• A. INTRODUCTION (1:1-9)

  • Paul’s introductory greeting (1:1-5)

  • Warning against a distorted form of good news (1:6-9)

• B. PAUL DEFENDS HIS APOSTLESHIP (1:10–2:14)

  • God chooses Paul to be an apostle; Paul’s early activity (1:10-24)

  • Paul meets with the apostles in Jerusalem (2:1-10)

  • Paul relates how he corrected Cephas (Peter) in Syrian Antioch (2:11-14)

• C. A PERSON IS DECLARED RIGHTEOUS ONLY THROUGH FAITH IN CHRIST, NOT THROUGH WORKS OF LAW (2:15–4:20)

  • If righteousness is through works of law, Christ died for nothing (2:15-21)

  • Works of law versus faith (3:1-14)

  • The promises to Abraham did not come through the Law (3:15-18)

  • Purpose of the Mosaic Law (3:19-25)

  • No longer slaves but sons of God (3:26–4:7)

  • An appeal not to be enslaved to weak and beggarly things again (4:8-11)

  • Paul’s concern for Christians in Galatia (4:12-20)

• D. PAUL EXPLAINS WHAT CHRISTIAN FREEDOM MEANS (4:21–6:10)

  • A symbolic drama to explain Christian freedom (4:21–5:1)

  • Insisting on circumcision does not bring freedom (5:2-12)

  • The ongoing conflict between flesh and spirit (5:13-26)

  • Fulfilling the law of the Christ by carrying the burdens of one another (6:1-6)

  • Each one will reap what he sows (6:7-10)

• E. CONCLUDING REMARKS (6:11-18)

  • Paul is writing with his own hand (6:11)

  • Circumcision is of no value, but a new creation is (6:12-16)

  • Paul, a true slave of Jesus, wishes that the Galatians show the right spirit (6:17, 18)

1 Paul, an apostle, neither from men nor through a man, but through Jesus Christ+ and God the Father,+ who raised him up from the dead, 2 and all the brothers with me, to the congregations of Ga·laʹti·a:+

3 May you have undeserved kindness and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. 4 He gave himself for our sins+ so that he might rescue us from the present wicked system of things+ according to the will of our God and Father,+ 5 to whom be the glory forever and ever. Amen.

6 I am amazed that you are so quickly turning away from the One who called you with Christ’s undeserved kindness to another sort of good news.+ 7 Not that there is another good news; but there are certain ones who are causing you trouble+ and wanting to distort the good news about the Christ. 8 However, even if we or an angel out of heaven were to declare to you as good news something beyond the good news we declared to you, let him be accursed.+ 9 As we have said before, I now say again, Whoever is declaring to you as good news something beyond what you accepted, let him be accursed.

10 Is it, in fact, men I am now trying to persuade or God? Or am I trying to please men? If I were still pleasing men, I would not be Christ’s slave. 11 For I want you to know, brothers, that the good news I declared to you is not of human origin;+ 12 for neither did I receive it from man, nor was I taught it, but it was through a revelation by Jesus Christ.

13 Of course, you heard about my conduct formerly in Juʹda·ism,+ that I kept intensely persecuting the congregation of God and devastating it;+ 14 and I was making greater progress in Juʹda·ism than many of my own age in my nation, as I was far more zealous for the traditions of my fathers.+ 15 But when God, who separated me from my mother’s womb and called me through his undeserved kindness,+ thought good 16 to reveal his Son through me so that I might declare the good news about him to the nations,+ I did not immediately consult with any human; 17 nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were apostles before I was, but I went to Arabia, and then I returned to Damascus.+

18 Then three years later I went up to Jerusalem+ to visit Ceʹphas,+ and I stayed with him for 15 days. 19 But I did not see any of the other apostles, only James+ the brother of the Lord. 20 Now regarding the things I am writing you, I assure you before God that I am not lying.

21 After that I went into the regions of Syria and Ci·liʹcia.+ 22 But I was personally unknown to the congregations of Ju·deʹa that were in union with Christ. 23 They only used to hear: “The man who formerly persecuted us+ is now declaring the good news about the faith that he formerly devastated.”+ 24 So they began glorifying God because of me.

2 Then after 14 years I again went up to Jerusalem with Barʹna·bas,+ also taking Titus along with me.+ 2 I went up as a result of a revelation, and I presented to them the good news that I am preaching among the nations. This was done privately, however, before the men who were highly regarded, to make sure that I was not running or had not run in vain. 3 Nevertheless, not even Titus,+ who was with me, was compelled to be circumcised,+ although he was a Greek. 4 But that matter came up because of the false brothers brought in quietly,+ who slipped in to spy on the freedom+ we enjoy in union with Christ Jesus, so that they might completely enslave us;+ 5 we did not yield in submission to them,+ no, not for a moment,* so that the truth of the good news might continue with you.

6 But regarding those who seemed to be important+—whatever they were makes no difference to me, for God does not go by a man’s outward appearance—those highly regarded men imparted nothing new to me. 7 On the contrary, when they saw that I had been entrusted with the good news for those who are uncircumcised,+ just as Peter had been for those who are circumcised— 8 for the one who empowered Peter for an apostleship to those who are circumcised also empowered me for those who are of the nations+— 9 and when they recognized the undeserved kindness that was given me,+ James+ and Ceʹphas and John, the ones who seemed to be pillars, gave Barʹna·bas and me+ the right hand of fellowship, so that we should go to the nations but they to those who are circumcised. 10 They asked only that we keep the poor in mind, and this I have also earnestly endeavored to do.+

11 However, when Ceʹphas+ came to Antioch,+ I resisted him face-to-face, because he was clearly in the wrong.* 12 For before certain men from James+ arrived, he used to eat with people of the nations;+ but when they arrived, he stopped doing this and separated himself, fearing those of the circumcised class.+ 13 The rest of the Jews also joined him in putting on this pretense, so that even Barʹna·bas was led along with them in their pretense. 14 But when I saw that they were not walking in step with the truth of the good news,+ I said to Ceʹphas before them all: “If you, though you are a Jew, live as the nations do and not as Jews do, how can you compel people of the nations to live according to Jewish practice?”+

15 We who are Jews by birth, and not sinners from the nations, 16 recognize that a man is declared righteous, not by works of law, but only through faith+ in Jesus Christ.+ So we have put our faith in Christ Jesus, so that we may be declared righteous by faith in Christ and not by works of law, for no one will be declared righteous by works of law.+ 17 Now if we have also been found sinners while seeking to be declared righteous by means of Christ, is Christ then sin’s minister? Certainly not! 18 If the very things that I once tore down I build up again, I demonstrate that I am a transgressor.+ 19 For through law I died toward law,+ so that I might become alive toward God. 20 I am nailed to the stake along with Christ.+ It is no longer I who live,+ but it is Christ who is living in union with me. Indeed, the life that I now live in the flesh I live by faith in the Son of God,+ who loved me and handed himself over for me.+ 21 I do not reject* the undeserved kindness of God,+ for if righteousness is through law, Christ actually died for nothing.+

3 O senseless Ga·laʹtians! Who has brought you under this evil influence,+ you who had Jesus Christ openly portrayed before you as nailed to the stake?+ 2 This one thing I want to ask* you: Did you receive the spirit through works of law or because of faith in what you heard?+ 3 Are you so senseless? After starting on a spiritual course, are you finishing on a fleshly course?+ 4 Did you undergo so many sufferings for nothing? If it really was for nothing. 5 Therefore, does the one who supplies you the spirit and performs powerful works*+ among you do it because of your works of law or because of your faith in what you heard? 6 Just as Abraham “put faith in Jehovah, and it was counted to him as righteousness.”+

7 Surely you know that it is those who adhere to faith who are sons of Abraham.+ 8 Now the scripture, foreseeing that God would declare people of the nations righteous through faith,+ declared the good news beforehand to Abraham, namely: “By means of you all the nations will be blessed.”+ 9 So those who adhere to faith are being blessed together with Abraham, who had faith.+

10 All those who depend on works of law are under a curse, for it is written: “Cursed is everyone who does not remain in all the things written in the scroll of the Law by doing them.”+ 11 Moreover, it is evident that by law no one is declared righteous with God,+ because “the righteous one will live by reason of faith.”+ 12 Now the Law is not based on faith. Rather, “anyone who does these things will live by means of them.”+ 13 Christ purchased us,+ releasing us+ from the curse of the Law by becoming a curse instead of us,+ because it is written: “Accursed is every man hung upon a stake.”+ 14 This was so that the blessing of Abraham would come to the nations by means of Christ Jesus,+ so that we might receive the promised spirit+ through our faith.

15 Brothers, I speak using a human illustration: Once a covenant is validated, even if only by a man, no one annuls it or attaches additions to it. 16 Now the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his offspring.+ It does not say, “and to your descendants,” in the sense of many. Rather, it says, “and to your offspring,” in the sense of one, who is Christ.+ 17 Further, I say this: The Law, which came into being 430 years later,+ does not invalidate the covenant previously made by God, so as to abolish the promise.+ 18 For if the inheritance is based on law, it is no longer based on a promise; but God has kindly given it to Abraham through a promise.+

19 Why, then, the Law? It was added to make transgressions manifest,+ until the offspring should arrive+ to whom the promise had been made; and it was transmitted through angels+ by the hand of a mediator.+ 20 Now there is no mediator when just one person is involved, but God is only one. 21 Is the Law, therefore, against the promises of God? Certainly not! For if a law had been given that could give life, righteousness would actually have been by means of law. 22 But the Scripture handed all things over to the custody of sin, so that the promise resulting from faith in Jesus Christ might be given to those exercising faith.

23 However, before the faith arrived, we were being guarded under law, being handed over into custody, looking to the faith that was about to be revealed.+ 24 So the Law became our guardian leading to Christ,+ so that we might be declared righteous through faith.+ 25 But now that the faith has arrived,+ we are no longer under a guardian.+

26 You are all, in fact, sons of God+ through your faith in Christ Jesus.+ 27 For all of you who were baptized into Christ have put on Christ.+ 28 There is neither Jew nor Greek,+ there is neither slave nor freeman,+ there is neither male nor female,+ for you are all one in union with Christ Jesus.+ 29 Moreover, if you belong to Christ, you are really Abraham’s offspring,+ heirs+ with reference to a promise.+

4 Now I say that as long as the heir is a young child, he is no different from a slave, although he is the lord of all things, 2 but he is under supervisors and stewards until the day set ahead of time by his father. 3 Likewise, we too, when we were children, were enslaved by the elementary things of the world.+ 4 But when the full limit of the time arrived, God sent his Son, who was born of a woman+ and who was under law,+ 5 that he might release by purchase those under law,+ so that we might receive the adoption as sons.+

6 Now because you are sons, God has sent the spirit+ of his Son into our hearts,+ and it cries out: “Abba, Father!”+ 7 So you are no longer a slave but a son; and if a son, then you are also an heir through God.+

8 Nevertheless, when you did not know God, you were enslaved to those who are not really gods. 9 But now that you have come to know God or, rather, have come to be known by God, how is it that you are turning back again to the weak+ and beggarly elementary things and want to slave for them over again?+ 10 You are scrupulously observing days and months+ and seasons and years. 11 I fear for you, that somehow I have wasted my efforts on you.

12 Brothers, I beg you, become as I am, because I also used to be as you are.+ You did me no wrong. 13 But you know that it was because of a physical illness that I had my first opportunity to declare the good news to you. 14 And though my physical condition was a trial* for you, you did not treat me with contempt or disgust;* but you received me like an angel of God, like Christ Jesus. 15 Where is that happiness you had? For I bear you witness that, if it had been possible, you would have gouged out your eyes and given them to me.+ 16 So, then, have I become your enemy because I tell you the truth? 17 They are zealous to win you over, but not for a good purpose; they want to alienate you from me, so that you may be eager to follow them. 18 However, it is always fine for someone to seek zealously after you for a good purpose and not just when I am present with you, 19 my little children,+ for whom I am again experiencing birth pains until Christ is formed* in you. 20 I wish I could be present with you just now and speak in a different way,* because I am perplexed over you.

21 Tell me, you who want to be under law,+ Do you not hear the Law? 22 For example, it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the servant girl+ and one by the free woman;+ 23 but the one by the servant girl was actually born through natural descent+ and the other by the free woman through a promise.+ 24 These things may be taken as a symbolic drama; for these women mean two covenants, the one from Mount Siʹnai,+ which bears children for slavery and which is Haʹgar. 25 Now Haʹgar means Siʹnai,+ a mountain in Arabia, and she corresponds with the Jerusalem today, for she is in slavery with her children. 26 But the Jerusalem above is free, and she is our mother.

27 For it is written: “Be glad, you barren woman who does not give birth; break into joyful shouting, you woman who does not have birth pains; for the children of the desolate woman are more numerous than those of her who has the husband.”+ 28 Now you, brothers, are children of the promise the same as Isaac was.+ 29 But just as then the one born through natural descent began persecuting the one born through spirit,+ so also now.+ 30 Nevertheless, what does the scripture say? “Drive out the servant girl and her son, for the son of the servant girl will by no means be an heir with the son of the free woman.”+ 31 So, brothers, we are children, not of a servant girl, but of the free woman.

