Where possible, events have been listed in chronological order

Each Gospel map traces a different series of events

1. The angel Gabriel appears to Zechariah at the temple and foretells the birth of John the Baptist (Lu 1:8, 11-13)

2. After Jesus’ birth, angels appear to shepherds in the fields near Bethlehem (Lu 2:8-11)

3. Twelve-year-old Jesus talks with teachers at the temple (Lu 2:41-43, 46, 47)

4. The Devil stations Jesus “on the battlement of the temple” and tempts him (Mt 4:5-7; Lu 4:9, 12, 13)

5. In the synagogue in Nazareth, Jesus reads from the scroll of Isaiah (Lu 4:16-19)

6. Jesus is rejected in his hometown (Lu 4:28-30)

7. Jesus travels to Nain, apparently from Capernaum (Lu 7:1, 11)

8. In Nain, Jesus resurrects a widow’s only son (Lu 7:12-15)

9. Jesus makes his second preaching tour of Galilee (Lu 8:1-3)

10. Jesus resurrects Jairus’ daughter, probably in Capernaum (Mt 9:23-25; Mr 5:38, 41, 42; Lu 8:49, 50, 54, 55)

11. While traveling to Jerusalem through Samaria, Jesus says: “The Son of man has nowhere to lay down his head” (Lu 9:57, 58)

12. Jesus sends out the 70, probably in Judea (Lu 10:1, 2)

13. Location for the illustration of the neighborly Samaritan going down the road to Jericho (Lu 10:30, 33, 34, 36, 37)

14. Jesus teaches in cities and villages in Perea and travels to Jerusalem (Lu 13:22)

15. Passing between Samaria and Galilee, Jesus heals ten lepers (Lu 17:11-14)

16. Jesus visits Zacchaeus, the tax collector, in Jericho (Lu 19:2-5)

17. Jesus prays in the garden of Gethsemane (Mt 26:36, 39; Mr 14:32, 35, 36; Lu 22:40-43)

18. Peter denies Jesus three times in the courtyard of the house of Caiaphas (Mt 26:69-75; Mr 14:66-72; Lu 22:55-62; Joh 18:25-27)

19. At the place called Skull (Golgotha), Jesus says to the criminal: “You will be with me in Paradise” (Lu 23:33, 42, 43)

20. Jesus appears before two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Lu 24:13, 15, 16, 30-32)

21. Jesus leads the disciples as far as Bethany; Jesus ascends to heaven from the nearby Mount of Olives (Lu 24:50, 51)

This animation depicts what Zechariah may have seen as he approached the entrance to the temple. Some sources say that the temple built by Herod was 15 stories high. Apparently, the facade surrounding the front doors was plated with gold. The entrance faced east, so light from the rising sun would have been reflected with dazzling brilliance.

(1) Court of Women

(2) Altar of Burnt Offering

(3) Entrance to the Holy

(4) Sea of Cast Metal

Shown here is a portion of a third or fourth century C.E. parchment fragment of Symmachus’ Greek translation of Ps 69:30, 31 (Ps 68:31, 32, Septuagint). Symmachus produced the original translation in the second century C.E. This fragment is known as P. Vindobonensis Greek 39777 and is now in the Austrian National Library in Vienna. The part shown here contains two occurrences of the divine name written in archaic Hebrew characters ( or ) within the Greek text. The words of Mary at Lu 1:46 may echo the thought of Ps 69:30, 31, where the divine name also occurs in the original Hebrew text. The Hebrew Scripture background of Mary’s expression of praise as well as the use of the Tetragrammaton in this Greek translation provides support for using the divine name in the main text of Lu 1:46.—See study note on Lu 1:46 and Appendix C.

Zechariah, who wrote in Hebrew “John is his name,” may have used a wooden tablet similar to the one shown here. Such tablets were in use for centuries throughout the ancient Middle East. The recessed portion of this type of tablet was filled with a thin layer of wax. Using a stylus made of iron, bronze, or ivory, a writer made notes on the soft surface. A typical stylus was pointed on one end and flattened into a chisel shape on the other. The flattened end was used to erase the writing and smooth the wax. Two or more tablets were sometimes held together by small strips of leather. Businessmen, scholars, students, and tax collectors used tablets for records that needed to be kept only temporarily. The tablets shown in the photo date from the second or third century C.E. and were discovered in Egypt.

Octavius was the first emperor of the Roman Empire. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavius or Octavian). He was the adoptive son of the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who was murdered in 44 B.C.E. In September of 31 B.C.E., Octavius emerged as the undisputed ruler of the Roman Empire, and on January 16, 27 B.C.E., the Roman Senate gave him the title Augustus. In 2 B.C.E., Augustus issued a decree requiring all inhabitants of the empire to be registered, each one in “his own city.” (Lu 2:1-7) This decree resulted in Jesus’ being born in Bethlehem, in fulfillment of Bible prophecy. (Da 11:20; Mic 5:2) Augustus died on August 17, 14 C.E. (August 19, Julian calendar), in the month he had named after himself. The bronze sculpture shown here dates from 27 to 25 B.C.E. and is now kept in the British Museum.

Jesus could not have been born in December because the weather in Bethlehem is typically cold and rainy from November to March. In winter, snow may fall in this region. During this time of the year, shepherds would not be living out of doors, keeping watch over their flocks in the fields at night. (Lu 2:8) Bethlehem is located some 780 m (2,560 ft) above sea level in the Judean highlands.

