Shown here is a page from a papyrus codex known as P⁴⁶, believed to date from about the year 200 C.E. This codex is a collection of nine of Paul’s letters. (See Media Gallery, “Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians” and “Paul’s Second Letter to the Corinthians.”) This leaf shows the beginning of Paul’s letter to the Ephesians. In addition to being known as P⁴⁶, the leaf is part of what is called Papyrus Michigan Inv. 6238 and is housed at the University of Michigan library, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. Highlighted is the title, which reads “Toward [or, “To”] Ephesians.”

The bronze seal shown in the photographs bears a name. In Roman times, people used seals to make impressions on wax or clay. Such seals had many different purposes. For example, as illustrated, potters stamped clay jars to identify the maker, the product, or the volume of the container. Sometimes plaster was used to fasten a cap on a jar. Before the plaster hardened, the seal of the merchant or the person shipping the product was pressed into it. Some people used a seal to make an impression that signified ownership of an item. Paul referred to a figurative seal of ownership when he stated that God had “put his seal on” Christians, or had anointed them with his holy spirit. This seal indicated that God was their Owner.​—2Co 1:21, 22.

When the apostle Paul wrote to Christians in Ephesus about unity in the congregation, he compared the Mosaic Law to a wall that divided Jews and Gentiles. (Eph 2:14) Paul may have been alluding to the wall that surrounded the inner courtyards of the first-century temple in Jerusalem. This low wall, called the Soreg, marked the boundary that Gentiles could not cross on pain of death. On one occasion, Paul was mobbed in the temple because the Jews wrongly accused him of bringing Gentiles into the area fenced off by this wall. (Ac 21:26-31) To understand what Paul may have had in mind when he wrote about “the wall in between,” watch this video.

The dice shown here are from the Roman period and are made of ivory, though dice were also made of such materials as bone or stone. People often cheated when playing dice. So when the apostle Paul warned the Christians in Ephesus against being deceived by men, he used a Greek expression that literally refers to dice playing. (Eph 4:14) Used metaphorically, this expression is accurately rendered “trickery of men.”

Slavery was part of everyday life in the Roman Empire. Roman law regulated certain aspects of the relationship between slaves and their masters. Slaves performed much of the work in the homes of wealthy families occupying the territories of the Roman Empire. Slaves cooked, cleaned, and cared for children. Other slaves worked in factories, in mines, or on farms. Those who were better educated served as doctors, teachers, or secretaries. In fact, slaves worked at every occupation except in the military. In some cases, slaves could be emancipated. (See Glossary, “Freeman; Freedman.”) First-century Christians did not take a stand against governmental authority in this matter, nor did they advocate that slaves revolt. (1Co 7:21) Christians respected the legal right of others, including fellow Christians, to own slaves. That is why the apostle Paul sent the slave Onesimus back to his master, Philemon. Because Onesimus had become a Christian, he willingly returned to his master, subjecting himself as a slave to a fellow Christian. (Phm 10-17) Paul encouraged slaves to work honestly and diligently.—Tit 2:9, 10.

In his letter to the Ephesians, the apostle Paul uses a suit of armor to illustrate the spiritual protection needed by a servant of Jehovah. (Eph 6:11-17) Paul may have been thinking of the armor worn by a Roman soldier. Each piece in such a suit of armor played a vital role in protecting the soldier in battle. The spiritual suit of armor that Paul describes consists of a belt, a breastplate, footwear, a large shield, a helmet, and a sword. This video shows what the different parts of a Roman suit of armor may have looked like.

In the first century, Roman soldiers wore various types of breastplates to protect their chest and back. High-ranking officers wore a cuirass (1), a two-piece metallic breastplate that conformed to their body. The front was attached to the back by hinges on one side and buckles or laces on the other. Many soldiers wore a breastplate made of iron- or copper-alloy scales (2). The scales were attached to a backing made of leather or linen. Others wore mail armor over a leather jacket (3). The mail consisted of thousands of iron rings arranged in interconnecting rows. It provided strong protection and weighed less than the other breastplates. Paul used the breastplate to illustrate the protective qualities of righteousness, faith, and love.​—Eph 6:​14; 1Th 5:8.

The street in ancient Ephesus that led from the city’s large theater to its busy harbor was spacious and lined with colonnades. Ephesus was a crossroads of the ancient world. On this street, Christians could preach “the good news of peace” to people of all sorts. (Eph 6:15) The apostle Paul, who wrote the letter to the Ephesians, was familiar with Ephesus; he had preached there for some three years. (Ac 20:17, 18, 31) As a result of Paul’s ministry in Ephesus, “all those living in the province of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks.” (Ac 19:10) This fruitful territory yielded a vibrant congregation that continued to grow.​—Ac 19:20.

The photo (left) shows an arrowhead 19 cm (7.5 in.) long that dates to Roman times. Flammable material would be placed in the enclosure behind the tip. Armies sometimes shot a barrage of burning arrows (as shown in the illustration on the right) over the walls of a besieged city to set it ablaze. Paul wrote that the wicked one shoots “burning arrows” at Christians, who can extinguish them with “the large shield of faith.”​—Eph 6:16.

This picture represents two of the types of helmets used by Roman soldiers in the first century. Such helmets were made of either bronze or iron. They were bowl-shaped and had a neck guard; hinged pieces covered the cheeks. Most helmets also had a brow guard to deflect blows directed toward the soldier’s face. All helmets included a lining and were usually padded to enable a soldier to wear them for long periods of time. Apparently, soldiers had to buy their own armor, including the helmet. Paul used a helmet to illustrate a vital source of protection. Just as a helmet protected a soldier’s head from life-threatening blows, “the hope of salvation” can protect a Christian’s thinking ability and future life prospects.​—1Th 5:8, 9; Tit 1:2.

During his first imprisonment in Rome, the apostle Paul was permitted to live under guard in a rented house. (Ac 28:16, 30) Roman guards typically restrained prisoners with chains. The prisoner’s right wrist was usually chained to the guard’s left wrist. This kept the guard’s right hand free. Paul referred to his chains, bonds, and imprisonment in most of the inspired letters that he wrote during his house arrest in Rome.​—Eph 3:1; 4:1; 6:20; Php 1:7, 13, 14, 17; Col 4:3, 18; Phm 1, 9, 10, 13.