5 For such freedom Christ set us free. Therefore, stand firm,+ and do not let yourselves be confined again in a yoke of slavery.+

2 See! I, Paul, am telling you that if you become circumcised, Christ will be of no benefit to you.+ 3 Again I bear witness to every man who gets circumcised that he is under obligation to keep the whole Law.+ 4 You are separated from Christ, you who are trying to be declared righteous by means of law;+ you have fallen away from his undeserved kindness. 5 For our part, we are by spirit eagerly waiting for the hoped-for righteousness* resulting from faith. 6 For in union with Christ Jesus, neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any value,+ but faith operating through love is.

7 You were running well.+ Who hindered you from continuing to obey the truth? 8 This sort of persuasion does not come from the One calling you. 9 A little leaven ferments the whole batch of dough.+ 10 I am confident that you who are in union with the Lord+ will not come to think otherwise; but the one who is causing you trouble,+ whoever he may be, will receive the judgment he deserves. 11 As for me, brothers, if I am still preaching circumcision, why am I still being persecuted? In that case the stumbling block of the torture stake+ has been eliminated. 12 I wish the men who are trying to unsettle you would emasculate themselves.

13 You were called to freedom, brothers; only do not use this freedom as an opportunity to pursue fleshly desires,+ but through love slave for one another.+ 14 For the entire Law has been fulfilled in one commandment, namely: “You must love your neighbor as yourself.”+ 15 If, though, you keep on biting and devouring one another,+ look out that you do not get annihilated by one another.+

16 But I say, Keep walking by spirit+ and you will carry out no fleshly desire at all.+ 17 For the flesh is against the spirit in its desire, and the spirit against the flesh; these are opposed to each other, so that you do not do the very things you want to do.+ 18 Furthermore, if you are being led by spirit, you are not under law.

19 Now the works of the flesh are plainly seen, and they are sexual immorality,+ uncleanness, brazen conduct,+ 20 idolatry, spiritism,+ hostility, strife,+ jealousy,+ fits of anger, dissensions, divisions, sects,+ 21 envy, drunkenness,+ wild parties, and things like these.+ I am forewarning you about these things, the same way I already warned you, that those who practice such things will not inherit God’s Kingdom.+

22 On the other hand, the fruitage+ of the spirit is love, joy,+ peace,+ patience, kindness, goodness,+ faith, 23 mildness, self-control.+ Against such things there is no law. 24 Moreover, those who belong to Christ Jesus have nailed to the stake the flesh together with its passions and desires.+

25 If we are living by spirit, let us also go on walking orderly by spirit.+ 26 Let us not become egotistical,+ stirring up competition with one another,+ envying one another.

6 Brothers, even if a man takes a false step before he is aware of it, you who have spiritual qualifications try to readjust such a man in a spirit of mildness.+ But keep an eye on yourself,+ for fear you too may be tempted.+ 2 Go on carrying the burdens of one another,+ and in this way you will fulfill the law of the Christ.+ 3 For if anyone thinks he is something when he is nothing,+ he is deceiving himself. 4 But let each one examine his own actions,+ and then he will have cause for rejoicing in regard to himself alone, and not in comparison with the other person.+ 5 For each one will carry his own load.+

6 Moreover, let anyone who is being taught the word share in all good things with the one who gives such teaching.+

7 Do not be misled: God is not one to be mocked. For whatever a person is sowing, this he will also reap;+ 8 because the one sowing with a view to his flesh will reap corruption from his flesh,+ but the one sowing with a view to the spirit will reap everlasting life from the spirit.+ 9 So let us not give up in doing what is fine,+ for in due time we will reap if we do not tire out.+ 10 So, then, as long as we have the opportunity, let us work what is good toward all, but especially toward those related to us in the faith.

11 See with what large letters* I have written you with my own hand.

12 All those who want to make a good impression in the flesh are the ones who try to compel you to get circumcised,+ doing so only to avoid being persecuted for the torture stake of the Christ. 13 For even those who are getting circumcised do not keep the Law themselves,+ but they want you to be circumcised so that they may have cause for boasting about your flesh. 14 But may I never boast, except in the torture stake of our Lord Jesus Christ,+ through whom the world has been put to death with regard to me and I with regard to the world. 15 For neither is circumcision anything nor is uncircumcision,+ but a new creation is.+ 16 As for all those who walk orderly by this rule of conduct, peace and mercy be upon them, yes, upon the Israel of God.+

17 From now on* let no one make trouble for me, for I am bearing on my body the brand marks of a slave of Jesus.+

18 The undeserved kindness of our Lord Jesus Christ be with the spirit you show, brothers. Amen.

Title

To the Galatians: Titles like this were apparently not part of the original text. Ancient manuscripts, such as the papyrus codex known as P⁴⁶, show that they were added later, doubtless to make it easier to identify the letters. (See Media Gallery, “Paul’s Letter to the Galatians.”) Other early manuscripts, such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus of the fourth century C.E., contain the same title as the P⁴⁶ codex.

1:2

to the congregations of Galatia: When traveling through Galatia (see study note on Galatia in this verse) during Paul’s first missionary tour about 47-48 C.E., Paul and Barnabas visited such cities as Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe​—all located in the southern part of the region. (Ac 13:14, 51; 14:1, 5, 6) The men found many who were eager to learn the good news, so they established Christian congregations in those cities. (Ac 14:19-23) It seems that the seeds of Christianity sown among the Galatians bore good fruit. Timothy, for instance, came from Galatia. (Ac 16:1) “The congregations of Galatia” to whom Paul wrote were composed of a mixture of Jews and non-Jews, the latter including both circumcised proselytes and uncircumcised Gentiles. (Ac 13:14, 43; 16:1; Ga 5:2) No doubt some were of Celtic descent. The congregations in this region were also mentioned in other letters in the Christian Greek Scriptures. For example, about 55 C.E. when writing to the Corinthians, Paul mentioned the instructions he had given “to the congregations of Galatia” regarding the laying aside of contributions for the poor. (1Co 16:1, 2; Ga 2:10) Some years later (c. 62-64 C.E.), Peter addressed his first letter to, among others, “the temporary residents scattered about in . . . Galatia.”​—1Pe 1:1; see study note on Ga 3:1.

Galatia: In the first century C.E., Galatia was the region as well as the Roman province that occupied the central portion of what is now known as Asia Minor.​—See Glossary.

1:3

May you have undeserved kindness and peace: See study note on Ro 1:7.

1:4

system of things: The Greek word ai·onʹ, having the basic meaning “age,” can refer to a state of affairs or to features that distinguish a certain period of time, epoch, or age. (2Ti 4:10; see Glossary, “System(s) of things.”) What Paul here calls “the present wicked system of things” apparently began sometime after the Flood. Humans started to develop an unrighteous way of life, one characterized by sin and rebellion against God and his will. While Christians in the first century C.E. lived at the same time as the prevailing “wicked system of things,” they were no part of it. They had been rescued from it by the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ.​—See study note on 2Co 4:4.

1:5

Amen: See study note on Ro 1:25.

1:6

you are so quickly turning away: Paul here pinpoints an important reason for writing this letter. Though it had not been long since Paul visited the region, some in the Galatian congregations were already turning away from Christian truths. The “evil influence” that Paul talks about in this letter (Ga 3:1) includes those whom he calls “false brothers,” who had “slipped in” to the congregations. (See study notes on Ga 2:4; 3:1.) Some of these false brothers were Judaizers, who insisted that Christians abide by the Mosaic Law. (See study note on Ga 1:13.) The Judaizers persisted even though the apostles and elders in Jerusalem had already directed that Gentiles were not obligated to obey the Mosaic Law. (Ac 15:1, 2, 23-29; Ga 5:2-4) Paul indicates that the Judaizers feared persecution and wanted to appease Jewish opposers. (Ga 6:12, 13) These false brothers may also have claimed that Paul was no real apostle, and they sought to alienate the congregations from him. (Ga 1:11, 12; 4:17) Some of the Galatians may have been inclined toward immorality, strife, and egotism. These fleshly tendencies that Paul addresses in the latter part of his letter would cause them to turn away from God.​—Ga 5:13–6:10.

another sort of good news: “False brothers” were preaching (Ga 2:4) a different teaching that was “something beyond” what the Galatian Christians had learned. The good news that Paul had declared to them included “the good news about the Christ.” (Ga 1:7, 8) It had to do with the freedom that Christ brings​—freedom from bondage to inherited sin and freedom from bondage to the Mosaic Law. (Ga 3:13; 5:1, 13 and study note) That good news was “not of human origin.”​—Ga 1:8, 9, 11, 12; 2Co 11:4; see study note on Ga 1:8.

1:7

are causing you trouble: According to one lexicon, the Greek verb that Paul here uses conveys the sense of “stir up; disturb; unsettle; throw into confusion.” In this and other contexts, the expression refers to mental or spiritual disturbance. (Ac 15:24; Ga 5:10) The same verb is also used at Ac 17:13 about the Jews who came to “agitate the crowds” in Beroea.

1:8

let him be accursed: Paul warns the Galatian Christians of “certain ones” who were “wanting to distort the good news about the Christ.” (Ga 1:7) These were apparently men who endorsed Jewish traditions rather than the message of the good news. Paul says that Christians should consider to be “accursed” anyone, even angels, who declared to them as good news something beyond that which they had received. He repeats this warning in verse 9. The Greek word for “accursed” (a·naʹthe·ma) literally means that which is “laid up.” The word originally applied to votive offerings laid up, or set apart, as sacred in a temple. In this context it applies to that which is set apart to be declared bad or evil. (1Co 12:3; 16:22; see study note on Ro 9:3.) In the Septuagint, the translators generally used the same Greek word to render the Hebrew word cheʹrem, which means a thing or a person “devoted to destruction” or “set apart for destruction.”​—De 7:26; 13:17.

1:10

Is it, in fact, men I am now trying to persuade or God?: Paul defends himself because “false brothers” in Galatia apparently claimed that he had adapted his message so as to persuade the Galatian Christians to side with him. (Ga 2:4) For example, those opponents seem to have claimed that Paul would preach circumcision when it suited him. (Ga 5:11) The Greek word peiʹtho, here rendered “persuade,” also conveys the meaning “appeal to; win over; gain the approval of.” Paul is, in effect, asking: “Am I trying to win the approval of people or of God?” Paul is, of course, concerned about gaining the approval of God, not of humans. While Paul was adaptable in how he presented the good news (see study note on 1Co 9:22), he never changed the basic message just to win over different groups of people. (See study note on Or am I trying to please men in this verse.) In the preceding verses, he made it very clear that there was just one message of truth, “the good news about the Christ.”​—Ga 1:6-9.

Or am I trying to please men?: Some claimed that Paul was flattering men in an attempt to win their approval. The implied answer to Paul’s question is: “Of course not!” If he were trying to please humans, he would be disclaiming that he was a slave of Christ.​—1Th 2:4.

1:12

a revelation: Paul uses the Greek word a·po·kaʹly·psis, which literally means “an uncovering” or “a disclosure.” As used in the Christian Greek Scriptures, the word often refers to the revealing of spiritual matters to humans by God and Jesus. In this verse, Paul shows that the good news he preached was revealed to him, not by a human, but by Jesus Christ himself. This fact further established that Paul was a true apostle. Like the other apostles, Paul learned the good news and received his commission directly from Jesus. (1Co 9:1; Eph 3:3) Later in this letter, Paul refers to a specific revelation from Christ directing him to take the circumcision issue to the apostles and elders in Jerusalem.​—See study note on Ga 2:2.

1:13

Judaism: The religious system that was prevalent among the Jewish people in Paul’s day. In the Christian Greek Scriptures, this word occurs only at Ga 1:13, 14. While adherents claimed to follow the Hebrew Scriptures closely, first-century Judaism focused great attention on “the traditions of [the] fathers.” (See study note on Ga 1:14.) Jesus denounced the traditions and the men who made God’s Word invalid.​—Mr 7:8, 13.

intensely: Paul here uses the Greek word hy·per·bo·leʹ to describe how “intensely” (lit., “to the point of excess,” that is, to an extraordinary or extreme degree) he used to persecute the Christian congregation. (Ac 8:1, 3; 9:1, 2; 26:10, 11; Php 3:6) This Greek word occurs eight times in the Christian Greek Scriptures.​—See study notes on 2Co 4:7; 12:7.

1:14

the traditions of my fathers: The Greek word for “tradition” (pa·raʹdo·sis) refers to information, instructions, or practices that have been handed down to others to follow. Paul here refers to the system of religious traditions practiced by the Jewish religious leaders, especially those of the Pharisees and scribes. Their religion was based on the Hebrew Scriptures, but those religious teachers had added many unscriptural traditions. (Mt 15:2, 3; Mr 7:3, 5, 13; see study note on Ga 1:13.) As “a son of Pharisees,” Paul was educated by Jewish religious teachers, such as Gamaliel, who was a highly esteemed teacher in the Pharisaic tradition. (Ac 22:3; 23:6; Php 3:5; see study note on Ac 5:34.) Paul explains, however, that his zeal for the traditional beliefs of his ancestors led to his “persecuting the congregation of God and devastating it.”​—Ga 1:13; Joh 16:2, 3.