The Greek word for “manger” used at Lu 2:7 is phatʹne, meaning “feeding place.” In Palestine, archaeologists have found large troughs cut out of single pieces of limestone and measuring about 0.9 m (3 ft) in length, 0.5 m (1.5 ft) in width, and 0.6 m (2 ft) in depth. These are thought to have served as mangers. It may also be that as in more recent times, mangers were cut in the rock walls of caves that were used for sheltering animals.

Under the Mosaic Law, a woman who had given birth was to offer a young ram as a burnt offering and a young pigeon or a turtledove as a sin offering. If the family could not afford a ram, as was evidently the case with Mary and Joseph, then two turtledoves or two young pigeons were acceptable. (Le 12:6-8) The turtledove (Streptopelia turtur) shown here (1) inhabits not only Israel but also Europe, North Africa, and western Asia. In October of each year, these birds migrate to warmer, southern countries, returning to Israel in the spring. The other bird shown here (2) is a rock pigeon (Columba livia). This species is found worldwide. They usually do not migrate.

The view shown here is from a cliff near Nazareth, looking south. The fertile Valley of Jezreel, prominent in various Bible accounts, is here shown extending eastward and westward. (Jos 17:16; Jg 6:33; Ho 1:5) To the left in the distance, the most prominent feature is the hill of Moreh, with the city of Nain on its slope. It was in Nain that Jesus resurrected a widow’s son. (Jg 7:1; Lu 7:11-15) In the middle of the horizon, Mount Gilboa is visible. (1Sa 31:1, 8) Jesus grew up in nearby Nazareth and may have come to this spot that overlooks a number of important locations in Israel’s history.​—Lu 2:39, 40.

Tiberius was born in 42 B.C.E. In 14 C.E., he became the second emperor of Rome. Tiberius lived until March 37 C.E. He was emperor throughout Jesus’ ministry, so Tiberius was the ruling Caesar when Jesus said regarding the tax coin: “Pay back Caesar’s things to Caesar.”—Mr 12:14-17; Mt 22:17-21; Lu 20:22-25.

These photos show both sides of a copper alloy coin that was minted about the time that Jesus was engaged in his ministry. The coin was commissioned by Herod Antipas, who was tetrarch, or district ruler, of Galilee and Perea. Jesus was likely passing through Herod’s territory of Perea on his way to Jerusalem when the Pharisees told Jesus that Herod wanted to kill him. Jesus responded by calling Herod “that fox.” (See study note on Lu 13:32.) Since most of Herod’s subjects were Jewish, the coins he made depicted such emblems as a palm branch (1) and a wreath (2), images that would not offend the Jews.

The original-language words rendered “wilderness” in the Bible (Hebrew, midh·barʹ and Greek, eʹre·mos) generally refer to a sparsely settled, uncultivated land, often steppelands with brush and grass, even pastures. Those words may also apply to waterless regions that could be called true deserts. In the Gospels, the wilderness generally referred to is the wilderness of Judea. This wilderness is where John lived and preached and where Jesus was tempted by the Devil.​—Mr 1:​12.

In Bible times, sandals consisted of flat soles made of leather, wood, or other fibrous material strapped to the foot by leather laces. Sandals were used as symbols in some types of transactions and as a word picture. For example, a widow under the Law removed a sandal from the man who refused to perform brother-in-law marriage with her, and his name was reproachfully called “The house of the one who had his sandal removed.” (De 25:9, 10) The transfer of property or of right of repurchase was represented by a person’s handing his sandal to another. (Ru 4:7) To untie another’s sandal laces or to carry his sandals was considered a menial task often done by slaves. John the Baptist referred to this practice to denote his inferiority to the Christ.

Two of the replica threshing sledges (1) shown here are turned upside down, exposing the sharp stones that were embedded in the underside of the sledge. (Isa 41:15) As shown in the second photo (2), a farmer would spread sheaves of grain on a threshing floor, stand on the sledge, and have an animal, such as a bull, pull him across the grain. The hooves of the animal and the sharp stones on the underside of the sledge would cut and break down the grain stalks, releasing the grain. The farmer would then use a winnowing fork, or shovel (3), to throw the threshed grain into the air. The wind would carry off the chaff, leaving the heavier grain to fall to the ground. Threshing is used in the Bible as a fitting symbol of how Jehovah’s enemies will be beaten and cut to pieces. (Jer 51:33; Mic 4:12, 13) John the Baptist used threshing to illustrate how the righteous would be separated from the wicked.

In this barren region, John the Baptist began his ministry and Jesus was tempted by the Devil.

Satan may literally have stationed Jesus “on the battlement [or “highest point”] of the temple” and told him to throw himself down, but the specific location where Jesus might have stood is not known. Since the term for “temple” used here may refer to the entire temple complex, Jesus may have been standing on the southeastern corner (1) of the temple area. Or he may have stood on another corner of the temple complex. A fall from any of these locations would have resulted in certain death unless Jehovah had intervened.

Shown here is a portion of the Dead Sea Scroll of Isaiah (1QIs^a) that is believed to date from 125 to 100 B.C.E. It was found in 1947 in a cave in Qumran, near the Dead Sea. The highlighted portion shows Isaiah 61:1, 2, the section Jesus read when he visited the synagogue in Nazareth. The individual sheets that make up this scroll were sewn together with linen thread. The scroll was made of 17 parchment strips averaging about 26.4 cm (10.3 in.) in height and varying in width from about 25.2 cm (nearly 10 in.) to about 62.8 cm (about 25 in.). The scroll is a total of 7.3 m (24 ft) in length in its present state of preservation. It was probably a scroll like this one that Jesus opened and then “found the place” where the prophetic words about the Messiah were written. (Lu 4:17) Also highlighted are the three places where the Tetragrammaton occurs in this passage.

