth year of the Jewish revolt, Joseph, son of Naqsan, divorced Miriam, daughter of Jonathan who was living in the city of Masada.

This photo shows the damage that moths can do to a piece of clothing. (The photo shows a webbing clothes moth [Tineola bisselliella] and its larvae.) The Bible writer James mentions moth damage to illustrate how foolish it is to place one’s hope in riches. (Jas 5:2) In the first century C.E., wealth was often measured in terms of such things as grain, olive oil, or clothing. However, even costly garments could easily become useless because of moth larvae, or caterpillars. It is the larvae, rather than the adult moths, that feed on clothing. The larvae have a voracious appetite and could consume all types of material from which clothing was made in Bible times​—such as wool, linen, goat hair or camel’s hair, and even leather. The destructiveness of moths was mentioned by writers of the Hebrew Scriptures. (Job 13:28; Isa 51:8) In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus used the damage caused by moths to illustrate that trusting in material riches rather than storing up “treasures in heaven” is unwise.​—Mt 6:19, 20.

Jesus encouraged his disciples to “consider how the lilies grow” and to “take a lesson” from them. The original-language word often rendered “lilies” in Bible translations may have embraced a great variety of flowers, such as tulips, anemones, hyacinths, irises, and gladiolus. Some scholars suggest that Jesus probably had the anemone in mind. However, Jesus may simply have been referring to lilylike flowers in general. Shown here are scarlet crown anemones (Anemone coronaria). These flowers are common in Israel and can also be found in blue, pink, purple, or white.

The wolves (Canis lupus) of Israel are primarily nighttime predators. (Hab 1:8) Wolves are fierce, voracious, bold, and greedy, frequently killing more sheep than they can eat or drag away. In the Bible, animals and their characteristics and habits are often applied in a figurative sense, picturing both desirable and undesirable traits. For example, in Jacob’s deathbed prophecy, the tribe of Benjamin is described figuratively as a fighter like a wolf. (Ge 49:27) But in most occurrences, the wolf is used to picture such undesirable qualities as ferocity, greed, viciousness, and craftiness. Those compared to wolves include false prophets (Mt 7:15), vicious opposers of the Christian ministry (Mt 10:16; Lu 10:3), and false teachers who would endanger the Christian congregation from within (Ac 20:29, 30). Shepherds were well-aware of the danger posed by wolves. Jesus spoke of “the hired man” who “sees the wolf coming and abandons the sheep and flees.” Unlike the hired man, who “does not care for the sheep,” Jesus is “the fine shepherd,” who surrendered “his life in behalf of the sheep.”—Joh 10:11-13.

Jesus no doubt carefully selected the plants he used in illustrations. For example, the fig tree (1) and the grapevine (2) are mentioned jointly in many texts, and Jesus’ words at Lu 13:6 show that fig trees were often planted in vineyards. (2Ki 18:31; Joe 2:22) The expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree’ symbolized peaceful, prosperous, secure conditions. (1Ki 4:25; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10) By contrast, thorns and thistles are specifically mentioned when Jehovah cursed the ground after Adam sinned. (Ge 3:17, 18) The type of thornbush that Jesus referred to at Mt 7:16 cannot be identified with certainty, but the one shown here (Centaurea iberica) (3), a type of thistle, grows wild in Israel.

The office of centurion was the highest rank that the common soldier could reach. He drilled the soldiers; inspected their arms, supplies, and food; and regulated their conduct. For the most part, the readiness and efficiency of the Roman army depended on centurions more than on anyone else. They were, generally speaking, the most experienced and valuable men in the Roman army. This made the humility and faith of the centurion who approached Jesus all the more impressive.

Jesus contrasted his own situation of not having a permanent home with foxes that have dens and birds that have nests. The type of foxes shown here (Vulpes vulpes) inhabit not only the Middle East but also Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America and have been introduced into Australia. Unless foxes use a natural crevice or the deserted or usurped burrow of another animal, they commonly dig holes in the ground to form their dens. The bird, a Cetti’s Warbler (Cettia cetti), is one of an estimated 470 varieties that may be found in Israel at some time during the course of a year. Bird’s nests likewise are diverse, located in trees, in hollow tree trunks, and on cliffs, and are made of such materials as twigs, leaves, seaweed, wool, straw, moss, and feathers. The diverse topography of the country, ranging from cool mountain peaks to deep sweltering valleys and from arid deserts to maritime plains all lying together near the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea, makes it an attractive habitat for birds that either live here permanently or migrate throughout the region.