1:16

any human: Lit., “flesh and blood,” a common Jewish idiom. In this context, it is used to refer to a human being.​—1Co 15:50; Eph 6:12; see study note on Mt 16:17.

1:17

I went to Arabia, and then I returned to Damascus: Paul’s journey to Arabia is not mentioned in Luke’s brief account of the events that followed Paul’s conversion in Damascus. (Ac 9:18-20, 23-25) So Paul’s statement here complements Luke’s record. Paul may have preached about his newfound faith in Damascus before he departed for Arabia, possibly to the Syrian deserts. (See Glossary, “Arabia.”) After that, he may have returned to Damascus, continuing to preach there until “many days had passed,” and the Jews there plotted to kill him. (Ac 9:23) The purpose of going to Arabia is not revealed, but the newly converted Saul may have sought time for quiet meditation on the Scriptures.​—Compare Mr 1:12.

1:18

Then three years later: Paul may mean that after his conversion, parts of three years elapsed; he may have arrived in Jerusalem in 36 C.E. That visit was likely the first time that Paul was in Jerusalem as a Christian.

to visit: Some scholars suggest that the Greek verb rendered “to visit” may include the idea of visiting with the purpose of obtaining information. When Saul visited Peter and James, he would have many things to ask them, and they would have many questions for him regarding his vision and his commission.

Cephas: One of the names of the apostle Peter.​—See study note on 1Co 1:12.

1:19

apostles: Likely referring to Peter (“Cephas,” Ga 1:18; 2:9) and James the brother of the Lord, that is, Jesus’ half brother. (See study notes on Mt 13:55; Ac 1:14; 12:17.) The term “apostle” basically means “someone sent out,” and it is most frequently used of the 12 apostles of Jesus. (Lu 8:1; see study note on Joh 13:16 and Glossary, “Apostle.”) However, it also has a broader usage, as in this case regarding James. He was apparently viewed as an apostle, that is, one selected and sent forth as a representative of the Jerusalem congregation. Such a use of this word would explain why the account at Ac 9:26, 27 uses the title in the plural, saying that Paul was led “to the apostles.”

1:21

Syria and Cilicia: Paul seems to use the word regions in a general sense. “Syria” may simply refer to the area around Antioch, and “Cilicia,” to the area around Tarsus, where Paul grew up. (See App. B13.) After his visit to Jerusalem about 36 C.E., Paul was sent back to Tarsus, and then Barnabas brought him to Antioch about 45 C.E., where the two men preached for a whole year. (Ac 9:28-30; 11:22-26) While little is known of how Paul spent the eight or so years prior to that, he was apparently so busy in his preaching work that news of his activity reached all the way to Judea. (Ga 1:21-24) Paul’s summary of his trials and challenges, recorded at 2Co 11:23-27, mentions a number of events that are not recorded in the book of Acts. Some of those events might have taken place during this time. (See study note on 2Co 11:25.) Sometime during that period, it seems that he was granted a supernatural vision that had a profound impact on his teaching.​—2Co 12:1-4; see study notes on 2Co 12:2, 4.

2:1

Then after 14 years: Some scholars suggest that Paul may mean “in the 14th year,” that is, a partial year followed by 12 full years and then another partial year. (Compare 1Ki 12:5, 12; see study note on Ga 1:18.) The period likely ran from 36 C.E. when Paul first visited Jerusalem as a Christian to 49 C.E. when he came to Jerusalem with Titus and Barnabas to discuss the circumcision issue with the apostles and elders there.​—Ac 15:2.

2:2

as a result of a revelation: Paul here adds a detail not found in Luke’s account in the book of Acts. (Ac 15:1, 2) Christ, as head of the Christian congregation, apparently used a revelation to direct Paul to bring the important issue of circumcision to the apostles and elders in Jerusalem. (Eph 5:23) That historic meeting took place about 49 C.E. By mentioning this revelation, Paul further countered the Judaizers, who insisted that he was no true apostle. Jesus himself not only commissioned Paul but also gave him directions by means of revelations, proving that Paul was indeed a true apostle.​—Ga 1:1, 15, 16.

I am preaching: The Greek word basically means “to make proclamation as a public messenger.” It stresses the manner of the proclamation, usually an open, public declaration rather than a sermon to a group.​—See study note on Mt 3:1.

2:3

not even Titus . . . was compelled to be circumcised: When the circumcision issue arose in Antioch (c. 49 C.E.), Titus accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem. (Ac 15:1, 2; Ga 2:1) He was “a Greek,” an uncircumcised Gentile. (See study note on a Greek in this verse.) The use of the verb “to compel” in this verse may suggest that some Judaizers, or Christians who advocated following Jewish beliefs and customs, tried to pressure Titus to get circumcised. However, at the meeting in Jerusalem, the apostles and elders ruled that Gentile Christians did not need to get circumcised. (Ac 15:23-29) Paul refers to Titus’ case here because it added weight to his argument that converts to Christianity are not under the Mosaic Law. Titus performed his ministry primarily among uncircumcised people of the nations, so his uncircumcised state did not create an issue. (2Co 8:6; 2Ti 4:10; Tit 1:4, 5) Thus, his case differed from that of Timothy, whom Paul had circumcised.​—See study note on Ac 16:3.

a Greek: Titus is described as a Greek (Helʹlen). This may simply mean that he was of Greek descent. However, some first-century writers used the plural form (Helʹle·nes) in referring to non-Greeks who had adopted the Greek language and culture. It is possible that Titus was Greek in that broader sense.​—See study note on Ro 1:16.

2:4

false brothers: The Greek word for “false brother” (pseu·daʹdel·phos) is found only here and at 2Co 11:26. One lexicon defines the word as “a Christian in name only.” The Judaizers in the Galatian congregations posed as spiritual men, while in reality, they sought to direct the congregation back to strict adherence to the Mosaic Law. (See study note on Ga 1:6.) Paul said that such men were “brought in quietly” and that they “slipped in to spy” on Christian freedom, showing that these men used subtle tactics to spread their dangerous teachings.​—Compare 2Co 11:13-15.

2:5

the truth of the good news: This expression, which also occurs in verse 14, refers to the whole body of Christian teachings in God’s Word.

2:6

God: Greek manuscripts read “God” here, but a few translations of the Christian Greek Scriptures into Hebrew and other languages use the divine name.

2:7

those who are uncircumcised: Lit., “those who are of the uncircumcision,” that is, the non-Jews.

just as Peter: Paul here shows that those taking the lead in the congregation cooperated with one another. (See study note on Ga 2:9.) The governing body in Jerusalem agreed that Paul had been entrusted with a ministry focusing on non-Jews, while Peter’s focus was primarily on preaching to the Jews. However, neither Paul’s assignment nor Peter’s was exclusive. It was Peter who had first opened up the work of preaching to Gentiles. (Ac 10:44-48; 11:18) And Paul witnessed to a great many Jews, as his commission from Christ included preaching “to the nations as well as to . . . the sons of Israel.” (Ac 9:15) Both men obediently carried out their respective commissions. For example, Peter later traveled E to serve in Babylon, which had a sizable Jewish population and was renowned as a center of Jewish learning. (1Pe 5:13) Paul carried out missionary journeys that extended far to the W, perhaps as far as Spain.

those who are circumcised: Lit., “those who are of the circumcision,” that is, the Jews.

2:8

empowered Peter for an apostleship . . . empowered me: The Greek verb e·ner·geʹo is here rendered “empowered.” In some of its other occurrences, the verb has been rendered “to be at work,” “to operate,” or “to energize.” (Eph 2:2; 3:20; Php 2:13; Col 1:29) In this context, it seems to convey the idea that God gave Peter and Paul not only the authority to act as apostles but also the capability to carry out their responsibilities.

2:9

Cephas: One of the names of the apostle Peter.​—See study note on 1Co 1:12.

pillars: Just as a literal pillar provides support to a structure, so the men here described as figurative pillars were a source of support and strength to the congregation. The same word is used to call the Christian congregation “a pillar and support of the truth” (1Ti 3:15) and to describe the fiery legs of an angel (Re 10:1-3). James, Cephas, and John were known to be like pillars​—solidly fixed, spiritually strong, and reliable in their support of the congregation.

the right hand of fellowship: Or “the right hand of partnership.” A handshake or the grasping of another’s hand denoted joint participation, fellowship, or partnership. (2Ki 10:15) About 49 C.E., the apostle Paul visited Jerusalem to take part in the discussion by the first-century governing body on the matter of circumcision. (Ac 15:6-29) During this visit, he apparently met with James, Peter, and John to discuss the commission that Paul had received from the Lord Jesus Christ to preach the good news. (Ac 9:15; 13:2; 1Ti 1:12) Paul here recalls the spirit of unity and cooperation evident in that meeting and afterward. The brothers saw clearly that they all shared the same work. They agreed that Paul and Barnabas should go to the nations, or the Gentiles, in their preaching work, while James, Peter, and John would focus on preaching to those who [were] circumcised, or the Jews.

2:10

keep the poor in mind: About 49 C.E., Peter, James, and John gave Paul and his fellow worker Barnabas a commission. (Ga 2:9) They were to keep the material needs of impoverished Christians in mind as they preached to the nations. Here Paul reports that he earnestly endeavored to do so. When the Christians in Judea later came into need, Paul encouraged the congregations in other locations to share material things with their needy brothers in Jerusalem. Paul’s letters reveal the attention that he gave to this matter. In both of his inspired letters to the Corinthian Christians (c. 55 C.E.), he wrote about the collection; he said that he had already given directions on this matter “to the congregations of Galatia.” (1Co 16:1-3; 2Co 8:1-8; 9:1-5; see study notes on 1Co 16:1, 3; 2Co 8:2.) About 56 C.E. when Paul wrote to the Christians in Rome, the collection was almost complete. (Ro 15:25, 26) Paul fulfilled his commission shortly thereafter, for later he told Roman Governor Felix: “I arrived to bring gifts of mercy to my nation.” (Ac 24:17) Such loving concern for the needs of fellow Christians was one of the identifying marks of first-century Christianity.​—Joh 13:35.

2:11

Cephas: One of the names of the apostle Peter.​—See study note on 1Co 1:12.

resisted: Or “confronted.” After noticing that the apostle Peter refused to associate with non-Jewish brothers because of fear of man, Paul took the initiative and “resisted him face-to-face,” reproving him before all who were present. The Greek word translated “resisted” literally means “stood against.”​—Ga 2:11-14.

2:12

eat with people of the nations: Meals were occasions for fellowship that customarily included prayers, so it is understandable that the Jews generally did not share meals with Gentiles. In fact, the Israelites were commanded never to mingle with the nations that remained in the Promised Land, not even mentioning their gods. (Jos 23:6, 7) By the first century C.E., Jewish religious leaders had added their own restrictions, insisting that entering a Gentile home led to ceremonial uncleanness.​—Joh 18:28.

he stopped doing this and separated himself: In 36 C.E., Peter, who was a Jewish Christian, used the third of “the keys of the Kingdom” to open up the opportunity for Cornelius and his household to become the first Christians who were not Jews or Jewish proselytes. (See study note on Mt 16:19.) Peter stayed in Cornelius’ home for days, no doubt sharing a number of meals with his Gentile hosts. (Ac 10:48; 11:1-17) He rightly continued the practice of eating with Gentile Christians. However, some 13 years later, while in Syrian Antioch, Peter suddenly “stopped doing this.” He feared the reaction of some Jewish Christians who had come from Jerusalem. These men had come from James, apparently meaning that they had associated with James, who was in Jerusalem. (See study note on Ac 15:13.) These men were slow to accept change and still insisted on strict adherence to the Mosaic Law and certain Jewish customs. (See study note on Ac 10:28.) Peter’s conduct could have undermined a decision that the governing body made in the same year as Peter’s visit, about 49 C.E. That decision had confirmed that Gentile Christians were not required to obey the Mosaic Law. (Ac 15:23-29) Paul here reviews the incident at Antioch, not to embarrass Peter, but to adjust a wrong view held among the Galatians.

those of the circumcised class: Lit., “the (ones) out of circumcision,” that is, some circumcised Jewish Christians who were visiting from the congregation in Jerusalem. In other occurrences, the same Greek expression is translated “the supporters of circumcision,” “those circumcised,” and “those who adhere to the circumcision.”​—Ac 11:2; Col 4:11; Tit 1:10.