The white limestone walls in this photograph are part of a synagogue built sometime between the late second and early fifth centuries C.E. Parts of the black basalt structure beneath the limestone are believed by some to be the remains of a first-century synagogue. If that is true, this is possibly one of the locations where Jesus taught and where he cured the demon-possessed man mentioned at Mr 1:​23-​27 and Lu 4:​33-​36.

A 1985/1986 drought caused the water level in the Sea of Galilee to fall, exposing part of the hull of an ancient boat that was buried in the mud. The remains of the boat are 8.2 m (27 ft) long and 2.3 m (7.5 ft) wide and have a maximum height of 1.3 m (4.3 ft). Archaeologists say that the boat was built sometime between the first century B.C.E. and the first century C.E. This video animation reconstructs the boat, which is now displayed in a museum in Israel, showing what it may have looked like as it traversed the waters some 2,000 years ago.

The Bible contains many references to fish, fishing, and fishermen in connection with the Sea of Galilee. About 18 species of fish live in the Sea of Galilee. Of that number, only about ten have been sought by fishermen. These ten can be divided into three commercially important groups. One group is the binny, also known as the barbel (Barbus longiceps is shown) (1). Its three species display barbs at the corners of the mouth; hence, its Semitic name biny, meaning “hair.” It feeds on mollusks, snails, and small fish. The longheaded barbel reaches a length of 75 cm (30 in.) and can weigh over 7 kg (15 lb). The second group is called musht (Tilapia galilea is shown) (2), which means “comb” in Arabic, because its five species display a comblike dorsal fin. One variety of musht reaches a length of about 45 cm (18 in.) and can weigh some 2 kg (4.5 lb). The third group is the Kinneret sardine (Acanthobrama terrae sanctae is shown) (3), which resembles a small herring. From ancient times, this fish has been preserved by pickling.

This rendering is based on the remains of a first-century fishing boat found buried in mud near the shores of the Sea of Galilee and on a mosaic discovered in a first-century home in the seaside town of Migdal. This kind of boat may have been rigged with a mast and sail(s) and may have had a crew of five​—four oarsmen and one helmsman, who stood on a small deck at the stern. The boat was approximately 8 m (26.5 ft) long and at midpoint was about 2.5 m (8 ft) wide and 1.25 m (4 ft) deep. It seems that it could carry 13 or more men.

1. Plain of Gennesaret. This was a fertile triangle of land, measuring about 5 by 2.5 km (3 by 1.5 mi). It was along the shoreline in this area that Jesus invited the fishermen Peter, Andrew, James, and John to join him in his ministry.​—Mt 4:18-22.

2. Tradition locates Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount here.​—Mt 5:1; Lu 6:​17, 20.

3. Capernaum. Jesus took up residence in this city, and it was in or near Capernaum that he found Matthew.​—Mt 4:13; 9:1, 9.

The outer garment worn by Israelites in Bible times was voluminous over the chest. The garment might be worn so that a fold of material hung over the belt. That fold could be used as a large pocket into which a person could place grain, money, or other articles and could even carry a baby or a young lamb. (Ex 4:6, 7; Nu 11:12; 2Ki 4:39; Job 31:33; Isa 40:11) The Greek word rendered “your laps” at Lu 6:38 literally means “your bosom (chest)” but in this context refers to the folds of the garment. ‘Pouring into the lap’ may refer to a custom some vendors had of filling the fold of a person’s wide upper garment with the goods that he purchased.

Jesus no doubt carefully selected the plants he used in illustrations. For example, the fig tree (1) and the grapevine (2) are mentioned jointly in many texts, and Jesus’ words at Lu 13:6 show that fig trees were often planted in vineyards. (2Ki 18:31; Joe 2:22) The expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree’ symbolized peaceful, prosperous, secure conditions. (1Ki 4:25; Mic 4:4; Zec 3:10) By contrast, thorns and thistles are specifically mentioned when Jehovah cursed the ground after Adam sinned. (Ge 3:17, 18) The type of thornbush that Jesus referred to at Mt 7:16 cannot be identified with certainty, but the one shown here (Centaurea iberica) (3), a type of thistle, grows wild in Israel.

When Jesus referred to those living in “royal houses” (Lu 7:25) or “houses of kings” (Mt 11:8), his listeners may have been reminded of the many luxurious palaces built by Herod the Great. Shown in the photograph are remains of just one part of a winter palace complex that he built in Jericho. This building included a colonnaded reception hall measuring 29 by 19 m (95 by 62 ft), colonnaded courtyards surrounded by many rooms, and a bathhouse that incorporated heating and cooling systems. Connected to the palace was a multitiered garden. This palace may have been burned during an uprising that occurred a few decades before John the Baptist began his ministry, and it was rebuilt by Herod’s son, Archelaus.

Some marketplaces, like the one depicted here, were located along a road. Vendors often placed so much merchandise in the street that it blocked traffic. Local residents could buy common household goods, pottery, and expensive glassware, as well as fresh produce. Because there was no refrigeration, people needed to visit the market each day to buy supplies. Here a shopper could hear news brought in by traders or other visitors, children could play, and the unemployed could wait to be hired. In the marketplace, Jesus healed the sick and Paul preached. (Ac 17:17) By contrast, the proud scribes and Pharisees loved to be noticed and greeted in these public areas.