It was along the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee that Jesus expelled demons from two men and sent the demons into a herd of swine.

After teaching a crowd in Capernaum, Jesus catches sight of the tax collector Matthew sitting at a tax office. Tax collectors were despised because many of them unjustly enriched themselves at the expense of the people. But Jesus sees something good in Matthew and invites him to be his follower. Matthew responds immediately, becoming the fifth disciple to join Jesus in his ministry. (Lu 5:1-11, 27, 28) Later, Jesus chose him to be one of the 12 apostles. (Mt 10:2-4; Mr 3:16-19) Matthew’s Gospel often reflects his background. For example, he is explicit in his mention of money, figures, and values. (Mt 17:27; 26:15; 27:3) He also highlights the mercy of God, who allowed him, a despised tax collector, to repent and become a minister of the good news.​—Mt 9:9-13; 12:7; 18:21-35.

Skin bottles were often made of the complete hides of sheep, goats, or cattle. A dead animal’s head and feet were cut off, and the carcass was carefully removed from the skin to avoid opening its belly. After the hide was tanned, the openings were sewed up. The neck or a leg of the animal was left unsewed to serve as the bottle’s opening, which was closed with a stopper or tied with a string. Skin bottles were used to hold not only wine but also milk, butter, cheese, oil, or water.

Rods or staffs were common among the ancient Hebrews and were used in a variety of ways: for support (Ex 12:11; Zec 8:4; Heb 11:21), for defense or protection (2Sa 23:21), for threshing (Isa 28:27), and for reaping olives (De 24:20; Isa 24:13), to name just a few. A food pouch was a bag, usually made of leather, carried over the shoulder by travelers, shepherds, farmers, and others. It was used to hold food, clothing, and other items. When sending out his apostles on a preaching tour, Jesus gave them instructions regarding, among other things, staffs and food pouches. The apostles were to go as they were and not be distracted by procuring anything extra; Jehovah would provide for them.—See study notes on Lu 9:3 and 10:4 for a discussion of how the details of Jesus’ instructions were to be understood.

The most terrible instrument for scourging was known as a flagellum. It consisted of a handle into which several cords or leather thongs were fixed. These thongs were weighted with jagged pieces of bone or metal to make the blows more painful.

The roof of a family home was a center of activity. A father might gather his household there to talk about Jehovah. During the Festival of Ingathering, for example, booths were erected on the rooftops. (Le 23:41, 42; De 16:13-15) Such chores as the drying of flax were done there. (Jos 2:6) Sometimes people slept on the roof. (1Sa 9:25, 26) Any activity on a roof would easily be seen by others. (2Sa 16:22) And an announcement made from a rooftop would quickly be heard by neighbors and those passing by on the street.

Sparrows were the cheapest of all birds sold as food. Two of them could be purchased with the amount a man earned working for 45 minutes. The Greek term could embrace a variety of small birds, including a common house sparrow (Passer domesticus biblicus) and the Spanish sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis), which are still abundant in Israel.

When Jesus referred to those living in “royal houses” (Lu 7:25) or “houses of kings” (Mt 11:8), his listeners may have been reminded of the many luxurious palaces built by Herod the Great. Shown in the photograph are remains of just one part of a winter palace complex that he built in Jericho. This building included a colonnaded reception hall measuring 29 by 19 m (95 by 62 ft), colonnaded courtyards surrounded by many rooms, and a bathhouse that incorporated heating and cooling systems. Connected to the palace was a multitiered garden. This palace may have been burned during an uprising that occurred a few decades before John the Baptist began his ministry, and it was rebuilt by Herod’s son, Archelaus.