2:13

joined him in putting on this pretense . . . in their pretense: Two related Greek expressions occur here, a verb (sy·ny·po·kriʹno·mai) and a noun (hy·poʹkri·sis). Both were originally used to refer to Greek stage actors who wore masks when playing their parts. The second occurrence of “pretense” in this verse is rendered from the noun. That noun occurs six times in the Christian Greek Scriptures and is rendered “hypocrisy” elsewhere. (Mt 23:28; Mr 12:15; Lu 12:1; 1Ti 4:2; 1Pe 2:1; on the related word “hypocrite,” see study notes on Mt 6:2; Lu 6:42.) According to some lexicons, the Greek verb rendered “joined . . . in putting on this pretense” is here used figuratively, meaning “to join in playing a part or pretending” or “to join in hypocrisy.”

2:14

Cephas: One of the names of the apostle Peter.​—See study note on 1Co 1:12.

2:16

is declared righteous: In the Christian Greek Scriptures, the verb di·kai·oʹo and the related nouns di·kaiʹo·ma and di·kaiʹo·sis, traditionally rendered “to justify” and “justification,” carry the basic idea of a person being cleared of any charge, held as guiltless, and therefore pronounced righteous and treated as such. (See study note on Ro 3:24.) Some in the Galatian congregations were being influenced by Judaizers, who were attempting to establish their own righteousness by works of the law of Moses. (Ga 5:4; see study note on Ga 1:6.) However, Paul stressed that only through faith in Jesus Christ would it be possible to gain a righteous standing with God. Jesus sacrificed his perfect life, providing the basis for God to declare righteous those exercising faith in Christ.​—Ro 3:19-24; 10:3, 4; Ga 3:10-12, 24.

2:18

the very things that I once tore down: Paul at one time was zealous for Judaism, believing that he could gain a righteous standing with God by works of the Mosaic Law. (See study note on Ga 1:13.) But he figuratively tore down that belief when he became a Christian. (Ga 2:15, 16) His opposers claimed that Christians could gain salvation only by strictly following the Law. (Ga 1:9; 5:2-12) Paul explains here that if he put himself​—or if any of the other Jewish Christians put themselves​—back under the Mosaic Law, the result would be to build up again those “very things.” He would also again make himself a transgressor of that Law, subject to its condemnation.​—See study note on Ga 3:19.

2:19

through law I died toward law: Paul’s words form part of an argument showing that he could not attain a righteous standing before God through “works of law.” (Ga 2:16) The Mosaic Law condemned Paul as a sinner deserving of death, since he could not keep the Law perfectly. (Ro 7:7-11) However, Paul says that he “died toward law” in the sense that he had been freed from the Law. That Law covenant was legally terminated on the basis of Jesus’ death on the torture stake. (Col 2:13, 14) That is why Paul could write to the Christians in Rome that they were “made dead to the Law through the body of the Christ.” (Ro 7:4) When Christians exercised faith in Christ’s sacrifice, they “died toward law.” Because the Law was what led Paul to Christ, Paul could say that it was “through law” that he “died toward law.”​—See study notes on Ga 3:24 and 3:25.

2:20

I am nailed to the stake along with Christ: The Gospels use the Greek verb syn·stau·roʹo of those who were literally put on stakes alongside Jesus. (Mt 27:44; Mr 15:32; Joh 19:32; see study note on Ro 6:6.) Like other Christians, Paul lives by faith in the Son of God. (Ga 3:13; Col 2:14) By showing faith in the executed Christ, a Jewish Christian lives as a follower of Christ, not of the Law.​—Ro 10:4; 2Co 5:15; see study note on Ga 2:19.

in the flesh: That is, as a human.

who loved me and handed himself over for me: Here Paul’s use of the pronoun “me” focuses on the benefits of Christ’s gift to each individual who chooses to exercise faith in Jesus. (See study note on Joh 3:16.) Paul understood and accepted Christ’s great love for him as an individual, so he was motivated to be loving and warm and generous to others. (See study note on 2Co 5:14; compare 2Co 6:11-13; 12:15.) He appreciated that Jesus had called him to be a disciple even though he had opposed Christ’s followers. Paul understood that Jesus, as an expression of love, gave up his life not only for righteous people but also for those who were weighed down with sin. (Compare Mt 9:12, 13.) While highlighting that Christ’s sacrifice applied to him personally, Paul clearly knew that the ransom would benefit an untold number of people.

2:21

Christ actually died for nothing: Paul emphasizes that if a person could be declared righteous through law, that is, by performing works of the Mosaic Law, Christ’s death would have been unnecessary. In this verse, Paul also explains that anyone who tries to earn the gift of life is, in effect, rejecting the undeserved kindness of God.​—Ro 11:5, 6; Ga 5:4.

3:1

O senseless Galatians!: The Greek word for “senseless” (a·noʹe·tos) does not necessarily mean that the Galatian Christians lacked intelligence. In this context, it refers to “unwillingness to use one’s mental faculties in order to understand,” as one lexicon puts it. Paul had just reminded the Galatian Christians that they had been declared righteous, not because they had kept the Mosaic Law, but because they had faith in Jesus Christ. (Ga 2:15-21) Jesus had freed them from the condemnation of the Mosaic Law. (See study note on Ga 2:21.) Foolishly, some Galatians were forsaking that precious freedom and were returning to an obsolete Law that could only condemn them. (Ga 1:6) By exclaiming “O senseless Galatians!” Paul rebuked them for taking this step backward.

Galatians: Apparently Paul here refers to the Christians in the congregations located in those southern parts of Galatia where he had preached.​—See study note on Ga 1:2.

has brought you under this evil influence: The expression is translated from the Greek verb ba·skaiʹno, used only here in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The term was sometimes used to mean “to bewitch” or “to put a spell on,” which is how many English Bibles render this word. However, in ancient Greek, that verb also had a figurative meaning, so it did not always signify that a magical power was at work to mislead someone. Paul uses the term in the broader sense of leading others astray and wrongly influencing them. He is vividly characterizing the negative influence of those who were trying to mislead the Galatians.

3:3

After starting on a spiritual course: Lit., “After starting in spirit.” The Christians in Galatia had started to grow toward spiritual maturity. At the beginning of their course, they were acting in harmony with God’s holy spirit and following its guidance.

are you finishing on a fleshly course?: Lit., “are you being completed in flesh?” “After starting on a spiritual course,” the Galatian Christians were now being influenced by men who were not guided by God’s spirit, especially those who advocated circumcision and strict adherence to the Mosaic Law. (Ga 3:1; 5:2-6) Such “a fleshly course” could result in their failing to attain spiritual maturity and could endanger their prospects for eternal life.​—Ga 6:8.

3:6

Jehovah: In this quote from Ge 15:6, the divine name, represented by four Hebrew consonants (transliterated YHWH), occurs in the original Hebrew text. (See App. C1 and C2.) Existing Greek manuscripts have the word The·osʹ (God) here, perhaps reflecting the term used at Ge 15:6 in available copies of the Septuagint. This usage may explain why most translations use “God” here. However, the original Hebrew text from which this quotation is taken contains the Tetragrammaton, and therefore the divine name is used here in the main text. The whole phrase taken from Ge 15:6 is also quoted at Ro 4:3 and Jas 2:23.

3:7

sons of Abraham: The covenant of circumcision was originally made with Abraham. Apparently, “the false brothers” were arguing that Christians would be “sons of Abraham” only if they kept the Law. (Ga 2:4; 3:1, 2; Ge 17:10; see Glossary, “Circumcision.”) However, Paul explains that true “sons of Abraham” are those who adhere to faith, that is, those who have faith like that of Abraham.​—Ga 3:9; see study note on Ga 3:29.

3:9

who had faith: In this verse, the Greek word pi·stosʹ, rendered “who had faith,” describes someone who puts trust in, or who has faith in, someone or something. It could also convey the meaning “faithful.”​—See study note on 2Co 6:15.

3:10

it is written: “Cursed is everyone who”: Paul here quotes De 27:26, which shows that if the Jews violated the Law that they agreed to follow (Ex 24:3), they would come under the curses written in it. The word “cursed” (Greek, e·pi·ka·taʹra·tos) refers to being condemned by God. (See Glossary, “Curse.”) Paul showed that all the Jews needed to be redeemed not only from the sin of Adam but also from the curse of the Law.​—Ro 5:12; Ga 3:10-13; see study note on Ga 3:13.

3:11

the righteous one will live by reason of faith: Paul quotes from Hab 2:4 when he emphasizes that faith in Christ Jesus​—not works of the Mosaic Law​—is the true basis on which Christians can be declared righteous.​—Ro 10:3, 4; see study notes on Ro 1:17.

3:13

becoming a curse instead of us: The Mosaic Law stated that those who were under that covenant and who violated its laws would be cursed. (See study note on Ga 3:10.) In this verse, Paul quotes De 21:22, 23, which shows that the bodies of those who were “accursed of God” were hung on stakes. So Jesus had to be hung on a stake as a cursed criminal to benefit the Jewish people. He assumed the full weight of the curse that the Law imposed on them. His death thus enabled any Jew who chose to put faith in him as the Messiah to be relieved of that curse. Paul’s point here may echo Jesus’ words to the Pharisee Nicodemus.​—See study note on Joh 3:14.

a stake: See study note on Ac 5:30.

3:15

a covenant: The Greek word di·a·theʹke is used 33 times in the Christian Greek Scriptures, always in the sense of “a covenant” or an “agreement.” (Mt 26:28; Lu 22:20; 1Co 11:25; Ga 3:17; 4:24; Heb 8:6, 8; 10:16, 29; 12:24) A number of Bible translations render the Greek word di·a·theʹke as a person’s “will,” or testament, in this verse. However, in view of the immediate context in which God’s covenant with Abraham is discussed (Ga 3:16-18), the rendering “covenant” seems appropriate in this verse also.​—See study note on Ga 3:17.

3:16

the promises were spoken to Abraham and to his offspring: Under inspiration, Paul identifies Jesus Christ as the primary part of the offspring of Abraham. (The Greek word sperʹma, literally “seed,” is often rendered “offspring” in connection with Jehovah’s promises about the Messiah. See App. A2.) After the rebellion in Eden, Jehovah promised that a “woman” would produce an “offspring” who would crush the head of the serpent, Satan. (Ge 3:15) Jehovah’s covenant with Abraham stated that his offspring would bring blessings to mankind. (Ge 12:1-3, 7; 13:14, 15; 17:7; 22:15-18; 24:7; Ga 3:8) God also revealed that the offspring would be a descendant of King David of the tribe of Judah, which was true of Jesus. (Ge 49:10; Ps 89:3, 4; Lu 1:30-33; see study note on your descendants . . . your offspring in this verse.) At Ga 3:26-29, Paul indicates that in the spiritual fulfillment of the promise to Abraham, there would be a secondary part of Abraham’s offspring.​—See study note on Ga 3:29.

It does not say: Or possibly, “He does not say.” In Greek, the reference could be either to the scripture that Paul is quoting or to God. The implied subject is “it,” referring to the scripture that Paul is quoting. However, it is possible to understand that “He,” referring to God, is the subject of the sentence.

your descendants . . . your offspring: Lit., “your seeds . . . your seed.” Paul refers to God’s promises to Abraham and his “offspring.” (Ge 12:7; 13:14, 15; 17:7; 22:17, 18; 24:7) In those promises regarding Abraham’s “offspring” (lit., “seed”), the Hebrew and Greek terms used are in the singular form. However, they often refer to such offspring in a collective sense. Here, Paul contrasts the Greek word sperʹma in plural (rendered “descendants”) with the singular form (rendered “offspring”). He makes this distinction to show that when speaking of the blessings to come through Abraham’s offspring, God made primary reference to one person, namely, Christ. The promise that all the families of the earth would be blessed by means of Abraham’s “offspring” could not have included all of his descendants, since the offspring of his son Ishmael and those of his sons by Keturah were not used to bless humankind. The promised offspring was to come through Isaac (Ge 21:12; Heb 11:18); then the line of descent was narrowed down to Isaac’s son Jacob (Ge 28:13, 14), then to the tribe of Judah (Ge 49:10), and then to the line of David (2Sa 7:12-16). Jesus was a descendant of Abraham, from that one line, or family. (Mt 1:1-16; Lu 3:23-34) Therefore, the Jews in the first century C.E. were actually looking for one person to come as the Messiah, or Christ, as the deliverer. (Lu 3:15; Joh 1:25; 7:41, 42) They also thought that they, Abraham’s literal offspring, would be the favored people and as such God’s children.​—Joh 8:39-41.

3:17

430 years: Paul here refers to the time that elapsed between the making of the Abrahamic covenant and the Mosaic Law covenant. It seems that the covenant between Jehovah and Abraham took effect in 1943 B.C.E. when Abraham and his family crossed the Euphrates River on their way to Canaan, the land that God had promised to their descendants. (Ge 12:4, 5, 7) This apparently took place on the 14th day of the month later known as Nisan. That conclusion is based on Ex 12:41, which states that Jehovah freed his people from Egyptian bondage “430 years” later, in 1513 B.C.E., “on this very day.”

the covenant: Or “the agreement.” (See study note on Ga 3:15 and Glossary, “Covenant.”) The first-century Christians would have seen the Greek term for “covenant” in the Septuagint as the rendering of the Hebrew term berithʹ. That term occurs more than 250 times in the Hebrew Scriptures in the sense of a “covenant” or an “agreement.”​—Ex 24:7, 8; Ps 25:10; 83:5, ftn.; see study note on 2Co 3:14.

the covenant previously made by God: This refers to the covenant that God made with Abraham. That covenant apparently went into effect in 1943 B.C.E. when Abraham crossed the Euphrates River. (Ge 12:1-7) The Law covenant that was made 430 years later, in 1513 B.C.E., did not invalidate, or negate, the Abrahamic covenant but was added to it. It directed the people toward the offspring of Abraham, Jesus Christ.​—Ga 3:15, 16; see study note on Ga 3:24.