In Bible times, flutes might be made of reed, cane, or even bone or ivory. The flute was one of the most popular of all musical instruments. It was played on joyous occasions, such as at banquets and weddings (1Ki 1:40; Isa 5:12; 30:29), a custom imitated by children in public places. It was also played at times of sadness. Professional mourners were often accompanied by flutists playing mournful tunes. The piece of a flute shown here was found in Jerusalem in a layer of rubble that dates to when the temple was destroyed by the Romans. It is about 15 cm (6 in.) long and is likely made from a bone that was part of the leg of a cow or an ox.

These small vaselike vessels for perfume were originally made of stone found near Alabastron, Egypt. The stone itself, a form of calcium carbonate, came to be known by the name Alabastron. The jar shown here was discovered in Egypt and dates from somewhere between 150 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. A less costly material, such as gypsum, was used to make similar-looking jars; these too were called alabasters, simply because of the use to which they were put. However, cases made of genuine alabaster were used for the more costly ointments and perfumes, like those with which Jesus was anointed on two occasions​—once at the house of a Pharisee in Galilee and once at the house of Simon the leper in Bethany.

This domestic lampstand (1) is an artist’s concept based on first-century artifacts found in Ephesus and Italy. A lampstand of this kind was likely used in a wealthy household. In poorer homes, a lamp was hung from the ceiling, placed in a niche in the wall (2), or put on a stand made of earthenware or wood.

It was along the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee that Jesus expelled demons from two men and sent the demons into a herd of swine.

The frightened woman gazes up at Jesus. Trembling, she confesses to touching Jesus’ garment in order to be healed of an illness she has suffered from for 12 years. Jesus does not condemn her; rather, he kindly says: “Daughter, your faith has made you well. Go in peace.” (Lu 8:48) Jesus performed this miracle while on his way to heal Jairus’ daughter. (Lu 8:41, 42) These miracles show that Jesus has the power to heal all kinds of illnesses and that when he rules over mankind, none of his subjects will say: “I am sick.”​—Isa 33:24.

Rods or staffs were common among the ancient Hebrews and were used in a variety of ways: for support (Ex 12:11; Zec 8:4; Heb 11:21), for defense or protection (2Sa 23:21), for threshing (Isa 28:27), and for reaping olives (De 24:20; Isa 24:13), to name just a few. A food pouch was a bag, usually made of leather, carried over the shoulder by travelers, shepherds, farmers, and others. It was used to hold food, clothing, and other items. When sending out his apostles on a preaching tour, Jesus gave them instructions regarding, among other things, staffs and food pouches. The apostles were to go as they were and not be distracted by procuring anything extra; Jehovah would provide for them.—See study notes on Lu 9:3 and 10:4 for a discussion of how the details of Jesus’ instructions were to be understood.

In the Bible, a number of different words are used to describe various types of baskets. For example, the Greek word identifying the 12 vessels used to gather leftovers after Jesus miraculously fed about 5,000 men indicates that they may have been relatively small wicker handbaskets. However, a different Greek word is used to describe the seven baskets that contained the leftovers after Jesus fed about 4,000 men. (Mr 8:​8, 9) This word denotes a large basket or hamper, and the same Greek word is used to describe the kind of basket in which Paul was lowered to the ground through an opening in the wall of Damascus.​—Ac 9:​25.

Reaching a height of 2,814 m (9,232 ft) and located near Caesarea Philippi, Mount Hermon is the highest mountain in the vicinity of Israel. Its snowcapped peaks condense water vapor, producing abundant dew that preserves vegetation during the long dry season. (Ps 133:3) Its melting snow is the main source of the Jordan River. Mount Hermon is one possible location of Jesus’ transfiguration.​—Mt 17:2.

Located at the northern limit of the Promised Land, Mount Hermon is made up of several distinct peaks, the tallest of which rises 2,814 m (9,232 ft) above sea level. These peaks form the southern part of the Anti-Lebanon range. It may have been on Mount Hermon that Jesus was transfigured.

Jesus contrasted his own situation of not having a permanent home with foxes that have dens and birds that have nests. The type of foxes shown here (Vulpes vulpes) inhabit not only the Middle East but also Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America and have been introduced into Australia. Unless foxes use a natural crevice or the deserted or usurped burrow of another animal, they commonly dig holes in the ground to form their dens. The bird, a Cetti’s Warbler (Cettia cetti), is one of an estimated 470 varieties that may be found in Israel at some time during the course of a year. Bird’s nests likewise are diverse, located in trees, in hollow tree trunks, and on cliffs, and are made of such materials as twigs, leaves, seaweed, wool, straw, moss, and feathers. The diverse topography of the country, ranging from cool mountain peaks to deep sweltering valleys and from arid deserts to maritime plains all lying together near the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea, makes it an attractive habitat for birds that either live here permanently or migrate throughout the region.

Plowing was often done in the autumn when rains softened soil that had been baked hard by the sun during the hot summer months. (See Appendix B15.) Some plows consisted of a simple pointed piece of wood, perhaps metal-tipped, attached to a beam and pulled by one or more animals. After the soil was plowed, the seed was sown. In the Hebrew Scriptures, the familiar work of plowing was often alluded to in illustrations. (Jg 14:18; Isa 2:4; Jer 4:3; Mic 4:3) Jesus frequently used agricultural activities to illustrate important teachings. For example, he referred to the work involved in plowing to emphasize the importance of being a wholehearted disciple. (Lu 9:62) If a plowman became distracted from the work at hand, he would make crooked furrows. Similarly, a disciple of Christ who gets distracted or turns aside from carrying out his responsibilities becomes unfit for God’s Kingdom.