Some marketplaces, like the one depicted here, were located along a road. Vendors often placed so much merchandise in the street that it blocked traffic. Local residents could buy common household goods, pottery, and expensive glassware, as well as fresh produce. Because there was no refrigeration, people needed to visit the market each day to buy supplies. Here a shopper could hear news brought in by traders or other visitors, children could play, and the unemployed could wait to be hired. In the marketplace, Jesus healed the sick and Paul preached. (Ac 17:17) By contrast, the proud scribes and Pharisees loved to be noticed and greeted in these public areas.

In Bible times, flutes might be made of reed, cane, or even bone or ivory. The flute was one of the most popular of all musical instruments. It was played on joyous occasions, such as at banquets and weddings (1Ki 1:40; Isa 5:12; 30:29), a custom imitated by children in public places. It was also played at times of sadness. Professional mourners were often accompanied by flutists playing mournful tunes. The piece of a flute shown here was found in Jerusalem in a layer of rubble that dates to when the temple was destroyed by the Romans. It is about 15 cm (6 in.) long and is likely made from a bone that was part of the leg of a cow or an ox.

The towns of Chorazin and Bethsaida were near Capernaum, the city that Jesus apparently used as a home base during his great ministry in Galilee of over two years’ duration. The Jewish inhabitants of those towns saw Jesus perform powerful works that would have moved the idolatrous inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon to repentance. For example, it was in the area of Bethsaida that Jesus miraculously fed more than 5,000 people and later cured a blind man.​—Mt 14:13-21; Mr 8:22; Lu 9:10-17.

The panoramic image shown in this video was taken from Ofir Lookout, which is located near the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. Chorazin (2) was only about 3 km (2 mi) from the suggested site of ancient Capernaum (1), the city that Jesus apparently used as a base of operations during his great Galilean ministry of over two years’ duration. The apostles Peter and Andrew lived in Capernaum, and Matthew’s tax office was located there or nearby. (Mr 1:21, 29; 2:1, 13, 14; 3:16; Lu 4:31, 38) Peter and Andrew, along with Philip, originally came from the nearby city of Bethsaida (3). (Joh 1:44) Jesus performed many miracles in or near these three cities.—See Appendix A7-D, Map 3B and A7-E, Map 4.

One type of wooden yoke was a bar or frame fitted to a person’s shoulders, and loads were suspended from it on each side of the body. Another type of yoke was a wooden bar or frame that was placed over the necks of two draft animals when they pulled a load.

Jesus’ disciples may have plucked and eaten wheat kernels such as those pictured here.

The water level and topography of the Sea of Galilee have changed over the centuries since Jesus’ day. But it may have been in this area that Jesus spoke from a boat to the crowds. Jesus’ voice would have been amplified as it bounced off the surface of the water.

In Bible times, various means of sowing seed were used. Sowers might carry a bag of seed tied across the shoulder and around the waist; others would form a pouch for the seed in a part of their outer garment. They would then disperse the seed by hand, using long sweeping motions. Because the fields were cut through with hard-packed footpaths, the sower had to make sure that the seed landed on good soil. Seed was covered as soon as possible so that the birds did not eat it.

Storehouses could be found throughout Israel and were used to hold threshed grain. Some facilities might also be used to hold oil and wine or even precious metals or stones.

In Bible times, reapers sometimes simply pulled the stalks of grain from the ground. Typically, however, they would harvest the grain by cutting the stalks with a sickle. (De 16:9; Mr 4:29) Harvesting was usually a communal work, with groups of reapers collecting ripe grain from a field. (Ru 2:3; 2Ki 4:18) A number of Bible writers, such as King Solomon, the prophet Hosea, and the apostle Paul, used the work of reaping to illustrate important truths. (Pr 22:8; Ho 8:7; Ga 6:7-9) Jesus also used this familiar occupation to illustrate the role that the angels and his disciples would play in the disciple-making work.—Mt 13:24-30, 39; Joh 4:35-38.

Of the various types of seeds that were gathered and sown by Galilean farmers, the mustard seed was evidently the tiniest. This seed was used in ancient Jewish writings as a figure of speech for the very smallest measure of size.