3:19

was added: The Greek word rendered “was added” is apparently used by Paul to express the temporary nature of the Mosaic Law, especially when compared with the more enduring Abrahamic covenant and its fulfillment regarding the promised “offspring.”​—Ge 3:15; 22:18; Ga 3:29.

to make transgressions manifest: Paul shows that a major purpose of the Mosaic Law was “to make transgressions manifest,” exposing Israel and all mankind as imperfect sinners before God. (For a comment on the Greek word for “transgression,” see study note on Ro 4:15.) The Law clearly spelled out the full range and scope of sin. Paul could therefore say that it caused trespassing and sin to “increase” in that so many acts and even attitudes were now identified as sinful. (Ro 5:20; 7:7-11; see study note on 1Co 15:56; compare Ps 40:12.) All those who tried to follow the Law found themselves legally convicted by it because it showed up their sinfulness. Its sacrifices continually served to remind them of their sinful state. (Heb 10:1-4, 11) All men needed a perfect sacrifice that could completely atone for their sins.​—Ro 10:4; see study note on the offspring in this verse.

until: Paul’s use of the word “until” indicates that the Law was not intended to last forever. When it had accomplished its purpose, the Law covenant ended.​—Ro 7:6; Ga 3:24, 25.

the offspring: Lit., “the seed.” (See App. A2.) In this context, “the offspring” refers to Jesus Christ.​—See study notes on Ga 3:16.

transmitted through angels: The Hebrew Scriptures do not specifically indicate that angels transmitted the Law covenant. However, the inspired statement found here​—as well as the statements recorded at Ac 7:53 (see study note) and Heb 2:2, 3​—makes that clear. Apparently, Jehovah authorized angels to speak as his representatives to Moses and then to give Moses the two tablets of the Testimony. (Ex 19:9, 11, 18-20; 24:12; 31:18) Still, Jehovah was the actual Lawgiver, and Moses was His appointed mediator of the covenant between God and Israel.

a mediator: The unnamed mediator was Moses. He acted as the intermediary between Jehovah and the nation of Israel for establishing a covenant, or a legally binding agreement, between God and the nation. (See Glossary, “Mediator.”) The Greek word me·siʹtes, translated “mediator,” occurs six times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. (Ga 3:19, 20; 1Ti 2:5; Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24) It is a legal term. According to one lexicon, it means “one who intervenes between two, either in order to make or restore peace and friendship, or to form a compact [that is, an agreement], or for ratifying a covenant.” In mediating the Law covenant, Moses helped the nation of Israel to keep the covenant and to receive its benefits. For example, Moses officiated at the inauguration of the covenant. (Ex 24:3-8; Heb 9:18-22) He installed the priests and put the work of the priesthood into operation. (Le 8:1-36; Heb 7:11) He also conveyed a body of more than 600 laws to the Israelites and pleaded that Jehovah spare them from punishment.​—Nu 16:20-22; 21:7; De 9:18-20, 25-29.

3:20

there is no mediator when just one person is involved: Paul is discussing the covenant that Jehovah made with Abraham. Jehovah made this covenant or promise, and it was up to Him to fulfill it. He set forth no conditions that Abraham had to meet. (Ga 3:18) On the other hand, the Law covenant involved two parties. It was made between Jehovah and the nation of Israel, with Moses as mediator. (See study note on Ga 3:19.) The Israelites agreed to the terms of the covenant, making a sacred promise to obey the Law.​—Ex 24:3-8; Ga 3:17, 19; see Glossary “Covenant.”

God is only one: Greek manuscripts read “God” here, but a few translations of the Christian Greek Scriptures into Hebrew and other languages use the divine name. Paul’s statement echoes the words of De 6:4, which reads: “Jehovah our God is one Jehovah.” Jesus quotes from De 6:4, as recorded at Mr 12:29. (See study notes.) Paul alludes to the same scripture at Ro 3:30 and 1Co 8:4.

3:22

custody of sin: The Greek verb rendered “handed . . . over to the custody of” means “to enclose together; to hem in,” implying that there is little or no prospect of escape. In its literal sense, it could refer to catching fish by enclosing them in a net. (Lu 5:6) The word vividly conveys the idea that imperfect humans are trapped in their sinful state. Paul says that “the Scripture handed all things,” that is, all the descendants of sinful Adam and Eve, “over to the custody of sin.” The Scripture, which contained the Law, clearly showed how sinful each human is in God’s eyes. (See study note on Ga 3:19.) Only Christ could offer hope of escape from this terrible custody.

3:23

before the faith arrived: That is, the faith in Jesus Christ.

handed over into custody: Paul has just shown that humans are in “the custody of sin.” (See study note on Ga 3:22.) In this verse, he uses the same Greek word (rendered “handed over into custody”) to emphasize a different point. The Israelites were being guarded by the Mosaic Law, and that Law guided them “to the faith [in Christ] that was about to be revealed.”

3:24

our guardian leading to Christ: The Greek word for “guardian” (pai·da·go·gosʹ) that Paul used in this illustration literally means “child leader” and may also be rendered “tutor.” The word is used only at Ga 3:24, 25 and 1Co 4:15, where Paul compared Christian ministers to such guardians. (See study note on 1Co 4:15.) With this beautiful metaphor, Paul likens the Mosaic Law to a guardian, or tutor, who would daily accompany a young boy to school. Such a guardian was not the actual teacher; rather, he was responsible for protecting the boy, for helping him to adhere to the standards of the family, and for administering discipline. Similarly, the Mosaic Law strictly upheld God’s standards and helped the Israelites to see that they were sinful, incapable of keeping the Law perfectly. Humble ones who accepted the guidance of this “guardian” understood that they were in need of the Messiah, or Christ, God’s only means of salvation.​—Ac 4:12.

3:25

now that the faith has arrived: Jesus is the only person who fulfilled the Law perfectly. So Paul could say that the faith​—that is, perfect faith​—had arrived. By fulfilling the Law, Jesus gave his followers the opportunity to have an approved standing with Jehovah God. He thus became the “Perfecter of our faith.” (Heb 12:2) Christ would be with his disciples “all the days until the conclusion of the system of things” (Mt 28:20), so there is no need to go back to the care of the guardian. (See study note on Ga 3:24.) Using this reasoning, Paul makes the point that the Mosaic Law became obsolete with the arrival of this perfected faith based on Jesus Christ.

3:27

baptized into Christ: This expression shows that anointed Christians enter into a special relationship with their Lord when they are anointed, or baptized with holy spirit. They become part of the “one body,” the congregation of anointed ones; Jesus Christ is the head of that body. (1Co 12:13; Mr 1:8; Ac 1:5; Re 20:6; see study note on Ro 6:3.) At 1Co 10:2, Paul uses a similar illustration, saying that a people can be “baptized into” a leader or liberator.​—See study note on 1Co 10:2.

have put on Christ: Or “have clothed yourselves with Christ.” The Greek verb also occurs at Col 3:10, 12. One lexicon says that this expression means “to become so possessed of the mind of Christ as in thought, feeling, and action to resemble him and, as it were, reproduce the life he lived.” In his letter to the Romans, Paul uses the same Greek verb in a similar expression.​—See study note on Ro 13:14.

3:28

neither Jew nor Greek: The term “Jew” refers to those of Jewish descent, the Israelites. (See Glossary, “Jew.”) The term “Greek” is apparently used here in a broader sense to represent all non-Jewish peoples, or Gentiles. (See study note on Ro 1:16.) Thus, from God’s standpoint, it is no longer natural descent from Abraham that determines who are “really Abraham’s offspring.” There is no distinction based on race or nationality because God’s people “are all one.” (Ga 3:26-29; Col 3:11) God shows his impartiality by choosing a new nation, “the Israel of God,” which is made up of both Jews and Gentiles. (Eph 2:11-18; see study note on Ga 6:16.) It was fitting for Paul to emphasize this truth to Christians in the province of Galatia, where there was a mix of Jews, Greeks, Romans, and local peoples.

neither slave nor freeman: A “slave” was an individual who was owned by a fellow man. A “freeman” was one who was born free, possessing full rights of citizenship. (See Glossary, “Freeman; Freedman.”) From God’s viewpoint, there is no difference between a Christian who was a slave and one who was a freeman. All Christians have been bought with Jesus’ precious blood and are slaves of God and of Christ Jesus.​—1Co 7:22 (see study note), 23; 1Pe 1:18, 19; 2:16.

3:29

you are really Abraham’s offspring: The primary part of the offspring of Abraham is Christ. (Ge 22:17; see study note on Ga 3:16.) Paul here indicates that others who “belong to Christ” are added as a secondary part of “Abraham’s offspring” (lit., “Abraham’s seed”). (Mr 9:41; 1Co 15:23) This secondary part will be made up of 144,000 spirit-anointed Christians. (Re 5:9, 10; 14:1, 4) Some of those Christians are natural Jews, but most are from the Gentile nations.​—Ac 3:25, 26; Ga 3:8, 9, 28.

4:2

under supervisors and stewards: In Paul’s day, the arrangement of the guardianship of a minor was well-known. A supervisor could be legally appointed to act as a guardian for a minor and to manage the child’s financial affairs. Stewards, on the other hand, managed the financial affairs of an entire household. In either case, when “the heir [was] a young child,” he might theoretically be “lord” of his inheritance, but he had no more rights over it than a slave did. (Ga 4:1) His life was controlled by others until he reached adulthood. Paul compares such arrangements to the Jews’ being under the Law until the appointed time came when God’s Son released them.​—Ga 4:4-7.

4:3

the elementary things: This expression generally means “the rudimentary elements of anything.” For example, it was applied to the individual sounds and letters of the Greek alphabet, the basic components used to form words. Paul uses the expression here and at Col 2:8, 20 in a negative sense to refer to the basic principles that guide the world, that is, the world of mankind alienated from God. These could include (1) philosophies based on human reasoning and mythology (Col 2:8), (2) unscriptural Jewish teachings that promoted asceticism and “worship of the angels” (Col 2:18), and (3) the teaching that Christians must observe the Mosaic Law in order to gain salvation (Ga 4:4–5:4; Col 2:16, 17). The Galatian Christians had no need of such “elementary things,” for they had a superior way of worship based on faith in Christ Jesus. Christians were not to be like children who were enslaved by the elementary things, voluntarily placing themselves under the Mosaic Law, which Paul likened to a guardian. (Ga 3:23-26) Rather, they were to be like grown sons in a relationship with their Father, God. The Christians certainly should not turn back to the Law or to any of “the weak and beggarly elementary things” promoted by those who were not following Christ.​—Ga 4:9.

4:4

the full limit of the time: Lit., “the fullness of time.” Some Bible translations render this expression “the appropriate time”; “the appointed time.” This verse indicates that Jehovah set a fixed time for his only-begotten Son to come to the earth as the Messiah in fulfillment of God’s promise to raise up an “offspring.” (Ge 3:15; 49:10) The apostle Peter also refers to a “particular time” or “season” in connection with Christ. (1Pe 1:10-12) The inspired Hebrew Scriptures indicated that there was a specific time for the Messiah to appear. (Da 9:25) When Jesus was born in the year 2 B.C.E., he was born of a woman, the Jewish virgin Mary.

was under law: During his earthly ministry, Jesus kept the Mosaic Law as one who was born a Jew. (Mt 5:17; see study note on Lu 22:20.) The Law was abolished only after his death.​—Ro 10:4.

4:5

release by purchase: Jesus released by purchase those under law, that is, believing Jews. Paul goes on to say “so that we” (apparently referring to all Galatians who have become Christians, both Jews and Gentiles) can “receive the adoption as sons.” The Greek word e·xa·go·raʹzo, here rendered “release by purchase,” is also used at Ga 3:13, where Paul says: “Christ purchased us, releasing us from the curse of the Law by becoming a curse instead of us.”​—See study note on Ga 3:13.

the adoption as sons: In the Christian Greek Scriptures, Paul mentions adoption several times with regard to the new status of those called and chosen by God. Such ones are given the prospect of immortal life in heaven. As descendants of imperfect Adam, they were in slavery to sin and therefore were not born as sons of God. Because of Jesus’ sin-atoning sacrifice, they can receive adoption as sons and become “joint heirs with Christ.” (Ro 8:14-17) They themselves do not choose to be adopted as his sons. Rather, God chooses them, according to his will. (Eph 1:5) God acknowledges them as his children, or sons, from the time that he begets them by his spirit. (Joh 1:12, 13; 1Jo 3:1) But they must continue faithful until the end of their life as humans in order to receive the full realization of being adopted as spirit sons of God. (Ro 8:17; Re 21:7) That is why Paul says: “We are earnestly waiting for adoption as sons, the release from our bodies by ransom.” (Ro 8:23; see study note on Ro 8:15.) The concept of adoption was widely known in ancient times. In the Greco-Roman world, adoption was primarily intended for the benefit of the adopter, not of the one being adopted. However, Paul emphasizes that Jehovah has lovingly taken steps for the benefit of those being adopted.​—Ga 4:3, 4.