The wolves (Canis lupus) of Israel are primarily nighttime predators. (Hab 1:8) Wolves are fierce, voracious, bold, and greedy, frequently killing more sheep than they can eat or drag away. In the Bible, animals and their characteristics and habits are often applied in a figurative sense, picturing both desirable and undesirable traits. For example, in Jacob’s deathbed prophecy, the tribe of Benjamin is described figuratively as a fighter like a wolf. (Ge 49:27) But in most occurrences, the wolf is used to picture such undesirable qualities as ferocity, greed, viciousness, and craftiness. Those compared to wolves include false prophets (Mt 7:15), vicious opposers of the Christian ministry (Mt 10:16; Lu 10:3), and false teachers who would endanger the Christian congregation from within (Ac 20:29, 30). Shepherds were well-aware of the danger posed by wolves. Jesus spoke of “the hired man” who “sees the wolf coming and abandons the sheep and flees.” Unlike the hired man, who “does not care for the sheep,” Jesus is “the fine shepherd,” who surrendered “his life in behalf of the sheep.”—Joh 10:11-13.

The panoramic image shown in this video was taken from Ofir Lookout, which is located near the northeast shore of the Sea of Galilee. Chorazin (2) was only about 3 km (2 mi) from the suggested site of ancient Capernaum (1), the city that Jesus apparently used as a base of operations during his great Galilean ministry of over two years’ duration. The apostles Peter and Andrew lived in Capernaum, and Matthew’s tax office was located there or nearby. (Mr 1:21, 29; 2:1, 13, 14; 3:16; Lu 4:31, 38) Peter and Andrew, along with Philip, originally came from the nearby city of Bethsaida (3). (Joh 1:44) Jesus performed many miracles in or near these three cities.—See Appendix A7-D, Map 3B and A7-E, Map 4.

The road (1) shown in this short video likely follows a path similar to that of the ancient road that linked Jerusalem to Jericho. That road was over 20 km (12 mi) long and had a steep, 1 km (.6 mi) descent as it wound from Jerusalem to Jericho. Robberies in the wild and lonely terrain were so frequent that a garrison had to be stationed there to protect travelers. Roman Jericho (2) was located where the road emerged from the wilderness of Judea. An older city of Jericho (3) was located nearly 2 km (just over 1 mi) from the Roman city.

Since ancient times, the peoples of the Mediterranean region have considered olive oil to be essential in daily life. They have used it in food, applied it as medicine, burned it as fuel, and even included it in cosmetics and perfumes. The pulp of a ripe olive contains from 20 to 30 percent oil. To extract the finest olive oil, the ripe olives were lightly beaten in a mortar. Such oil was fitting for the lamps in the tabernacle. (Ex 27:20, 21) Larger quantities of olives could be crushed into a paste by means of a revolving millstone (1). Next, this paste was scooped into sacks or onto circular woven mats that were then stacked and placed under a weighted beam (2). The beam press squeezed a watery liquid from the paste. When the oil separated from the liquid and floated to the top, the oil was easily collected (3). In one of his illustrations, Jesus alluded to the medicinal use of olive oil when he said that the neighborly Samaritan poured oil on the wounds of a Jew who had been assaulted. (Lu 10:34) Similarly, James used oil to illustrate the way that elders can use Scriptural truths to soothe, refresh, and comfort a Christian who is feeling weak, is discouraged, or is struggling spiritually. The elders’ kind counsel, along with their prayers of faith, can comfort a person and help to restore his relationship with Jehovah.—Jas 5:14, 15.

Of the over 600 varieties of scorpions, generally ranging in size from less than 2.5 cm (1 in.) to 20 cm (8 in.), about a dozen types have been encountered in Israel and Syria. Although the scorpion’s sting is usually not fatal to humans, there are several varieties with venom that is proportionately more potent than that of many dangerous desert vipers. Of the kinds found in Israel, the most poisonous is the yellow Leiurus quinquestriatus (shown here). The great pain caused by a scorpion’s sting is noted at Re 9:3, 5, 10. Scorpions were common in the wilderness of Judea and on the Sinai Peninsula with its “fearsome wilderness.”—De 8:15.

Rue is a perennial shrub with hairy stems and a strong scent. It attains a height of about 1 m (3 ft), has gray-green leaves, and bears clusters of yellow flowers. The variety of rue shown here (Ruta chalepensis latifolia) and a variety known as common rue (Ruta graveolens) both grow in Israel. During the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry, rue may have been cultivated for use in medicine and as a seasoning for food. In the Bible, this plant is mentioned only at Lu 11:42, where Jesus condemned the scrupulous and hypocritical tithing by the Pharisees.—Compare Mt 23:23.

The Valley of Hinnom (1), called Gehenna in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The Temple Mount (2). The first-century Jewish temple complex was located here. The most prominent present-day structure on the temple mount is the Muslim shrine known as the Dome of the Rock.​—See map in Appendix B12.

The raven is the first bird specifically named in the Bible. (Ge 8:7) It is a powerful flier and is considered to be one of the most adaptable and resourceful of all birds. When teaching Job a lesson regarding the wisdom reflected in creation, Jehovah said that He “prepares food for the raven.” (Job 38:41) The psalmist indicated that Jehovah kindly provides the food brought by parent ravens to quiet the cries of their hungry young. (Ps 147:9) Jesus referred to the ravens in a similar way to assure his followers that the One caring for such birds would surely provide for the needs of His human servants. According to the Law covenant, ravens were unclean, not fit to be eaten. (Le 11:13, 15) Since God provides for unclean ravens, we can be certain that he will never forsake people who trust in him.