Dragnets in Jesus’ day were likely made from the fibers of the flax plant. According to some sources, a dragnet might have been up to 300 m (about 1,000 ft) long with weights attached to the bottom edge and floats attached to the top. Fishermen used a boat to drop the dragnet into the water. Sometimes they would take the long ropes attached to the ends of the net ashore, where several men on each rope gradually pulled the net onto the beach. The net gathered everything in its path.

These photos show both sides of a copper alloy coin that was minted about the time that Jesus was engaged in his ministry. The coin was commissioned by Herod Antipas, who was tetrarch, or district ruler, of Galilee and Perea. Jesus was likely passing through Herod’s territory of Perea on his way to Jerusalem when the Pharisees told Jesus that Herod wanted to kill him. Jesus responded by calling Herod “that fox.” (See study note on Lu 13:32.) Since most of Herod’s subjects were Jewish, the coins he made depicted such emblems as a palm branch (1) and a wreath (2), images that would not offend the Jews.

Overlooking the Sea of Galilee and the plain where Jesus is thought to have fed about 5,000 men, as well as women and children.

Among the fish found in Israel are varieties of bream, carp, perch, and tilapia. Fish were commonly broiled or salted and dried. Bread made with freshly ground wheat or barley flour was baked daily. Often the bread was unleavened (Hebrew, mats·tsahʹ), made by simply mixing flour and water without adding leaven before kneading the dough.

In the Bible, a number of different words are used to describe various types of baskets. For example, the Greek word identifying the 12 vessels used to gather leftovers after Jesus miraculously fed about 5,000 men indicates that they may have been relatively small wicker handbaskets. However, a different Greek word is used to describe the seven baskets that contained the leftovers after Jesus fed about 4,000 men. (Mr 8:​8, 9) This word denotes a large basket or hamper, and the same Greek word is used to describe the kind of basket in which Paul was lowered to the ground through an opening in the wall of Damascus.​—Ac 9:​25.

After feeding 4,000 men, as well as women and children, Jesus and the disciples cross by boat to the region of Magadan on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. In Mark’s parallel account, the area is called Dalmanutha.​—Mr 8:10; for more comprehensive maps of Jesus’ ministry, see Appendix A7-D.

Jesus and his disciples traveled by boat from Magadan to Bethsaida, which is located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. (Mr 8:​22) This body of water is 210 m (nearly 700 ft) below sea level. They probably spent some days making the 40 km (25 mi) ascent to Caesarea Philippi, which was located at an elevation of 350 m (1,150 ft) above sea level.​—For comprehensive maps of Jesus’ ministry, see Appendix A7-E.

Reaching a height of 2,814 m (9,232 ft) and located near Caesarea Philippi, Mount Hermon is the highest mountain in the vicinity of Israel. Its snowcapped peaks condense water vapor, producing abundant dew that preserves vegetation during the long dry season. (Ps 133:3) Its melting snow is the main source of the Jordan River. Mount Hermon is one possible location of Jesus’ transfiguration.​—Mt 17:2.

Located at the northern limit of the Promised Land, Mount Hermon is made up of several distinct peaks, the tallest of which rises 2,814 m (9,232 ft) above sea level. These peaks form the southern part of the Anti-Lebanon range. It may have been on Mount Hermon that Jesus was transfigured.

Millstones were used for grinding grain and pressing oil out of olives. Some were small enough to be turned by hand, but others were so huge that they had to be turned by an animal. It may have been a large millstone similar to this one that Samson was forced to turn for the Philistines. (Jg 16:21) The animal-powered mill was common not only in Israel but also throughout much of the Roman Empire.

A large millstone like the one depicted here would be turned by a domestic animal, such as a donkey, and be used to grind grain or crush olives. An upper millstone might be as much as 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter and would be turned on an even larger lower stone.