4:6

the spirit of his Son: Here “spirit” refers to God’s holy spirit, or active force, which God by means of his Son sends into the hearts of Christians when anointing them.​—Compare Ac 2:33 and study note on Ac 16:7.

Abba: A Hebrew or Aramaic word (transliterated into Greek) that occurs three times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. The word literally means “the father” or “O Father” and was an endearing form of address used by a son to a beloved father. (See study note on Mr 14:36.) Paul uses it here and at Ro 8:15, both times in connection with Christians called to be spirit-begotten sons of God. Since they had now been adopted as God’s sons, they could address Jehovah with an expression that a slave could not use of his master unless he had received such an adoption. So while anointed Christians are “slaves to God” and are “bought with a price,” they are also sons in the house of a loving Father. Holy spirit makes them clearly aware of this status.​—Ro 6:22; 1Co 7:23.

Father: All three instances of Abba in the Christian Greek Scriptures are followed by the translation ho pa·terʹ in Greek, which literally means “the father” or “O Father.”

4:9

you have come to know God: Many of the Galatian Christians had “come to know God” through Paul’s preaching. The verb rendered “come to know” and “be known” in this verse may denote a favorable relationship between the person and the one he knows. (1Co 8:3; 2Ti 2:19) So “to know God” is not just a matter of knowing basic facts about God. It involves cultivating a personal relationship with him.​—See study note on Joh 17:3.

or, rather, have come to be known by God: Using this wording, Paul shows that to “come to know God,” a person must also be recognized as known, or approved, by Him. One lexicon defines the Greek word for “to know; be known” as to “have a personal relationship involving recognition of another’s identity or value.” To enjoy such favorable recognition from God, a person must conduct himself in a way that is in harmony with God’s personality, ways, and dealings.

beggarly: Some Galatian Christians were turning back again to the “elementary things” they had formerly practiced. These may have included such things as human philosophies or the idea that Christians should return to keeping the Mosaic Law or at least parts of it. (Col 2:8, 16-18, 20; see study note on Ga 4:3.) Paul describes these “elementary things” as “beggarly,” using a Greek term that literally means “poor, needy.” In a figurative sense, the term could mean “miserable” or “worthless.” Such things were truly “beggarly” in comparison with the spiritual riches obtainable through Christ Jesus.

4:10

days and months and seasons and years: Paul here refers to special occasions that God’s people were required to commemorate under the Mosaic Law. For example, there were the Sabbaths and sabbath years (Ex 20:8-10; Le 25:4, 8, 11), the new moon observances (Nu 10:10; 2Ch 2:4), the annual Day of Atonement (Le 16:29-31), the Passover (Ex 12:24-27), the Festival of Unleavened Bread (Le 23:6), the Festival of Weeks (Ex 34:22), and the Festival of Booths (Le 23:34). Each of these events took place at designated times. Some of the Christians in Galatia were formerly under the Mosaic Law and for many years had faithfully observed it. However, on learning of Christ’s ransom sacrifice, they happily accepted its benefits and the freedom from servitude to the Mosaic Law. (Ac 13:38, 39) Paul rightly feared for those who were again becoming enslaved to the Law and who were scrupulously commemorating those special occasions. (Ga 4:11) Likewise, if any Gentiles who became Christians returned to some of the religious observances from their pagan past, this would show a lack of faith in Christ’s ransom sacrifice.

4:13

because of a physical illness: Paul might have suffered from an affliction of the eyes. (Ga 4:15; 6:11; compare Ac 23:1-5.) Whatever the health problem referred to here, it led in some way to Paul’s first opportunity to declare the good news in Galatia. This may have been about 47-48 C.E., during his first missionary tour. It was then that he and Barnabas traveled into Galatia, there visiting the cities of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe. (Ac 13:14, 51; 14:6, 21) Later, about 49 C.E., prior to writing this letter, Paul revisited those cities in Galatia.​—Ac 15:40–16:1.

4:15

you would have gouged out your eyes and given them to me: Paul uses a common figure of speech to emphasize how much affection the Galatians had for him. They would have been willing to sacrifice anything in his behalf, even something as precious as their eyesight. His use of this expression was especially appropriate if he suffered from a chronic eye affliction, which may have been the “physical illness” he had just mentioned.​—Ga 4:13, 14; see also Ac 23:2-5; 2Co 12:7-9; Ga 6:11.

4:19

my little children: In this verse, Paul compares himself to a mother and the Christians in Galatia to his children. Regarding them, he says: for whom I am again experiencing birth pains. Paul is apparently referring to his deep interest in the Galatian believers and his fervent desire to see them develop fully as Christians. Although some ancient manuscripts use the Greek word for “child” (teʹknon) here, other authoritative manuscripts use the diminutive form (te·kniʹon) of this word. Therefore, the New World Translation uses the expression “little children.” In the Christian Greek Scriptures, a diminutive is often used to indicate affection and familiarity, so this Greek word could also be rendered “dear children” or “beloved children.”​—See Glossary, “Diminutive.”

4:22

the free woman: This term is used with reference to Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and “the Jerusalem above.” (Ga 4:26) Paul compares the enslaved Jerusalem of his day with the servant girl Hagar. (Ga 4:25) The nation of Israel, with its capital Jerusalem, could not be called a free woman because the Law did not give it that status. Rather, the Law showed that the Israelites were subject to sin, hence they were slaves. In contrast, God’s figurative wife, the Jerusalem above, has always been, like Sarah, a free woman. Those who become “children . . . of the free woman” have been set free by the Son of God from the bondage of sin and the Mosaic Law.​—Ga 4:31; 5:1 and study note; Joh 8:34-36.

4:23

through natural descent: Lit., “according to the flesh.”​—See study note on Ro 1:3.

4:24

taken as a symbolic drama: Or “considered as an allegory.” Here Paul uses an allegory, that is, a narrative in which people, objects, and events serve as symbols of other things. In this symbolic drama, based on Genesis 16 through 21, Paul contrasts “the free woman” (Sarah) with “the servant girl” (Hagar).​—Ga 4:22–5:1; see Media Gallery, “Two Women in a Symbolic Drama.”

these women mean two covenants: These covenants were apparently the Mosaic Law covenant and the Abrahamic covenant. Hagar and Sarah themselves are not these covenants. In the prophetic drama, however, they correspond to different aspects of God’s relationship with his people​—the Law covenant involving figurative slavery and the Abrahamic covenant leading to true freedom.

4:29

through natural descent: Lit., “according to the flesh.”​—See study note on Ro 1:3.

began persecuting: Paul here refers to Ge 21:9, where the account says that Ishmael “was mocking Isaac.” Ishmael was the one born through natural descent. Isaac is called the one born through spirit because Jehovah used His holy spirit to revive the reproductive powers of Abraham and Sarah in order to fulfill His promise. (Ge 12:3; 13:14-16; 17:7-9, 19; Ga 4:28) In relating the part of the “symbolic drama” where Ishmael was persecuting Isaac (Ga 4:24), Paul made a connection to his day by saying so also now; he explains that Jesus’ spirit-anointed followers, “children of the promise” (Ga 4:28), were being persecuted by natural Jews, who viewed themselves as Abraham’s legitimate heirs.

5:1

For such freedom Christ set us free: By using the Greek words for “freedom” and “free” several times in his letter, Paul emphasizes “the freedom we enjoy in union with Christ Jesus.” (Ga 2:4) He contrasts this freedom with the slavery he described in the preceding chapter. The above expression could also be rendered “With her freedom, Christ set us free,” which would highlight that such freedom can be enjoyed only as children of “Jerusalem above,” the free woman.​—Ga 4:26.

a yoke of slavery: The Law given to the nation of Israel was righteous and holy. (Ro 7:12) Thus, it was impossible for imperfect humans to observe the Law perfectly. Anyone returning to that Law after becoming a Christian would “be confined again in a yoke of slavery” because the Law would condemn him as a sinner and a slave to sin. Christ’s ransom sacrifice brought freedom from that “yoke.”​—Ac 15:10; Ga 5:1-6; see Glossary, “Yoke.”

5:7

You were running well: Paul here uses the metaphor of running a race to describe how the Galatian Christians had successfully been pursuing the Christian way of life. He uses similar figures of speech several times in his letters. (Compare Ga 2:2; see study note on 1Co 9:24.) The Bible often uses the concepts of walking and running to denote following a certain course of action.​—Ge 5:22; 6:9; Eph 4:17; 5:2.

5:9

leaven: Or “yeast.”​—See Glossary and study note on 1Co 5:6.

ferments: Or “spreads through; affects.” The Greek verb used here, zy·moʹo (to leaven), is related to the noun for “leaven,” zyʹme, also used in this verse. Paul uses the same phrase (“A little leaven ferments the whole batch of dough”), apparently a proverbial saying, at 1Co 5:6. Paul’s point is that just as a little leaven ferments a whole batch of dough, so false teachers (in this case advocates of circumcision) and their teachings can corrupt an entire congregation.

5:11

the stumbling block: Or “the offense.”​—See study notes on Mt 13:57; 18:7.

the stumbling block of the torture stake: Jesus’ death on the torture stake was the basis for removing the Law. Paul and other Christians preached the message that faith in Christ’s sacrifice was the sole way to gain salvation. (Col 2:13, 14; see study note on Ga 5:1.) That message became a stumbling block, that is, a cause for offense, to Jews who insisted that circumcision and adherence to the Mosaic Law were essential for gaining God’s approval.​—See study note on 1Co 1:23.

torture stake: Or “execution stake.”​—See study note on 1Co 1:17.

5:12

emasculate themselves: Or “castrate themselves; become (make themselves) eunuchs.” Lit., “cut themselves off.” Paul’s strong, even sarcastic, language is not meant to be taken literally. Paul uses hyperbole when he wishes that advocates of circumcision make themselves physical eunuchs. (See Glossary, “Eunuch.”) By doing so, they would disqualify themselves from performing the very Law that they were promoting. (De 23:1) Additionally, some commentators feel that Paul alludes to castration rites of some pagan worshippers, putting those who insisted on circumcision on the same level as such idolaters.

5:13

You were called to freedom: Here Paul warns that by giving in to fleshly, or sinful, desires, Christians would be abusing the freedom that they enjoy with Christ. (Ga 2:4; 4:24-31) Those who appreciate this freedom use it to slave for one another out of love, serving others in a humble manner.​—See study notes on Ga 5:1, 14.

an opportunity to pursue fleshly desires: Lit., “an opportunity for the flesh.” The Greek term for “flesh” (sarx) occurs several times in the verses that follow. (Ga 5:16-19) Here it refers to the sinful nature of humans.​—See study note on Ga 5:19.

through love slave for one another: Paul encourages Christians not to use their lives to pursue selfish goals but to slave for their fellow believers out of love. His use of the verb “to slave” may imply that they should humbly treat one another with dignity and respect, as a slave would a master. The expression “slave for one another” could also be translated “serve one another in a humble manner.”

5:14

has been fulfilled: The Greek expression can mean two things: One rendering could be that the Mosaic Law “finds its fulfillment” in this one commandment. Another possible rendering is that it “finds its full expression” in this commandment. In either case, a person fulfills the entire Law by showing love because love is the basis of the Law. In this verse, Paul quotes the commandment found at Le 19:18. He quotes that same verse at Ro 13:9, where he makes the point that all commandments of the Law are “summed up in this saying” about loving one’s neighbor as oneself. Here at Ga 5:14, some Bible translations read “is summed up,” which is also a possible rendering of the Greek term.

5:16

Keep walking by spirit: In this context, a person who walks by spirit seeks the direction of God’s spirit and allows it to influence his thoughts and actions. Though he may have sinful desires, he rejects them immediately, refusing to entertain them. He thereby avoids becoming a practicer of sin. (Ro 8:4-6; Jas 1:14, 15) Paul contrasts this conduct with conduct governed by any improper fleshly desire.

5:17

the flesh . . . the spirit: In this chapter, Paul often portrays “the flesh” and “the spirit” as being in conflict with each other. Here “the flesh” refers to sinful human nature and “the spirit” refers to God’s holy spirit, though it could also include the impelling force of a person who is guided by holy spirit. (See Glossary, “Spirit.”) God’s spirit is a force for righteousness in his servants, but the sinful flesh wars continually against the spirit’s influence. At Ga 5:19-23, the works of the sinful flesh are contrasted with the fruitage of the holy spirit.​—Compare Ro 7:18-20.