Jesus encouraged his disciples to “consider how the lilies grow” and to “take a lesson” from them. The original-language word often rendered “lilies” in Bible translations may have embraced a great variety of flowers, such as tulips, anemones, hyacinths, irises, and gladiolus. Some scholars suggest that Jesus probably had the anemone in mind. However, Jesus may simply have been referring to lilylike flowers in general. Shown here are scarlet crown anemones (Anemone coronaria). These flowers are common in Israel and can also be found in blue, pink, purple, or white.

This photo shows the damage that moths can do to a piece of clothing. (The photo shows a webbing clothes moth [Tineola bisselliella] and its larvae.) The Bible writer James mentions moth damage to illustrate how foolish it is to place one’s hope in riches. (Jas 5:2) In the first century C.E., wealth was often measured in terms of such things as grain, olive oil, or clothing. However, even costly garments could easily become useless because of moth larvae, or caterpillars. It is the larvae, rather than the adult moths, that feed on clothing. The larvae have a voracious appetite and could consume all types of material from which clothing was made in Bible times​—such as wool, linen, goat hair or camel’s hair, and even leather. The destructiveness of moths was mentioned by writers of the Hebrew Scriptures. (Job 13:28; Isa 51:8) In his Sermon on the Mount, Jesus used the damage caused by moths to illustrate that trusting in material riches rather than storing up “treasures in heaven” is unwise.​—Mt 6:19, 20.

Jesus painted a touching word picture, likening his concern for the people of Jerusalem to the protectiveness of a hen that is sheltering her young with her wings. This illustration, as well as Jesus’ reference to a son who asks his father for an egg (Lu 11:11, 12), indicates that the domestic hen was common in first-century Israel. Though the Greek word orʹnis, used at Mt 23:37 and Lu 13:34, could refer to any bird, wild or domesticated, in this context it is understood to refer to a hen, the most common and useful of the domestic fowl.

In the first century, a common way of dining was to recline at the table. Each person would rest his left elbow on a cushion and eat using his right hand. According to the Greco-Roman custom, a typical dining room had three couches set around a low dining table. The Romans called this kind of dining room a triclinium (Latin from a Greek word meaning “room with three couches”). Although this arrangement traditionally accommodated nine people, three to a couch, it became common to use longer couches to accommodate even more people. Each position in the dining room was traditionally viewed as having a different degree of honor. One couch was the lowest place of honor (A), one was the middle (B), and one was the highest (C). The positions on the couch differed in importance. The person dining was considered to be above the one to his right and below the one to his left. At a formal banquet, the host typically sat at the first position (1) on the lowest couch. The place of honor was the third position (2) on the middle couch. Although it is not clear to what extent the Jews adopted this custom, it appears that Jesus alluded to it when teaching his followers the need for humility.

Today, the water in the Dead Sea (Salt Sea) is about nine times as salty as the water in the world’s oceans. (Ge 14:3) Evaporation of the Dead Sea waters produced an ample supply of salt for the Israelites, although this salt was of poor quality because it was contaminated with other minerals. The Israelites may also have acquired salt from the Phoenicians, who, it is said, obtained it from the Mediterranean by means of evaporation. The Bible mentions salt as a seasoning for food. (Job 6:6) Jesus was a master at using illustrations based on things related to the everyday lives of the people, so he used salt to illustrate important spiritual lessons. For example, in the Sermon on the Mount, he told his disciples: “You are the salt of the earth,” having a preserving influence on others, preventing spiritual corruption and moral decay.

A shepherd’s life could be difficult. He was exposed to heat and cold as well as to sleepless nights. (Ge 31:40; Lu 2:8) He protected the flock from predators, such as lions, wolves, and bears, and safeguarded them from thieves. (Ge 31:39; 1Sa 17:34-36; Isa 31:4; Am 3:12; Joh 10:10-12) The shepherd kept the flock from scattering (1Ki 22:17), looked for lost sheep (Lu 15:4), carried feeble or weary lambs in his bosom (Isa 40:11) or on his shoulders, and cared for the sick and injured (Eze 34:3, 4; Zec 11:16). The Bible often speaks of shepherds and their work in a figurative way. For example, Jehovah is likened to a Shepherd who lovingly cares for his sheep, that is, his people. (Ps 23:1-6; 80:1; Jer 31:10; Eze 34:11-16; 1Pe 2:25) Jesus is called “the great shepherd” (Heb 13:20) and “the chief shepherd,” under whose direction the overseers in the Christian congregation shepherd the flock of God willingly, unselfishly, and eagerly.—1 Pe 5:2-4.

Carob pods grow on the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), an attractive evergreen that is found throughout Israel as well as in the rest of the Mediterranean area. The tree reaches a height of up to 9 m (30 ft). The fruit, or pods, measure from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 in.) in length and about 2.5 cm (1 in.) in width. As they mature, the green pods turn a purplish-brown color and look like shiny leather. Inside are several pealike seeds separated from one another by a sweet, sticky, edible pulp. Carob pods are widely used till this day as food for horses, cattle, and pigs.

In his parable of the unrighteous steward, Jesus referred to the practice of recording business transactions in a written agreement. (Lu 16:​6, 7) The papyrus document shown here is written in Aramaic and is dated to about 55 C.E. It was found in a cave located in Wadi Murabbaat, a dry riverbed in the Judean Desert. The document describes the debt and the terms of repayment agreed to by Absalom son of Hanin and Zechariah son of Jehohanan. This type of document may have come to mind when people heard Jesus’ illustration.