A shepherd’s life could be difficult. He was exposed to heat and cold as well as to sleepless nights. (Ge 31:40; Lu 2:8) He protected the flock from predators, such as lions, wolves, and bears, and safeguarded them from thieves. (Ge 31:39; 1Sa 17:34-36; Isa 31:4; Am 3:12; Joh 10:10-12) The shepherd kept the flock from scattering (1Ki 22:17), looked for lost sheep (Lu 15:4), carried feeble or weary lambs in his bosom (Isa 40:11) or on his shoulders, and cared for the sick and injured (Eze 34:3, 4; Zec 11:16). The Bible often speaks of shepherds and their work in a figurative way. For example, Jehovah is likened to a Shepherd who lovingly cares for his sheep, that is, his people. (Ps 23:1-6; 80:1; Jer 31:10; Eze 34:11-16; 1Pe 2:25) Jesus is called “the great shepherd” (Heb 13:20) and “the chief shepherd,” under whose direction the overseers in the Christian congregation shepherd the flock of God willingly, unselfishly, and eagerly.—1 Pe 5:2-4.

This photograph shows part of the area known as Perea. This region was located east of the Jordan River. It extended to Pella in the north and to east of the Dead Sea in the south. The term “Perea” does not appear in the Bible. However, the term comes from a Greek word meaning “the other side; across; beyond.” This Greek word is used several times in the Bible and sometimes with reference to the region of Perea. (Mt 4:25; Mr 3:8) People from Galilee at times traveled through Perea on their way to Jerusalem. Toward the end of his ministry, Jesus spent some time teaching in Perea. (Lu 13:22) Later, Jesus again traveled through Perea on his way to Jerusalem.​—Mt 19:1; 20:17-19; Mr 10:1, 32, 46.

(1) Jordan River

(2) Plains east of the Jordan River

(3) Mountains of Gilead

In Jesus’ day, the camel was one of the largest domesticated animals in the region. The Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius), thought to be the one generally referred to in the Bible, has only one hump. The first mention of the camel in the Bible relates to Abraham’s temporary residence in Egypt, where he acquired a number of these beasts of burden.​—Ge 12:16.

This short video follows a path approaching Jerusalem from the east, from the village of modern-day et-Tur—thought to correspond to the Biblical Bethphage—to one of the higher points on the Mount of Olives. Bethany lies east of Bethphage on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives. When in Jerusalem, Jesus and his disciples customarily spent the night at Bethany, today marked by the town of el-ʽAzariyeh (El ʽEizariya), an Arabic name meaning “The Place of Lazarus.” Jesus undoubtedly stayed at the home of Martha, Mary, and Lazarus. (Mt 21:17; Mr 11:11; Lu 21:37; Joh 11:1) When traveling from their home to Jerusalem, Jesus may have followed a route similar to the one shown in the video. On Nisan 9, 33 C.E., when Jesus rode the colt of a donkey over the Mount of Olives to Jerusalem, he may well have done so from Bethphage, following the road to Jerusalem.

1. Road from Bethany to Bethphage

2. Bethphage

3. Mount of Olives

4. Kidron Valley

5. Temple Mount

The donkey is a hard-hoofed animal of the horse family, distinguished from the horse by its smaller size, shorter mane, longer ears, and shorter tail-hair, with only the end half of the tail having a brush. Although the donkey’s stupidity and stubbornness are proverbial, its intelligence is actually considered to be superior to that of the horse, and it is usually a patient creature. Both men and women, even prominent Israelites, rode donkeys. (Jos 15:18; Jg 5:10; 10:3, 4; 12:14; 1Sa 25:42) Solomon, the son of David, rode to his anointing on his father’s she-mule, a hybrid offspring of a male donkey. (1Ki 1:33-40) It was therefore most appropriate that Jesus, the one greater than Solomon, fulfill the prophecy of Zec 9:9 by riding, not on a horse, but on a young donkey.

In Israel, grapes were gathered during August and September, depending on the type of grapes and the climate of the region. They were usually placed in limestone vats or troughs cut into rock. Men normally crushed the grapes barefoot, singing songs as they trod the winepress.​—Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; 48:33.

1. Freshly picked grapes

2. Winepress

3. Drainage channel

4. Lower collecting basin

5. Earthenware wine jars

Tiberius was born in 42 B.C.E. In 14 C.E., he became the second emperor of Rome. Tiberius lived until March 37 C.E. He was emperor throughout Jesus’ ministry, so Tiberius was the ruling Caesar when Jesus said regarding the tax coin: “Pay back Caesar’s things to Caesar.”—Mr 12:14-17; Mt 22:17-21; Lu 20:22-25.