5:19

the works of the flesh: In the preceding verses, Paul describes the constant conflict between “the flesh” and “the spirit.” (Ga 5:13, 17) In the list that follows (verses 19-21), Paul enumerates 15 works, or practices, that are related to “the flesh,” that is, sinful human nature. (See study notes on Mt 26:41; Ga 5:13, 17.) “The works” Paul lists here are the result of what a person thinks about and does when he is influenced by the sinful flesh. (Ro 1:24, 28; 7:21-25) At the end of the list, Paul adds the expression “and things like these” to show that the list was not meant to include every possible work of the flesh.​—See study note on Ga 5:21.

sexual immorality: As used in the Bible, the Greek word por·neiʹa is a general term for certain sexual activities forbidden by God. One lexicon defines por·neiʹa as “prostitution, unchastity, fornication” and adds that this word is used when speaking “of every kind of unlawful sexual intercourse.” Such forbidden activity would include not only prostitution, adultery, and sexual relations between unmarried individuals but also homosexual acts and bestiality, all of which are condemned in the Scriptures. (Le 18:6, 22, 23; 20:15, 16; 1Co 6:9; see Glossary.) Jesus showed that sexual immorality is wicked by classing it with murder, thievery, and blasphemy.​—Mt 15:19, 20; Mr 7:21-23.

uncleanness: Or “filthiness; depravity; lewdness.” Of the first three “works of the flesh” mentioned in this verse, “uncleanness” (Greek, a·ka·thar·siʹa) is the broadest in meaning. This word appears ten times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Literally, the word refers to something physically unclean or filthy. (Mt 23:27) The figurative meaning encompasses impurity of any kind​—in sexual matters, in speech, in action, and in spiritual relationships, such as the worship of false gods. (Ro 1:24; 6:19; 2Co 6:17; 12:21; Eph 4:19; 5:3; Col 3:5; 1Th 2:3; 4:7) “Uncleanness” can therefore refer to various types of wrongdoing of varying degrees of seriousness. (See study note on Eph 4:19.) It stresses the morally repugnant nature of the wrong conduct or condition.​—See Glossary, “Unclean.”

brazen conduct: Or “shameless conduct; wantonness.” As used in the Bible, the Greek word a·selʹgei·a denotes conduct that constitutes a serious violation of God’s laws and that stems from a brazen, disrespectful, or boldly contemptuous attitude. This term appears ten times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. (Mr 7:22; Ro 13:13; 2Co 12:21; Ga 5:19; Eph 4:19; 1Pe 4:3; 2Pe 2:2, 7, 18; Jude 4) One lexicon defines the word as “debauchery, licentiousness, lewdness, i.e., [to] be unrestrained in moral attitudes and behaviors.” Jewish historian Josephus used this Greek term when describing that pagan Queen Jezebel erected a shrine to Baal in Israel. This act was an outrage, one that brazenly flouted public opinion and decency.​—Jewish Antiquities, Book 8, chap. 13, par. 1 (Loeb 8.318); see Glossary.

5:20

spiritism: Or “sorcery; occultism; use of drugs.” The Greek noun here rendered “spiritism” is phar·ma·kiʹa, which basically refers to “use of drugs.” This Greek term possibly came to be connected with spiritism, magic, or the occult because drugs were used when invoking the power of the demons in order to practice sorcery. The Septuagint used the Greek word phar·ma·kiʹa to render Hebrew words for “magic (arts)”; “secret arts”; and “sorceries.” (Ex 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18; Isa 47:9, 12) Paul uses the word to refer to occult practices, which may be suggested by his listing “spiritism” immediately after idolatry. (See Glossary, “Idol; Idolatry.”) The related noun phar·ma·kosʹ is rendered “those practicing spiritism” at Re 21:8.​—Re 22:15; see Glossary.

jealousy: The Greek word zeʹlos conveys the idea of an intense emotion that can be either positive or negative. Paul lists it here among “the works of the flesh.” So in this context, the word conveys the idea of a negative emotion that a person feels toward a suspected rival or toward someone whom he believes to be enjoying an advantage over him. First-century Christians were given strong counsel to avoid this type of jealousy.​—1Co 3:3; 2Co 12:20; Jas 3:14, 16; see study note on 1Co 13:4.

fits of anger: Or “outbursts of anger.” Paul here uses the plural form of the Greek word rendered “anger.” It could include not only outbursts of uncontrolled anger but also anger that is seething in one’s heart and finds expression later. Anger is listed along with other detestable works of the flesh, such as sexual immorality, brazen conduct, idolatry, spiritism, and drunkenness.

sects: See study note on Ac 24:5.

5:21

wild parties: See study note on Ro 13:13.

and things like these: This expression shows that Paul did not provide an exhaustive list of everything that would be considered a work of “the flesh,” that is, of the sinful human nature. (See study note on Ga 5:19.) Paul uses a similar expression at the end of 1Ti 1:10. The Christians in Galatia would need to use their “powers of discernment” in order to identify things that are similar to these sinful practices. (Heb 5:14) For example, malicious slander is not specifically mentioned as a work of the sinful flesh, but it frequently accompanies “hostility, strife, jealousy, fits of anger, dissensions” mentioned at Ga 5:20. Those who unrepentantly engage in practices that are specifically identified as “the works of the flesh” or that are “things like these” will not inherit the blessings of God’s Kingdom.

5:22

the fruitage of the spirit: Or “what the spirit produces.” The Greek agricultural term kar·posʹ, “fruit; fruitage,” appears frequently in the Scriptures. Here it is used figuratively to refer to qualities that God’s holy spirit, or active force, can produce in humans. (Ga 5:16) Just as a tree bears fruit when it is properly cultivated, so a person produces “the fruitage of the spirit” when he allows the spirit to influence his thinking and actions. (Compare Ps 1:1-3.) Such qualities reflect the personality of Jehovah God, the Source of holy spirit. (Col 3:9, 10) The list of qualities mentioned here is not intended to cover all qualities that holy spirit produces in Christians as its fruitage. (See study note on Ga 5:23.) Together these qualities characterize the new personality. (Eph 4:24) Paul here uses the singular form of the Greek word kar·posʹ, “fruitage.” Bible commentators have noted that this use of the singular form may imply that the desirable qualities specifically mentioned here form a whole; all are important to cultivate, and they cannot exist separate from one another.

love: Christian love (Greek, a·gaʹpe) is best defined by describing how it acts, as Paul does at 1Co 13:4-8. (See study note on 1Co 13:4.) John uses the same Greek term at 1Jo 4:8-10, where he describes “the love of God.” John even states that “God is love,” meaning that Jehovah is the very personification of love. (See study note on Joh 3:16.) Jesus said that love for God and fellow man are the two greatest commandments.​—Mt 22:37-39; see study note on Mt 22:37.

joy: The delightful emotion caused by the expectation or acquisition of good; a state of true happiness. The Greek word rendered “joy” is a deep-seated quality of the heart. Jehovah, “the happy God,” is the Source of joy, and he wants his people to be joyful. (1Ti 1:11) With the help of God’s spirit, a Christian can remain joyful even when facing hardship, sorrow, or persecution.​—Col 1:11; Heb 12:2; Jas 1:2-4.

peace: The Greek word for “peace” has a broad meaning. In this context, “peace” involves tranquility of mind and heart that comes from cultivating a close relationship with Jehovah, “the God of peace.” (Php 4:9; 1Th 5:23; Heb 13:20; see study note on 1Co 14:33.) God’s holy spirit is often mentioned together with “peace.” (Ac 9:31; Ro 8:6; 15:13) With the help of his spirit, those who are at peace with God promote harmony, unity, and good relations with others.​—Mt 5:9; 2Co 13:11; Jas 3:18.

patience: Or “long-suffering.” The Greek word could literally be rendered “longness of spirit” (Kingdom Interlinear) and denotes calm endurance, forbearance, and slowness to anger. Jehovah God is the supreme example of patience. (Ro 2:4; 9:22; 1Ti 1:16; 1Pe 3:20; 2Pe 3:9, 15) Paul mentions patience as an essential aspect of Christian love.​—1Co 13:4; see App. A2.

kindness: The quality or state of taking an active interest in the welfare of others and acting toward them in a friendly and helpful way. Jehovah God shows kindness even toward the unthankful and wicked. (Lu 6:35; Ro 2:4; 11:22; Tit 3:4, 5) A form of the Greek word for “kindness” is used to describe Jesus’ “kindly” yoke of discipleship, a yoke that is “easy to bear; pleasant.” (Mt 11:30; ftn.) Christians under that yoke are urged to clothe themselves with kindness.​—Eph 4:32; Col 3:12.

goodness: The quality or state of being good; moral excellence; virtue. One lexicon defines the Greek word for “goodness” as a “positive moral quality characterized esp[ecially] by interest in the welfare of others.” So a Christian needs not only to be good but also to do good. Though imperfect, a Christian can cultivate goodness by obeying Jehovah’s commands and by imitating his goodness and generosity toward others. (Ac 9:36, 39; 16:14, 15; Ro 7:18; Eph 5:1) Jehovah is good in the absolute sense. (Ps 25:8; Zec 9:17; Mr 10:18 and study note) He is a truly generous and considerate God.​—Ac 14:17.

faith: The term “faith” is translated from the Greek word piʹstis, primarily conveying the thought of confidence, trust, firm persuasion. At Heb 11:1, Paul gives a divinely inspired definition of the term “faith.” Like love, faith is defined by how it acts. (Jas 2:18, 22; see study note on Joh 3:16.) The Scriptures indicate that Christian faith should grow stronger; accordingly, Jesus’ disciples said: “Give us more faith.” (Lu 17:5) Paul commended the Christians in Thessalonica, saying: “Your faith is growing exceedingly.” (2Th 1:3; see also 2Co 10:15.) In the book of Galatians, “faith” is mentioned more than 20 times, most often referring to trust in God or in Christ, as in this verse. (Ga 3:6, 11) At 2Th 3:2, Paul says: “Faith is not a possession of all people.” To have strong faith, a person must have Jehovah’s holy spirit.

5:23

mildness: An inward calmness and peaceableness that Christians exercise in their relationship with God and in their conduct toward fellow humans. (Ga 6:1; Eph 4:1-3; Col 3:12) Since mildness is an aspect of the fruitage of God’s spirit, it is not acquired by sheer willpower. A Christian cultivates mildness by drawing close to God, praying for his spirit, and cooperating with its influence. A mild person is not a coward or a weakling. The Greek word for “mildness” (pra·yʹtes) has the meaning of gentleness coupled with power, or strength under control. A related Greek word (pra·ysʹ) is rendered “mild-tempered” and “mild.” (Mt 21:5; 1Pe 3:4) Jesus described himself as mild-tempered (Mt 11:29); yet, he was by no means weak.​—See Mt 5:5 and study note.

self-control: The Greek word here rendered “self-control” appears four times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. (Ac 24:25; 2Pe 1:6) This quality has been defined as “restraint of one’s emotions, impulses, or desires.” The related Greek verb appears at 1Co 9:25 (see study note), where Paul says regarding athletic games: “Now everyone competing in a contest exercises self-control in all things.” This Greek verb is also used in the Septuagint at Ge 43:31, describing how Joseph “controlled himself.” The Hebrew verb used at Ge 43:31 is also used at Isa 42:14, where Isaiah describes Jehovah as saying: “I . . . restrained myself.” Instead of taking immediate action against wrongdoers, Jehovah has allowed time to pass so that they might have the opportunity to turn from their bad ways and thereby gain his favor.​—Jer 18:7-10; 2Pe 3:9.

Against such things there is no law: There is no law that can restrict the extent to which Christians can cultivate the qualities produced by God’s spirit. All these qualities harmonize fully with the law of love set out in the Mosaic Law (Le 19:18; De 6:5) and in “the law of the Christ” (Ga 6:2; Joh 13:34). The expression “such things” implies that the fruitage of Jehovah’s spirit is not limited to the nine aspects listed here. The Christian personality is made up of these and other qualities, all of which are produced with the help of the holy spirit.​—Eph 4:24, 32; 5:9; Col 3:12-15; Jas 3:17, 18.

5:24

have nailed to the stake: The Gospels use the Greek verb stau·roʹo regarding the execution of Jesus Christ. Here Paul uses the term figuratively. (Compare study note on Ro 6:6.) It describes the strong and decisive measures that followers of Christ have to take in order to put the flesh, the sinful human nature, to death. When a Christian overcomes and controls the sinful “passions and desires” of “the flesh,” it is as if those desires are dead and no longer have any power over him. (Ga 5:16) Paul’s comment is closely connected with the preceding verses, emphasizing that those who belong to Christ should decisively put away “the works of the flesh” mentioned at Ga 5:19-21.

5:26

Let us not become egotistical: After contrasting “the works of the flesh” with “the fruitage of the spirit” (Ga 5:19-23), Paul adds the admonition found in this verse. The Greek word rendered “egotistical” (ke·noʹdo·xos) literally conveys the idea of “empty glory; vainglory.” It occurs only here in the Christian Greek Scriptures. One lexicon defines it as “having exaggerated self-conceptions, conceited, boastful.” This suggests a strong desire to receive praise from others for valueless, empty reasons. A related Greek word is rendered “egotism” at Php 2:3.

stirring up competition with one another: Or “forcing one another to a showdown.” According to one lexicon, the Greek word used here literally means “to call out to someone to come forward, freq[uently] in a hostile sense provoke, challenge.” Another lexicon defines it as “to challenge to a combat or contest with one.”