Purple dye was obtained from shellfish or mollusks such as the Murex trunculus (left) and the Murex brandaris (right) shown here. The shells measure from 5 to 8 cm (2 to 3 in.) in length. In the neck of the flesh of these creatures is a small gland containing only a single drop of fluid, called the flower. This fluid initially has the appearance and consistency of cream, but on exposure to air and light, it gradually changes to a deep violet or reddish-purple color. These shellfish are found along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and the shades of color acquired from them vary according to their location. The larger specimens were broken open individually, and the precious fluid was carefully removed, whereas the smaller ones were crushed in mortars. The amount of fluid acquired from each shellfish was small, so accumulating a large amount was a costly process. Hence, this dye was expensive, and garments dyed purple became the mark of wealthy people or those in high station.—Es 8:15.

A large millstone like the one depicted here would be turned by a domestic animal, such as a donkey, and be used to grind grain or crush olives. An upper millstone might be as much as 1.5 m (5 ft) in diameter and would be turned on an even larger lower stone.

Also called the sycamine, the black mulberry (Morus nigra) is mentioned only once, in Jesus’ statement to the apostles about their faith. (Lu 17:5, 6) The Greek word used was regularly applied to the mulberry tree, and the black mulberry is commonly cultivated in Israel. It is a sturdy tree that grows to a height of about 6 m (20 ft) with large heart-shaped leaves and dark-red or black fruit resembling the blackberry.

The sycamore tree, or fig-mulberry tree (Ficus sycomorus), is mentioned once in the Christian Greek Scriptures, in the account of Jesus’ visit to Jericho in the spring of 33 C.E. (Lu 19:1-10) This tree belongs to the same family as the common fig tree and the mulberry tree, but it differs from the North American sycamore. The tree’s fruit is like that of the common fig tree. The tree grows to a height of 10 to 15 m (33 to 50 ft), is strong, and may live for several hundred years. Sycamore trees grew in the Jordan Valley, and the Hebrew Scriptures also show that they were abundant in the Shephelah between the coastal plains and the Judean hills. (1Ki 10:27; 2Ch 1:15; 9:27) The tree is an evergreen, and its thick, wide-spreading foliage provides good shade. For that reason, the tree was frequently planted along roadsides. The tree has a short, stout trunk with lower limbs that branch out close to the ground, so it would have been easy for a short-statured man like Zacchaeus to climb it.

This short video follows a path approaching Jerusalem from the east, from the village of modern-day et-Tur—thought to correspond to the Biblical Bethphage—to one of the higher points on the Mount of Olives. Bethany lies east of Bethphage on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives. When in Jerusalem, Jesus and his disciples customarily spent the night at Bethany, today marked by the town of el-ʽAzariyeh (El ʽEizariya), an Arabic name meaning “The Place of Lazarus.” Jesus undoubtedly stayed at the home of Martha, Mary, and Lazarus. (Mt 21:17; Mr 11:11; Lu 21:37; Joh 11:1) When traveling from their home to Jerusalem, Jesus may have followed a route similar to the one shown in the video. On Nisan 9, 33 C.E., when Jesus rode the colt of a donkey over the Mount of Olives to Jerusalem, he may well have done so from Bethphage, following the road to Jerusalem.

1. Road from Bethany to Bethphage

2. Bethphage

3. Mount of Olives

4. Kidron Valley

5. Temple Mount

The donkey is a hard-hoofed animal of the horse family, distinguished from the horse by its smaller size, shorter mane, longer ears, and shorter tail-hair, with only the end half of the tail having a brush. Although the donkey’s stupidity and stubbornness are proverbial, its intelligence is actually considered to be superior to that of the horse, and it is usually a patient creature. Both men and women, even prominent Israelites, rode donkeys. (Jos 15:18; Jg 5:10; 10:3, 4; 12:14; 1Sa 25:42) Solomon, the son of David, rode to his anointing on his father’s she-mule, a hybrid offspring of a male donkey. (1Ki 1:33-40) It was therefore most appropriate that Jesus, the one greater than Solomon, fulfill the prophecy of Zec 9:9 by riding, not on a horse, but on a young donkey.

These stones, found on the southern part of the Western Wall, are believed to have been part of the structures on the first-century temple mount. They have been left here as a grim reminder of the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by the Romans.

The reconstruction shown in this animation is partly based on the ruins of a first-century synagogue in Gamla, a city located about 10 km (6 mi) northeast of the Sea of Galilee. No synagogues from the first century have survived intact, so the exact features are uncertain. This depiction includes some of the features that were likely present in many synagogues of that time.

1. The front, or best, seats in the synagogue may have been located on or near the speaker’s platform.

2. The platform from which the Scriptures would be read. The exact location of the platform may have varied from one synagogue to the next.

3. Seating along the wall may have been occupied by people with status in the community. Others might have sat on mats on the floor. The synagogue in Gamla seems to have had four rows of seats.

4. An ark, or chest, in which sacred scrolls were kept may have been located on the back wall.

The seating arrangements in the synagogue were a constant reminder to those in attendance that some had greater status than others, a topic often debated by Jesus’ disciples.​—Mt 18:​1-4; 20:20, 21; Mr 9:​33, 34; Lu 9:​46-​48.