A phylactery is a small leather case containing strips of parchment on which four passages of Scripture are written, namely, Ex 13:1-10, 11-16; De 6:4-9; 11:13-21. Some time after the Jews returned from exile in Babylon, the custom arose for males to wear Scripture-containing cases during morning prayer, except on festival days and the Sabbath. The photo shows an actual phylactery dating from the first century C.E. It was found in one of the Qumran caves. The drawing shows what such a phylactery may have looked like when new.

The reconstruction shown in this animation is partly based on the ruins of a first-century synagogue in Gamla, a city located about 10 km (6 mi) northeast of the Sea of Galilee. No synagogues from the first century have survived intact, so the exact features are uncertain. This depiction includes some of the features that were likely present in many synagogues of that time.

1. The front, or best, seats in the synagogue may have been located on or near the speaker’s platform.

2. The platform from which the Scriptures would be read. The exact location of the platform may have varied from one synagogue to the next.

3. Seating along the wall may have been occupied by people with status in the community. Others might have sat on mats on the floor. The synagogue in Gamla seems to have had four rows of seats.

4. An ark, or chest, in which sacred scrolls were kept may have been located on the back wall.

The seating arrangements in the synagogue were a constant reminder to those in attendance that some had greater status than others, a topic often debated by Jesus’ disciples.​—Mt 18:​1-4; 20:20, 21; Mr 9:​33, 34; Lu 9:​46-​48.

In the first century, a common way of dining was to recline at the table. Each person would rest his left elbow on a cushion and eat using his right hand. According to the Greco-Roman custom, a typical dining room had three couches set around a low dining table. The Romans called this kind of dining room a triclinium (Latin from a Greek word meaning “room with three couches”). Although this arrangement traditionally accommodated nine people, three to a couch, it became common to use longer couches to accommodate even more people. Each position in the dining room was traditionally viewed as having a different degree of honor. One couch was the lowest place of honor (A), one was the middle (B), and one was the highest (C). The positions on the couch differed in importance. The person dining was considered to be above the one to his right and below the one to his left. At a formal banquet, the host typically sat at the first position (1) on the lowest couch. The place of honor was the third position (2) on the middle couch. Although it is not clear to what extent the Jews adopted this custom, it appears that Jesus alluded to it when teaching his followers the need for humility.

From ancient times, mint has been used in medicine and for flavoring food. The Greek word he·dyʹo·smon, “mint,” (literally, sweet-smelling) likely embraced the various known kinds of mint found in Israel and Syria, including the common horsemint (Mentha longifolia). Dill (Anethum graveolens) is cultivated for its aromatic seeds, which are valued as a spice for flavoring foods and as a medicine for treating stomach ailments. The cumin plant (Cuminum cyminum) is of the carrot or parsley family and is best known for its pungently aromatic seeds, used in Middle Eastern and other countries as a spice for flavoring bread, cakes, stews, and even liquors.

Jesus painted a touching word picture, likening his concern for the people of Jerusalem to the protectiveness of a hen that is sheltering her young with her wings. This illustration, as well as Jesus’ reference to a son who asks his father for an egg (Lu 11:11, 12), indicates that the domestic hen was common in first-century Israel. Though the Greek word orʹnis, used at Mt 23:37 and Lu 13:34, could refer to any bird, wild or domesticated, in this context it is understood to refer to a hen, the most common and useful of the domestic fowl.

These stones, found on the southern part of the Western Wall, are believed to have been part of the structures on the first-century temple mount. They have been left here as a grim reminder of the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by the Romans.

The Mount of Olives (1) is a chain of rounded limestone hills located on the eastern side of Jerusalem and separated from the city by the Kidron Valley. The summit across from the temple mount (2) is about 812 m (2,664 ft) at its highest point and is the one generally referred to in the Bible as the Mount of Olives. It was from a location on the Mount of Olives that Jesus explained the sign of his presence to his disciples.