6:1

a false step: The Greek term for “a false step” (pa·raʹpto·ma; lit., “a fall beside”) may refer to a trespass, which could range from a mistake in judgment to a serious transgression of God’s law. (Mt 6:14; Ro 5:15, 17; Eph 1:7; 2:1, 5) Someone who takes a false step is not walking in harmony with God’s righteous requirements. Instead, he is heading in the wrong direction, though he may not yet have committed a serious sin.

you who have spiritual qualifications: Or “you who are spiritual (spiritually mature).” The Greek term used here (pneu·ma·ti·kosʹ) is related to the word for “spirit” (pneuʹma) used in the expression “God’s holy spirit,” or active force. (Eph 4:30) Therefore, to be qualified to readjust others, mature ones in the congregation need more than knowledge, wisdom, and experience. They must also give evidence of being continually guided by God’s holy spirit.​—Ga 5:16, 18, 25.

try to readjust: The Greek verb ka·tar·tiʹzo describes restoring something to a proper condition, bringing something into proper alignment. In this context, the verb is used of the need to readjust spiritually a fellow believer who “takes a false step.” The form of the Greek verb used here allows for the rendering “try to readjust,” implying that those “who have spiritual qualifications” make a sincere effort to bring the erring one back to the right path. However, the actual readjustment depends on whether the one being counseled responds in a positive way. The same verb is used at Mt 4:21 to describe “mending” nets. The related noun ka·tar·ti·smosʹ, rendered “readjustment” at Eph 4:12, was a term sometimes used in medical texts to describe the setting of a bone, a limb, or a joint.​—See study notes on 2Co 13:9; Eph 4:12.

keep an eye on yourself: Or “watch out for yourself; pay close attention to yourself.” Paul here shifts from a plural form of address to a singular one. He thus warns the individual Christian who counsels others that he must carefully avoid giving in to the moral temptations that he is urging others to avoid. This phrase also implies a warning against becoming self-righteous and looking down on others.​—1Co 10:12.

6:2

Go on carrying the burdens of one another: The plural form of the Greek word baʹros, rendered “burdens,” here literally means “heavy things” and can also be translated “troublesome things.” This admonition follows what Paul says in the preceding verse about endeavoring to restore a person who has taken “a false step” spiritually. The consequences of his false step might be burdensome, that is, difficult for him to bear without assistance. Christians who make a practice of helping their fellow worshippers to carry their burdens display love and thus fulfill the law of the Christ. (Joh 13:34, 35) Yet, as the apostle states in verses 3 to 5, this does not mean carrying another person’s “load” (Greek, phor·tiʹon) of spiritual responsibility to God.​—See study note on Ga 6:5.

the law of the Christ: This law includes all that Jesus taught, as well as what God’s spirit directed Christ’s followers to write in the Christian Greek Scriptures. As foretold by Jeremiah, this law replaced the Mosaic Law covenant. (Jer 31:31-34; Heb 8:6-13) Christ did not originate these laws and principles; he received them from the great Lawgiver, Jehovah. (Joh 14:10) The expression “the law of the Christ” appears only here in the Christian Greek Scriptures, but similar wording, “law toward Christ,” is used at 1Co 9:21. This law is also referred to as “the perfect law that belongs to freedom” (Jas 1:25), “the law of a free people” (Jas 2:12), and “the law of faith.”​—Ro 3:27.

6:5

his own load: Or “his own load of responsibility.” Paul here uses the Greek word phor·tiʹon, referring to something that is to be borne or carried, without any reference to its weight. This load is different from “the burdens” mentioned in verse 2. A person may need help to bear those heavy burdens. (See study note.) The term used here refers to the personal load of responsibility to God that each Christian is expected to carry. One reference work says about the Greek word: “It was used as a military term for a man’s pack or a soldier’s kit.”

6:6

who is being taught the word: “The word” here refers to the word of God and the teachings of Jesus Christ. In his letters, Paul lays great emphasis on teaching in the Christian congregation. In doing so, he often uses the Greek term di·daʹsko, which refers to instructing, explaining, showing things by argument, and offering proofs. (Ro 2:21; 12:7; 1Co 4:17; Col 3:16; 2Ti 2:2; see study note on Mt 28:20.) In this verse, however, Paul uses the more specific term ka·te·kheʹo when he talks about the one “who is being taught” God’s word and the one “who gives such teaching.” This expression literally means “to sound down” and could sometimes imply oral instruction. (See study note on Ac 18:25.) Someone who has the truths of “the word” sounded down into his mind and heart is qualified to teach others.​—2Ti 2:2.

share in all good things with the one who gives such teaching: The one “being taught” is encouraged to share both material and spiritual things with his teacher, a principle also found elsewhere in the Scriptures. (Mt 10:9, 10; Ro 15:27 and study note; 1Co 9:11, 13, 14; 1Ti 5:17, 18; Heb 13:16) The term “share in” may also imply that the student listens to what he is taught and applies it. He expresses his faith and conviction in his own words, becoming a teacher of the good news. A student who responds in this way is sharing in “good things” with his teacher.​—2Ti 2:2.

6:7

to be mocked: The literal idea of the Greek word here used involves showing contempt by means of a gesture with the nose. In some languages, it could be expressed by sneering or turning one’s nose up at something or someone. Such mocking might include expressions of contempt or ridicule, even going so far as to defy or challenge someone. Paul here warns that it is dangerous to think that the principles of God’s Word can be viewed with contempt or be successfully evaded.

whatever a person is sowing, this he will also reap: This proverb was well-known in Paul’s day. It apparently originated in ancient agricultural societies. The proverb states a reality; what is planted in the soil is what will grow from the soil. In ancient times, the figurative application was usually negative​—a person would reap negative consequences from wrong conduct or actions. But Paul also highlights that positive actions can bring a good outcome, “everlasting life.” (Ga 6:8) This unchanging principle is also referred to in other parts of the Bible.​—Pr 11:18; 22:8; Ho 8:7; 10:12; 2Co 9:6; see study notes on Ga 6:8.

6:8

the one sowing with a view to his flesh: That is, a person who indulges in “the works of the flesh,” which result from the desires of a sinful human nature. (Ga 5:19-21) As a fruitage, or a result, of this “sowing,” he will reap corruption from his flesh. When the first human sinned, he and all his descendants became enslaved to corruption. (Ro 5:12; 8:21 and study note) This enslavement has produced imperfection that leads not only to disease, aging, and death but also to moral and spiritual degradation. Therefore, “the one sowing with a view to his flesh” will not gain everlasting life.​—Compare 2Pe 2:12, 18, 19.

the one sowing with a view to the spirit: That is, a person living in a way that allows God’s holy spirit to operate freely in his life, helping him to manifest its fruitage. Such a person “will reap everlasting life from the spirit.”​—Mt 19:29; 25:46; Joh 3:14-16; Ro 2:6, 7; Eph 1:7.

6:9

give up: Or “grow weary.” The Greek term used here may also convey the idea of not getting discouraged or losing enthusiasm in doing what is fine.​—See study note on 2Co 4:1.

6:10

opportunity: Or “favorable time.” The Greek word kai·rosʹ is sometimes rendered “season” or “appointed time.” At Eph 5:16 (see study note), it is used in the expression “making the best use of your time.”

those related to us in the faith: Or “those who belong to the household (family) of faith.” The Greek word rendered “those related to” refers to members of a literal family, or household. (1Ti 5:8) In the Greco-Roman world, a household could designate a close-knit group of people who shared the same beliefs, ideas, or purposes. This well describes the first-century congregations that usually met in private homes (Ro 16:3-5) and whose members felt a close spiritual kinship with one another.​—Eph 2:19.

6:11

I have written you with my own hand: Paul usually dictated his letters to a secretary, but this letter was apparently written by Paul himself.​—See Ro 16:22 and study note.

6:12

who want to make a good impression in the flesh: Or “who want to look good outwardly.” In this context, “the flesh” refers to what is related to the physical body and therefore is outwardly visible to others. Certain individuals claiming to be Christians taught that getting circumcised and adhering to other features of the Mosaic Law were essential for gaining God’s approval. However, their motive was to make a favorable impression on the Jews. They wanted to “avoid being persecuted” by Jewish enemies of Christianity. By being overly concerned about outward appearances and insisting on circumcision, they were, in fact, denying that Jesus’ death was the only basis for gaining salvation.

the torture stake: Or “the execution stake.”​—See Glossary.

the torture stake of the Christ: Here the term “torture stake” (Greek, stau·rosʹ) is used to represent Jesus’ death on the stake. Jesus died in this way so that mankind would no longer be enslaved to sin but could become reconciled to God and enjoy a good relationship with Him. Paul was “persecuted” by the Jews for recognizing and proclaiming Jesus’ death on the torture stake as the sole basis for gaining salvation.

6:14

put to death: Or “executed on the stake.” Paul taught that Jesus’ death on the torture stake was the basis for gaining salvation. Therefore, the world hated Paul, viewing him as a criminal who should be “put to death.” At the same time, Paul regarded the world as being something condemned to death.

6:15

but a new creation is: Each anointed Christian is a new creation​—a spirit-begotten son of God with the prospect of sharing with Christ in the heavenly Kingdom. (Ga 4:6, 7) Additionally, the anointed are part of the Christian congregation, “the Israel of God” (Ga 6:16 and study note), which is also a new spiritual creation. (See study note on 2Co 5:17.) Therefore, whether a Christian is circumcised or not does not matter to God.

6:16

by this rule of conduct: The Greek word used here (ka·nonʹ) comes from the Hebrew word for “a reed” (qa·nehʹ), which served as a measuring device. (Eze 40:5) Paul uses the term figuratively to describe a “rule of conduct” by which those of “the Israel of God” were to measure their actions. If they exercised faith in the undeserved kindness expressed through Christ and conducted themselves in harmony with it, they could enjoy “peace and mercy” of a sort that had never before been possible for sinful humans.​—Ga 3:24, 25; compare Glossary, “Canon (Bible canon).”

the Israel of God: This expression, found only once in the Scriptures, refers to spiritual Israel rather than to natural descendants of Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel. (Ge 32:22-28) The preceding verse (Ga 6:15) shows that circumcision is not required of those making up “the Israel of God.” The prophet Hosea foretold that God would show favor to a people that would include Gentiles. God said: “I will say to those not my people: ‘You are my people.’” (Ho 2:23; Ro 9:22-25) While natural Jews and proselytes were included in spiritual Israel (Ac 1:13-15; 2:41; 4:4), they amounted to “only a remnant” of that rejected nation (Isa 10:21, 22; Ro 9:27). Paul later wrote to the Romans: “Not all who descend from Israel are really ‘Israel.’”​—Ro 9:6; see also study notes on Ac 15:14; Ro 2:29; 9:27; 11:26.

Israel: Meaning “Contender (Perseverer) With God; God Contends.” This name was given to Jacob after he wrestled with an angel in order to obtain a blessing. Unlike Esau, Jacob appreciated sacred things and was willing to exert himself vigorously to gain God’s favor. (Ge 32:22-28; Heb 12:16) Those who belong to “the Israel of God” imitate Jacob, manifesting a similar type of faith and adherence to God’s will.​—See study note on the Israel of God in this verse.

6:17

the brand marks of a slave of Jesus: The term rendered “brand marks of a slave” (the plural form of the Greek word stigʹma) occurs only here in the Christian Greek Scriptures. In secular Greek literature, this term was used to refer to brand marks consisting of various signs or letters, sometimes to identify slaves, but it may also refer to scars. Paul may be referring to scars on his body that were inflicted by his persecutors and that testified to his being a faithful slave of Christ. (2Co 4:10; 11:23-27; Php 3:10) Or it is possible that rather than referring to literal marks, Paul is referring to how he carried out his Christian ministry, displayed the fruitage of God’s spirit, and lived his life in a way that marked him as a slave belonging to Christ.

6:18

with the spirit you show: Lit., “with your spirit.” The term “spirit” in this context refers to the impelling inner force, or dominant mental inclination, that causes a person to say or do things in a certain way. For example, the Scriptures speak of “the quiet and mild spirit” (1Pe 3:4) and “a spirit of mildness” (Ga 6:1). At 2Ti 1:7, Paul mentions a spirit “of power and of love and of soundness of mind” in contrast with “a spirit of cowardice.” He then concludes the letter to Timothy by saying: “The Lord be with the spirit you show.” (2Ti 4:22) Just as an individual can show a certain spirit, so can a group of people. Here in his concluding words to the Galatians, as well as in his letter to the Philippians, Paul uses the Greek plural pronoun (“you; your”) to express his desire that all in these congregations show a spirit that is in harmony with God’s will and the example set by Christ.​—Php 4:23.