According to rabbinic sources, the temple built by Herod contained 13 treasury chests, called shofar chests. The Hebrew word shoh·pharʹ means “ram’s horn,” indicating that at least part of the chest might have been shaped like a horn, or trumpet. Those who heard Jesus condemn people who symbolically blew a trumpet when giving gifts of mercy may have been reminded of the noise that coins made as they were dropped into these trumpet-shaped treasury chests. (Mt 6:2) The two small coins donated by the widow might not have made much noise when she deposited them, but Jesus showed that both the widow and her contribution were valuable to Jehovah.

In his great prophecy about what would happen to Jerusalem and its temple, Jesus foretold that the inhabitants of Judea would “be led captive into all the nations.” (Lu 21:21, 24) The coin shown here is a striking testimony to the fulfillment of Jesus’ words. Such coins commemorating the capture of Judea were first minted in 71 C.E. One side of the coin contains an image of Titus, the son of Emperor Vespasian. Titus completed the conquest of Judea that Vespasian had begun. The other side shows a palm tree flanked by a captive Judean male with his hands tied behind his back and a seated Jewish woman in mourning. The inscription reads “IVDAEA CAPTA,” meaning “Captive Judea.”

Jesus foretold that the inhabitants of Jerusalem and Judea would “fall by the edge of the sword.” (Lu 21:24) The 2,000-year-old sword shown in the photograph likely belonged to a soldier serving in the Roman infantry that was stationed in Jerusalem in 66 C.E. when the revolt against the Romans erupted. The sword is about 60 cm (24 in.) long, and the remains of its leather scabbard, or sheath, are still attached. This sword was recently found (reported in 2011) when archaeologists were excavating a drainage channel between the City of David and the archaeological garden near the Western Wall in Jerusalem. This channel evidently served as a hiding place for residents of Jerusalem during the turbulent time preceding Jerusalem’s destruction in 70 C.E.

The photo on the left shows the triumphal arch located at the Forum in Rome, Italy. The arch was built to commemorate the victory by Roman General Titus over Jerusalem and Judea in 70 C.E. In June 71 C.E., Titus and his father, Emperor Vespasian, celebrated this victory in the capital of the Roman Empire. Titus succeeded Vespasian as emperor in 79 C.E. Two years later, Titus died unexpectedly, and shortly thereafter, this arch was built in his honor. Titus’ triumphal procession is represented in bas-relief sculptures carved on each side of the passage through the arch and originally painted in vibrant colors. On one side (1), Roman soldiers are shown carrying sacred furniture from Jerusalem’s temple. Clearly seen among the spoils are the seven-branched lampstand and the table of showbread, on which rest the sacred trumpets. The relief on the other side of the passage (2) shows the victorious Titus standing in a chariot drawn by four horses. These reliefs exemplify the illustrations that the apostle Paul used in two of his letters. (2Co 2:14; Col 2:15) Those who received Paul’s letters were no doubt familiar with Roman triumphal processions. At the time, such public rituals were authorized by the Roman emperor or his family. The Arch of Titus confirms the fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy about the city of Jerusalem being captured and its inhabitants taken captive.​—Lu 21:24.

Some homes in Israel had an upper story. That room was accessed by means of an inside ladder or wooden staircase or an outside stone staircase or a ladder. In a large upper chamber, possibly similar to the one depicted here, Jesus celebrated the last Passover with his disciples and instituted the commemoration of the Lord’s Evening Meal. (Lu 22:12, 19, 20) On the day of Pentecost 33 C.E., about 120 disciples were apparently in an upper chamber of a house in Jerusalem when God’s spirit was poured out on them.​—Ac 1:13, 15; 2:1-4.

The grapevine (Vitis vinifera) had been cultivated for thousands of years and was commonly seen throughout the area where Jesus lived. If wood was available, the workers made stakes or a trellis to support the vines. During the winter, cultivators pruned the preceding year’s growth from the vines. After shoots grew in the spring, workers pruned any new shoots lacking fruit. (Joh 15:2) This helped the vine produce more fruit of better quality. Jesus likened his Father to a cultivator, himself to a vine, and his disciples to branches. Just as branches on a literal vine receive their support and nourishment from the trunk, Jesus’ disciples receive spiritual support and nourishment if they remain in union with him, “the true vine.”​—Joh 15:1, 5.

Seventy-one members constituted the Jewish high court called the Great Sanhedrin. It was located in Jerusalem. (See Glossary, “Sanhedrin.”) According to the Mishnah, the seating was arranged in a semicircle three rows deep, and two scribes were present to record the court’s rulings. Some of the architectural features shown here are based on a structure discovered in Jerusalem that is considered by some to be the Council Chamber from the first century.​—See Appendix B12, map “Jerusalem and Surrounding Area.”

1. High priest

2. Members of the Sanhedrin

3. A defendant

4. Clerks

This is a photograph of a replica of a human heel bone pierced by an iron nail that was 11.5 cm (4.5 in.) long. The original artifact was found in 1968, during excavations in northern Jerusalem, and dates to Roman times. It provides archaeological evidence that nails were used in executions to fasten the person to a wooden stake. This nail may be similar to the nails employed by the Roman soldiers to fasten Jesus Christ to the stake. The artifact was found in a stone box, called an ossuary, into which the dried bones of a deceased person were placed after the flesh had decomposed. This indicates that someone executed on a stake could be given a burial.

The Jews usually buried their dead in caves or vaults cut into the rock. These tombs were customarily located outside the cities, an exception being the tombs of the kings. Jewish tombs that have been found are notable for their simplicity. This was evidently because the Jews’ worship allowed no veneration of the dead and did not foster any ideas of a conscious existence in a spirit world after death.