The Greek word hi·maʹti·on, for “outer garment,” probably corresponds to the Hebrew word sim·lahʹ. In some cases, it appears to have been a loose robe, but more often it was a rectangular piece of material. It was easily put on and thrown off.

A fig tree branch in the springtime with leaves and early figs sprouting together. In Israel, the first fruit buds typically appear on the branches of the fig tree in February and the leaves appear in the final part of April or in May, indicating the approach of summer. (Mt 24:32) The trees produced two crops a year: the first ripe figs, or early figs, which mature in June or early July (Isa 28:4; Jer 24:2; Ho 9:10), and the later figs, which grow on the new wood and make up the main crop, generally maturing from August onward.

Two women generally operated this kind of rotary hand mill, which was one type of mill used in Bible times. (Lu 17:35) They sat facing each other, each placing one hand on the handle to turn the upper stone. With her free hand, one woman fed grain in small amounts into the filler hole of the upper stone while the other woman gathered the flour as it emerged from the rim of the mill and fell to the tray or the cloth spread beneath the mill. Women ground grain each day, rising early in the morning to prepare the flour needed for bread for the day.

These small vaselike vessels for perfume were originally made of stone found near Alabastron, Egypt. The stone itself, a form of calcium carbonate, came to be known by the name Alabastron. The jar shown here was discovered in Egypt and dates from somewhere between 150 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. A less costly material, such as gypsum, was used to make similar-looking jars; these too were called alabasters, simply because of the use to which they were put. However, cases made of genuine alabaster were used for the more costly ointments and perfumes, like those with which Jesus was anointed on two occasions​—once at the house of a Pharisee in Galilee and once at the house of Simon the leper in Bethany.

Essential items at the Passover meal were: roast lamb (no bones in the animal were to be broken) (1); unleavened bread (2); and bitter greens (3). (Ex 12:​5, 8; Nu 9:​11) The bitter greens, which according to the Mishnah might have been lettuce, chicory, pepperwort, endive, or dandelion, evidently reminded the Israelites of their bitter slavery in Egypt. Jesus used the unleavened bread as a symbol of his perfect human body. (Mt 26:26) And the apostle Paul called Jesus “our Passover lamb.” (1Co 5:7) By the first century, wine (4) was also served as part of the Passover meal. Jesus used the wine to symbolize his blood, which would be poured out as a sacrifice.​—Mt 26:27, 28.

The grapevine (Vitis vinifera) had been cultivated for thousands of years and was commonly seen throughout the area where Jesus lived. If wood was available, the workers made stakes or a trellis to support the vines. During the winter, cultivators pruned the preceding year’s growth from the vines. After shoots grew in the spring, workers pruned any new shoots lacking fruit. (Joh 15:2) This helped the vine produce more fruit of better quality. Jesus likened his Father to a cultivator, himself to a vine, and his disciples to branches. Just as branches on a literal vine receive their support and nourishment from the trunk, Jesus’ disciples receive spiritual support and nourishment if they remain in union with him, “the true vine.”​—Joh 15:1, 5.

In 1961, archaeologists working in the ancient Roman theater in Caesarea, Israel, found that a reused stone slab clearly bore Pilate’s name in Latin (replica shown here). His name also appears a number of times in other contemporary historical records.

This is a photograph of a replica of a human heel bone pierced by an iron nail that was 11.5 cm (4.5 in.) long. The original artifact was found in 1968, during excavations in northern Jerusalem, and dates to Roman times. It provides archaeological evidence that nails were used in executions to fasten the person to a wooden stake. This nail may be similar to the nails employed by the Roman soldiers to fasten Jesus Christ to the stake. The artifact was found in a stone box, called an ossuary, into which the dried bones of a deceased person were placed after the flesh had decomposed. This indicates that someone executed on a stake could be given a burial.

The Jews usually buried their dead in caves or vaults cut into the rock. These tombs were customarily located outside the cities, an exception being the tombs of the kings. Jewish tombs that have been found are notable for their simplicity. This was evidently because the Jews’ worship allowed no veneration of the dead and did not foster any ideas of a conscious existence in a spirit world after death.